Process Safety and Environmental Protection 180 (2023) 122–135

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Process Safety and Environmental Protection

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Experimental performance of a spray tower system for water desalination

and indoor thermal comfort
Sampath Suranjan Salins a, Shiva Kumar b, *, Jatin Chouhan a, Ana Tejero-González c,
Prashant Sreekumaran Nair a
a
School of Engineering and IT, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Dubai Campus, PO 345050, United Arab Emirates
b
Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, Manipal Institute of Technology, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal 576104, India
c
Department of Thermal Engineering and Fluid-mechanics, University of Valladolid, Valladolid, Castilla and Leon, Spain

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Present work characterizes a spray tower-based desalination system, designed to simultaneously provide fresh
Desalination water by condensation and supply dehumidified air to occupied spaces. Its configuration is open air-open water,
Humidification with Celdek 7090 packing in the humidification section and water-cooled helical coils for dehumidification. The
Dehumidification
performance parameters calculated are: gained output ratio, recovery ratio, coefficient of performance, specific
Predicted mean vote
electrical energy consumption, mass ratio, humidification, and dehumidification efficiency. This performance is
Thermal comfort
analyzed for varying air Reynold’s number and water flow rate. The best results were obtained for the sea water
flow rate tested of 18 liters per hour, and showed maximum humidification efficiency, dehumidification effi­
ciency, COP, freshwater rate, gained output ratio and concentration factor equal to 87.14%, 94.56%, 3.34, 0.9
liters per hour and 1.05, respectively. Exit air meets the thermal comfort requirements which avoids the
ventilation thermal loads in the space cooling.

such as its operation at low temperatures, simplicity, and low mainte­

nance requirements (Giwa et al., 2016).
1. Introduction On the other hand, heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC)
systems involve a large part of the energy consumed in buildings
Nowadays, many countries worldwide face some degree of water (Vakiloroaya et al., 2014). Moreover, the higher air temperatures due to
scarcity, and it is expected to become a widespread problem in the near global warming increase the use of mechanically driven air conditioning
future (International Energy Agency, 2016). Water desalination is then a systems to achieve indoor thermal comfort, which yields extra peak
necessary process to ensure water security both in the present and electricity demands that can result into power outages (Santamouris,
future, but desalination plants have several impacts on the environment, 2016). Increasing Indoor Air Quality requirements imply high ventila­
among which is the energy consumption (Elsaid et al., 2020a). The tion rates that result into high energy consumption (Chenari et al.,
conventional technologies of membrane and thermal desalination seem 2016). Consequently, increasing attention is being given to HVAC stra­
to have reached a state of maturity, where the new developments result tegies that reduce energy consumption in buildings without compro­
in only minor improvements (Elsaid et al., 2020b). Consequently, there mising the indoor climate (Vakiloroaya et al., 2014; Chenari et al.,
is consensus in the need to use renewable energies to power the desa­ 2016).
lination plants, at the same time as the emerging desalination technol­ Within this framework, the present work proposes and experimen­
ogies arise as promising alternatives (Zarzo and Prats, 2018). However, tally characterizes a low energy-intensive desalination system that
despite their lower environmental impact, water production cost related provides simultaneous freshwater and cooled, ventilation air to the in­
to renewable powered plants is high (Al-Karaghouli and Kazmerski, door spaces, avoiding the ventilation thermal loads related.
2013), while the emerging technologies are still in a development stage
(Eke et al., 2020). Among the emerging alternatives is the
humidification-dehumidification (HDH) technology, which can indeed
be powered by solar and geothermal energy, and has further advantages

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [Link]@[Link] (S. Kumar).

[Link]
Received 6 June 2023; Received in revised form 21 September 2023; Accepted 3 October 2023
Available online 5 October 2023
0957-5820/© 2023 Institution of Chemical Engineers. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
S.S. Salins et al. Process Safety and Environmental Protection 180 (2023) 122–135

Nomenclature QH Heat addition, Watts

QC Heat rejection, Watts
Abbreviations Q̇c Cooling effect, Watts
OAOW Open air-open water HDH system Wi Specific humidity at the inlet, g/kg
FWGR Fresh Water Generation Rate Wo Specific humidity at the outlet, g/kg
PMV Predicted mean vote W1 Specific humidity of inlet air, g/kg
PPD Predicted percentage dissatisfied W2 Specific humidity of hot humid air, g/kg
COP Coefficient of performance W3 Specific humidity of cool dehumidified air, g/kg
GOR Gained output ratio Wsat Saturated specific humidity, g/kg
DBT Dry bulb temperature, ᵒC V̇Fresh water Volume flow rate of fresh water, m3/s
WBT Wet bulb temperature, ᵒC N Number of flutes
RH Relative humidity, % As Surface area of packing, m2
LPH Liters per hour Vp Volume of packing, m3
CF Concentration factor β Wettability, m2/m3
RR Recovery rate hfg Latent heat of vaporization, kJ/kg
AV Air Velocity, m/s ẆBlower Power consumed by blower, Watts
MR Mass ratio
ẆHeater Power consumed by heater, Watts
SEEC Specific electrical energy consumption, kW-hr/m3
ẆPump Power consumed by pump, Watts
HE Humidification efficiency, %
W Total power consumed, Watts
DE Dehumidification efficiency, %
h1 Specific enthalpy at the inlet, kJ/kg
Variables/Parameters h2 Specific enthalpy at the bridge, kJ/kg
ΔRH Change in relative humidity, % h3 Specific enthalpy at the exit, kJ/kg
Re Reynold’s Number M Metabolic rate, W/m2
ΔT Change in temperature, ᵒC W Effective mechanical power, W/m2.
T1 Inlet temperature, ᵒC H Sensitive heat loses, W/m2
T2 Outlet temperature, ᵒC Ec Heat exchanged by the evaporation on the skin, W/m2
Tw Wet bulb temperature, ºC Cres Heat exchange by convection, W/m2
ṁα Mass flow rate of air, kg/s Eres Evaporation rate exchange in breathing, W/m2
ṁw Water flow rate, kg/s fcl Clothing surface area factor
ṁf Feed water flow rate, kg/s tcl Clothing surface temperature
ρ Density of fluid, kg/m3 tr Mean radiant temperature
U Velocity of fluid, m/s ta Ambient temperature
D Hydraulic diameter, m Pa Water vapor partial pressure
μ Dynamic Viscosity, Pa-s

1.1. State of the art of the spray tower desalination classified into closed air-open water, closed water-open air, or open air-
open-water systems, with either water-heating or air-heating. They can
Beyond the two main categories of commercial desalination tech­ also be distinguished in terms of the heating source, as well as depending
nologies, membrane and thermal desalination, there exist a number of on whether the heated fluid is the airflow or the waterflow (Kabeel et al.,
emerging technologies, namely membrane distillation, forward osmosis, 2014, 2013). Concerning the humidifier section, the water distribution
capacitive deionization, freezing, gas hydrate-based desalination and system that enhances air-water contact can be water spraying, packed
humidification-dehumidification (Eke et al., 2020), among others (Zarzo bed, bubble column, and wetted-wall or film (Kabeel et al., 2014; Srithar
and Prats, 2018). These systems belong to the existing volume reduction and Rajaseenivasan, 2018a). Use of packaging is a simple way to
technologies for water treatment (Khraisheh et al., 2022), and are enhance the water holdup capacity of the humidifier compared to the
considered to be reliable and cheap techniques suitable for low-scale and other types (Essa et al., 2020; Srithar and Rajaseenivasan, 2018b).
decentralized water purification (Giwa et al., 2016; Ranjitha Raj and Present work studies an open air-open water, water-heated spray sys­
Jayakumar, 2022; He et al., 2017). Further advantages of these tech­ tem, with a packed bed.
nologies are the low temperature operation, the possibility to be pow­ Published research has focused on the optimization through simu­
ered by renewable energy sources, low maintenance requirements, lation of these systems by multi-effect water heating, pressure reduction,
flexible control, simplicity, and the fact that water pre-treatment is not multiple extractions (McGovern et al., 2013; Narayan et al., 2010), as
required. However, they present limited freshwater production. Sub­ well as water recovery and/or fins (Abbady et al., 2020). The effect of
ramani and Jacangelo (Subramani and Jacangelo, 2015) reviewed and the influencing factors such as feed water temperature and mass flow
compared the HDH to other emerging thermal-based desalination rate, salinity, inlet air conditions, etc. have been evaluated through
technologies and observed among other drawbacks, that it requires simulation by several authors (McGovern et al., 2013; Narayan et al.,
waste or renewable energy to become cost-effective. Indeed, it is not 2010; Tlili et al., 2020; Lawal et al., 2020). The performance of the
considered among the emerging desalination technologies that could be system can also improve by supplying the required heating through
ready for a “next-level full-scale development” (Elsaid et al., 2020b). renewable energies, mainly solar (Mbarek et al., 2021; Abd El-aziz et al.,
Consequently, despite the extensive related literature, it is still necessary 2013), but also biomass (Rajaseenivasan and Srithar, 2017), and
to undergo further research to optimize their productivity and economic geothermal (Elminshawy et al., 2016). However, most published
aspects to boost their commercialization and industrial application research selects the packing without considering its effect on the per­
(Giwa et al., 2016; Khraisheh et al., 2022). formance of the humidifier, but an optimal packaging reduces the
According to their cycle configuration, these techniques can be required feed water temperature, hence the energy consumption in the

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water heater. Optimum performance can be obtained with the highest Liters per day of water which was used for domestic consumption. Garg
height packaging with maximum contact area and water hold up et al (Garg et al., 2022). worked on a counter flow packed bed cooling
(Ranjitha Raj and Jayakumar, 2022). Essa et al (Essa et al., 2020). target tower for humidification and finned tube heat exchanger for dehumid­
the cellulose and honeycomb papers as the preferred choice, but say that ification. Optimum size of the humidifier and dehumidifier were ob­
further research is needed to optimize the packed bed configurations. tained by using transportation model and the performance parameters
Among the existing research, the following experimental studies were determined. Results indicated that thermal performance were
have been undertaken on open air-open water, water heater, packed bed greatly influenced by the performance of dehumidifier than the hu­
spray systems, like the one proposed in the present work. Ranjitha and midifier unit. Shaik et al (Shaik and Tangellapalli, 2022). performed the
Jayakumar (Ranjitha Raj and Jayakumar, 2022) used a metal 25 mm optimization to improve the performance of water-cooled dehumidifier
pall ring packing for the humidifier. Experimental results were obtained by carrying out thermohydraulic analysis to obtain appropriate airflow
varying the water-air mass flow rate ratio (MFR) from 1 to 8, feed water rate, diameter of tube, pitch etc. Results indicated that, heat transfer
inlet temperature from 35◦ to 70◦ C, and water flow rate from 100 to area and performance index increased with the change in the air velocity
400 l/h. Maximum water evaporation rate is obtained at 2 MR. Kaunga and the diameter of the tube.
and Mujtaba (Kaunga et al., 2022) used a packed bed made of
10 × 10×2 mm Raschig rings with 440 m2/m3 surface area. Maximum 1.3. Literature gap and objectives of the present work
Recovery Ratio (RR) of 36% was obtained at 2 MR, when the water
temperature was increased up to 70 ◦ C. Hussain et al (Hussain et al., As seen before, there exists extensive literature published on desa­
2022). used a 0.7 m height, 0.3 × 0.3 m section PVC packing for the lination and to supply thermal comfort air, though it is not ready for a
humidifier. They used a parabolic solar water heater and powered the full-scale development and thus further research is still necessary. A few
system with PV panels. They studied five water flow rates (0.6, 0.8, 0.9, studies propose hybrid desalination with mechanically driven or ab­
1 and 1.2 l/min) and two configurations. For the open air-open water sorption air conditioning systems. However, to the knowledge of the
system under the meteorological conditions of Baghdad, they obtained authors, no published research conceives the use of the comparable low
6 l/day freshwater flow supplied, compared to 6.37 l/day for a closed temperature air at the exit of open air spray systems to be supplied to the
air system. Cellulose packaging is used by Abbady et al (Abbady et al., indoor spaces without resorting to any active means of air cooling.
2020)., with specific area 300 m2/m3, as considered among the best Further, the unit which can provide both thermal comfort conditioned
packing options to increase the heat and mass transfer between air and air and also desalinated water using spraying techniques is also limited
water. in the published literature. With that aim, the present work designs and
Lawal et al (Lawal et al., 2020). integrated the open air-open water experimentally characterizes an open air-open water, packed bed hu­
system to a heat pump that provides the required water heating in the midifier spray tower system equipped with a venturi device, to provide
condenser, while uses the evaporator to chill the saline water before the both freshwater and direct ventilation, cooled air which can meet the
dehumidifier. The humidifier packing consists of 45◦ corrugated cellu­ thermal comfort conditions.
lose with specific surface are of 400 m2/m3. Maximum experimental The objectives of the study are:
Gained output ratio (GOR) of 2.72 and Recovery Ratio (RR) of 2.56 are
obtained without heat recovery. Fares et al (Fares et al., 2019). and He et 1) Design and construction of a novel desalination unit based on the
al (He et al., 2019). also proposed the use of a heat pump, in this case to spray tower technique.
directly provide the heating and cooling effects required in the process. 2) Study the performance parameters of the unit for varying air Rey­
nolds number (Re) and water flow rate.
1.2. Hybrid desalination and air conditioning strategies 3) Characterize the air psychrometric properties at the system exit to
evaluate whether they fulfil the necessary supply thermal comfort
This research work approaches the additional target of providing conditions, hence avoid ventilation thermal loads.
ventilation, cooled air together with the freshwater production. How­
ever, all the existing research approaching the same target, combine the Assumptions made for the study:
spray tower technology with a refrigeration cycle. This hybridization
provides two usable effects, freshwater production, and space cooling, 1. The thermal properties of the water and air remain constant.
but also implies larger electrical power requirements. Moreover, results 2. Pad is assumed to be uniformly wetted.
published differ notably due to the variations in the integrations pro­ 3. The temperature of water and air interface is assumed to be constant.
posed (Khraisheh et al., 2022; Lawal et al., 2020). 4. Heat flux which transferred from the packing to the surrounding is
Kabeel et al (Kabeel et al., 2022a). integrated a split air conditioning neglected
system to an open air-open water, air heater, a desalination unit by 5. Air near the water and the air interaction is saturated and the tem­
driving the cooled exit air from the open air desalination system to the perature near the surface is assumed to be of the water sprinkled on
condenser coil of the AC system. Their experimental results showed an the pads.
improvement in the energy efficiency ratio of the vapor compression
cycle by 48.5%. In an alternative configuration (Kabeel et al., 2018), The article is organized as follows: Section 2 describes the operation
they integrated an open air-closed water system with indirect evapora­ fundamentals and defines the parameters that characterize the perfor­
tive cooling. The experimental measurements during a daytime in Tanta mance of the spray tower desalination systems; Section 3 presents the
(Egypt) resulted into energy efficiency ratios from 0.214 to 3.49. Mbarek materials and methods, describing the experimental setup, the instru­
et al (Mbarek et al., 2021). simulated the effect of integrating an ab­ mentation used, and the experiments performed; Section 4 presents the
sorption chiller to cool further the product air from an open air-closed results obtained, then discussed within the existing literature in Section
water unit up to the required supply air conditions that meet the 5. Finally, the main results and conclusions yielded are gathered at the
target space thermal loads. The proposed system was able to provide end, in the conclusions section.
thermal comfort to the target space under typical Gafsa (Tunisia) sum­
mer conditions. Zarei et al (Zarei and Miroliaei, 2022). built a mathe­ 2. Performance of the spray tower desalination and cooling
matical model where mass and energy equations were utilized to system
determine the GOR and specific energy consumption. Results indicated
that inlet sea water and air temperature have respectively higher and Fig. 1 shows the principle of a desalination system unit working on
lower effect on the freshwater production. Overall, system produced 300 the principle of spray tower in an open air-open water configuration. In

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S.S. Salins et al. Process Safety and Environmental Protection 180 (2023) 122–135

h2 and h3 are Specific enthalpy at the inlet, bridge and exit, kJ/kg. Ẇis
the total power consumed (kW), whereas Q̇ is the overall heat transfer
rate expressed in kW.

Q̇ ṁa (h1 − h3 )
COP = =( ) (5)
Ẇ Ẇ Blower + Ẇ Heater + Ẇ Pump

Finally, the overall thermal efficiency of the system is defined as the

ratio net heat transfer rate of water to the input heat transfer rate. QH
and QC are the input and output heat transfer rate. It is shown in Eq. (6).

Q̇H − Q̇C
ηThermal = (6)
Q̇H
Fig. 1. Principle of an open air-open water, air heated spray tower desalina­
tion system.
whereas Q̇H is the heat added to water (kW) and Q̇C is the heat rejected
from brine solution (kW).
the humidifier, air interacts with the hot water which is sprayed over the In this study, the performance of the system is analyzed also in terms
packing, which enhances heat and mass transfer. The hot pure vapors of the thermal comfort conditions achievable through the use of the exit
are then driven through the dehumidifier or condenser unit, where they air of the open air-open water spray tower system as supply, ventilation
interact with the coils that contain cold sea water, which thus results in air to the occupied spaces. According to the PPD-PMV method (ASHRAE,
the production of fresh water from the condensation of the air humidity. 2020), thermal comfort can be defined through two parameters, namely
In this open-air configuration, low temperature, low humidity air exits the Predicted Mean Vote (PMV) and the Predicted Percentage of
the desalination system from the dehumidifier. In this study, this Dissatisfied (PPD) people. These parameters are evaluated using Eqs. (7)
product air is also considered as supply air to maintain thermal comfort and (8).
in the occupied spaces.
PMV = (0.303e2.1∗M +0.028) ∗ [(M − W) − H − Ec − Cres − Eres ] Salins et al⋅
(2021) (7)
2.1. Methodology
PPD = 100 − 95e− (0.03353∗PMV +0.2179∗PMV ) Netam et al⋅(2018); ASHRAE
4 2

This system operates in the three sections where the heat and mass (2020) (8)
transfer take place in humidification or spray tower, dehumidification or − 8
[ 4 4]
H = 3.96x10 fcl (tcl + 273) − (tr + 273) − fcl hc (tcl − ta )
condenser unit. DBT, WBT, RH, air velocity, water condensation rate is
noted down at different points using measuring instruments. Data 3
Ec = 3.05x10− [5773 − 6.99(M − W) − Pa ] − 0.42[(M − W) − 58.15]
collection is done using measuring instruments like thermometer,
anemometer, hygrometer, clamp meter etc. These parameters are then
Cres = 0.0014M(34 − ta )
substituted in the governing equations as shown below to obtain the
various performance parameters. Eres = 1.7x 10− 5
M(5867 − Pa )
The performance factors of the spray tower desalination unit are
defined as follows. Where M is the metabolic rate, W/m2, W is the effective mechanical
The Gained Output Ratio (GOR) is defined as the ratio of the mass of power, W/m2, H is the sensitive heat loses, W/m2, Ec is the heat
distillate to the mass of the input steam. It can also be defined as the ratio exchanged by the evaporation on the skin, W/m2, Cres is the heat ex­
of the product of mass flow rate of fresh water and latent heat of change by convection, W/m2, Eres is the evaporation rate exchange in
vaporization to the total energy input (Eq. 1). breathing, W/m2, fcl is the clothing surface area factor, tcl is the clothing
hfg × ṁfresh surface temperature, tr is the mean radiant temperature, ta is the
(1)
water
GOR =
Q̇total energy ambient temperature, and Pa is the water vapor partial pressure.
Reynold’s number is determined to predict the flow pattern. It is
The Concentration factor (CF) is given by the ratio of the mass flow defined as the ratio of the inertia force to that of viscous force. ρ is the
rate of feed water to that of brine (Eq. 2); consequently, it is related to density, kg/m3, U is the velocity, m/s, D is the hydraulic diameter, and μ
the water recovery ratio RR, or percentage of desalinated water to feed is the dynamic viscosity, pa-s. It is given by Eq. (9).
water.
ρUD
Re = (9)
(2) μ
ṁ
feed
CF = ṁbrine = 1− 1RR Al-Anzi and Thomas (2018)
Humidification efficiency as shown in Eq. (10) is defined as a ratio of
The Mass flow rate Ratio (MR) is defined as the ratio between the
change in the outlet and inlet temperature to the difference of outlet
feed water mass flow rate and that of the dry air at the inlet of the hu­
temperature and wet bulb temperature. T1, T2 and Tw are given by the
midifier (Eq. 3).
unit ºC.
ṁfeed
MR = (3) (T2 − T1 )
ṁa ηH = (10)
(T2 − TW )
The specific electrical energy consumption (SEEC) is the ratio of the
Dehumidification Efficiency is given by the ratio of the change in
electrical energy consumed to produce unit meter cube of fresh water
specific humidity to the difference between saturated specific humidity
and expressed in kWh/m3 (Eq. 4).
and dehumidified specific humidity. W2, W3 and Wsat are the specific
SEEC =
ẇ
(4) humidities, g/kg. It is given y Eq. (11).
V̇ Fresh water
(W2 − W3 )
η= (11)
The Coefficient of performance (COP) of the entire system is defined (Wsat − W3 )
as the ratio of the cooling effect to the total power consumed (Eq. 5). h1,

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S.S. Salins et al. Process Safety and Environmental Protection 180 (2023) 122–135

This “wettability”, or specific area (m2/m3), is the ratio of the surface

area of the flutes to the total volume occupied by the packing. Humid­
ification dehumidification performance increases with the rise in
wettability. Mathematically it is calculated by
(N xAs )
β= (12)
Vp

Where surface area= (Number of surfaces per flute x Area of each flute x
Number of flutes) and is expressed in m2/m3. For the Celdek 7090
configurations wettability values are calculated as shown below.
50∗(2∗0.040∗0.040∗4) /
β(celdek 7090) = = 632m2 m3
(0.1∗0.1∗0.1)

3. Construction and operation of the desalination unit

3.1. Experimental setup

Fig. 2 shows the schematic of the spray tower desalination and

cooling system. The humidifier is filled with a Celdek 7090 packing,
selected to enhance water-air contact area and water hold up. The he­
lical coils placed on the dehumidification section induce the condensa­
tion process, where fresh water is produced at the same time as air gets
cooled and dehumidified before entering the room. An 800 W heater is
installed in the unit to heat the saline water which helps to separate the
pure water from the saline water. A micro diaphragm pump of 80 W
supplies the fresh water inside the coils whereas the blower, with ca­
pacity 520 Watts and 1760 rpm, supplies air to the humidification sys­
tem with varying air flow rates. Collector tanks are placed on either side
to collect both fresh water and the brine. The entire unit is insulated, and
the components are arranged on a wooden frame, as shown in Fig. 3.
Fig. 3 shows the full constructed desalination unit. Air is circulated
into the humidifier section containing the packing by the blower, while Fig. 3. Fully constructed model of the desalination system.
the water that has first passed through the heater is sprinkled on the
Celdek Packing. Air and water inlet temperatures are 30ºC and 20ºC This dry air is then driven through a pipe to a porous medium that acts
respectively. This air and hot water interaction provides hot and humid implementing a venturi effect due to the reduced area of the pipe sec­
air at the exit of the humidifier. The salt solution obtained, called as tion, which reduces the temperature of the air keeping the humidity
brine, is collected in the brine collector below the humidifier. At the exit ratio constant.
of the humidifier, there is hot humid air which contains pure moisture Table1. gathers the details and specifications of the various compo­
without any salt content. These vapours enter the dehumidifier section nents required to construct the desalination system.
via the bridge duct and interact with the high-grade copper helical coils
where the saline water at room temperature is circulated through it. At 3.2. Instrumentation and uncertainty analysis
this stage, the vapours condense to form distilled water and the air
temperature and relative humidity drop significantly. Simultaneously, Various measuring instruments are used to measure different air
sea water passes through the helical coils. Hot humid air indirectly in­ parameters at the inlet, bridge and at the outlet of the desalination unit.
teracts with the water that flows within the helical coils, and conden­ Digital thermometers (PT 100) are used for measuring the dry bulb and
sation occurs. Condensed fresh water is collected in the collector tank wet bulb temperature. It has a temperature range of − 20–100 ◦ C, probe
below the dehumidifier, dry and cold air exits the dehumidifier section. diameter of 6 mm, resolution 0.1 ◦ C. The probe is made of stainless-steel
material has an accuracy of ± 0.1◦ C. Bulb of the web bulb thermometer
is covered with a wet cloth. Hygrometer reads the relative humidity in a
range of 0–99%, resolution 0.1% and accuracy ± 2.0%. Vane

Table1
Component Specifications.
Sl. Equipment details Specifications
No

1. Blower 52 W, 1760 rpm (Galvanized iron body)

2. Micro Diaphragm Pump 80 W (12 V, 6.6 A) 5.5 l/min capacity
3. Coil Heater 800 W
4. Packing Material Celdek 7090 with wettability 632 m2/
m3
5. Mounting Frame and PVC Pipe 4 in., 2 in. PVC pipe and rubber clamps
6. High Pressure and High Heat 12 mm Flexible metal hose with crimped
Pipes fitting
7. Copper Coil 3 mm, 10 Turns copper coil
8. Flow Control Valve 12 mm Inline flow control valve
9. Flexible Duct Pipe 4-Inches, 2 m
Fig. 2. Scheme of the experimental setup of the spray tower desalination unit.

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S.S. Salins et al. Process Safety and Environmental Protection 180 (2023) 122–135

anemometer measures the air velocity has a speed range of 0–50 m/s, Table 3
resolution of 0.05 m/s, threshold sensitivity of 1 m/s and accuracy of Experimental Conditions studied in present work.
± 0.3 m/s. Instant current and voltage is measured using a clamp meter Flow Condenser Experimental Measured air Studied
which has an operational temperature of 0–40 ◦ C. Energy meter mea­ configuration type input conditions performance
sures the energy consumption by each unit. It has 220 V, 50 Hz and and packing conditions parameters
type in the
current range of 5–80 A. It operates at a temperature range between
humidifier.
− 20 to + 50 ◦ C.
Error analysis evaluates the percentage error arising while mea­ Counter flow, Copper Air Velocity RH, DBT, COP, DE, HE,
Celdek 7090 helical (m/s): 6, 7, 8, WBT, air SEEC, RR, CR,
surement of parameters. It quantifies the influence of independent var­ coil. 9, 10 m/s velocity at the GOR, energy
iables on dependent performance variables. Error caused while (Reynold’s humidifier consumption.
measuring the dependent variables such as humidification and dehu­ number from inlet, at the
midification efficiency, coefficient of performance, gained output ratio, 50519 to humidifier
84198) outlet
concentration factor and specific electrical energy consumption are
Water flow (bridge), and
determined by using the error of the independent variables (Eq. 13). rate: 12, 14, at the
[( )2 ( )2 ( )2 ( )2 ]0.5 16, 18 and 20 condenser
δG δG δG δG LPH. outlet.
YG = Y1 + Y2 + Y3 +………….+ Yn Inlet air Water and
δX1 δX2 δX3 δX4
temperature saline water
(13) and relative flow rate in
humidity dehumidifier
Where Y1, Y2…. Yn are the uncertainty intervals, X1, X2, ……., Xn are the maintained and
independent variables. The uncertainty YG is evaluated by considering constant at humidifier
30 ◦ C and section.
all the independent terms as shown in the Eq. (8). Table 2 gives the error
55%
values of the dependent terms of the desalination system.

the hot water and hence its moisture content and temperature may be
3.3. Experimental conditions of desalination experiment higher at the humidifier exit. Similarly, as the air speed over the
condenser coils is increased, retention time decreases, which reduces the
Table 3 gathers the experimental conditions at which the spray tower condenser exit RH and temperature, as seen in Fig. 4.
desalination and cooling system is tested. In addition to the measured air
conditions indicated in Table 3, the properties of saline and distilled 4.2. Gained output ratio and freshwater generation
water were also measured. Salt and desalinated water samples were
tested in the laboratory to characterize their pH, using a digital pH From Eq. (1), the Gained output ratio indirectly gives the amount of
meter, and the concentration of some typical components present in distillate produced from the steam generated after the humidification
water. process. This explains the equivalence of the results represented in both
To have consistency in the measured parameters, experiments are graphs of Fig. 5.
repeated twice, and the average readings have been considered for The GOR is dependent on the temperature difference between the
further calculations. Once the input variables are determined, using inlet and the exit measured at the bridge. In Fig. 5 it is seen that for any
psychrometric chart, unknown variables such as enthalpy, specific hu­ saltwater flow rate, as the air Re is increased, the GOR decreases. This is
midity, DBT, dew point temperature, vapor pressure values are deter­ due to the reduced interaction of air with the salt water in the coil for
mined. These values are substituted in equations and the performance high air velocities, with the consequent decrease in the water being
parameters are determined. condensed. Furthermore, for any fixed air Re, it is also seen that
maximum moisture condensation, hence FWGR, occurs at the best
4. Results saltwater flow rate tested of 18 LPM, as higher heat transfer takes place
between air and water. But when it increases over 18 LPM, water moves
4.1. Dry bulb temperature and relative humidity rapidly along the coil, in such way that time available for energy ex­
change decreases, which hinders the moisture condensation, hence
Fig. 4 shows how there is a rise in the air temperature by 80% and in freshwater production rate and GOR. When the water flow rate is
the relative humidity by 84.61%, for the lowest Re 50519. This rise is increased from 12 to 18 LPH, freshwater production increases by
due to the better interaction of hot water and the inlet air in the hu­ 157.14% for lowest air Re 50519. Similarly, for the same water flow
midifier section at low air velocities. At the dehumidifier, the vapours rate, when the air Re increased from 50519 to 84198 water production
condense to form distilled water and the air temperature and relative rate decreased by 7.77%.
humidity drop significantly, by 47% and 40% respectively for the
highest air Reynold’s number. The exiting air entering the room can 4.3. Humidification efficiency and dehumidification efficiency
meet thermal comfort conditions, as will be evaluated later. It is seen
that as the air Re is increased, air RH at the humidifier exit and the Humidification efficiency and dehumidification efficiency signify the
condenser exit decreases. Flowing air can absorb more moisture from amount of steam and freshwater generation by the entire desalination
system. Humidification efficiency is a function of the temperature dif­
Table2 ference between the inlet and the bridge, whereas the dehumidification
Error values for dependent variables. efficiency is a function of the humidity ratios between the bridge and the
[Link] Dependent Variable Percentage Uncertainty outlet and defined by Eqs. 10 and 11 respectively. For the lowest air
Reynold’s number, both efficiencies are found to be maximum, and drop
1 Coefficient of performance 2.32%
2 Humidification efficiency 2.10% significantly for higher Re, as higher air flow rates reduce contact of
3 Dehumidification efficiency 2.92% water and air in the packing as seen in Fig. 6. Similarly, when the air
4 Gained output ratio 2.54% velocity is higher, it passes across the dehumidification coil without
5 Concentration factor 2.31% much energy exchange with the cold water. As a result, moisture
6 Specific electrical energy consumption 1.86%
condensation from the air will decrease, causing reduced

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S.S. Salins et al. Process Safety and Environmental Protection 180 (2023) 122–135

Fig. 4. Temperature and relative humidity variation at the salient points.

Fig. 5. Gained output ratio and freshwater generation rate with the air Reynold’s number.

dehumidification efficiency. air Reynold’s number. The Specific electrical energy consumption
Both the humidification and dehumidification efficiencies are (SEEC) increases with the air Reynold’s number. Power consumed by the
maximum at an optimum water flow rate of 18 LPH, where there is a rise heater and the pump remains fixed, but the power consumed by the
in the rate of evaporation as well as condensation which rises the overall blower increases continuously along with the reduction in the FWGR.
performance. But from 18 to 20 LPH, the humidification and dehu­ Fig. 7 shows that water flow rate of 12 LPH gave higher SEEC as the
midification efficiencies drop by 1.01% and 2.12% respectively for the energy required remains the same for all flow rates, whereas FWGR
lowest air Reynold’s number. At the optimum water flow rate of 18 LPH, under this combination is minimum. The minimum value of SEEC was
the humidification and dehumidification efficiencies drop by 3.4% and found at 18 LPH and air Reynold’s number of 50519, which is equal to
14.89% when the air Reynold’s number increases from 50519 to 84198. 1.16 kWh/m3.
Since there is a drop in both efficiencies, both the FWGR and the GOR
also decrease.
4.5. Coefficient of performance and overall thermal efficiency

4.4. Concentration factor and specific electrical energy consumption One of the desired effects in present work is the air cooling observed
during dehumidification process in the condenser coils, given by the
Concentration factor (CF) reduces with the rise in the air Reynold’s, enthalpy difference between the inlet and outlet of the desalination
as shown in Fig. 7. It is because at lower air Reynold’s number, the system. As the air Reynold’s number increases, both the cooling and the
freshwater generation is higher. Since the brine solution is minimum at power consumption by the blower are expected to increase. However, as
the lowest air Reynold’s number, concentration factor is high under seen in Fig. 8, the overall COP increases. COP increases by 247.91%
these operating conditions and it decreases continuously with the in­ when the air Reynold’s number increased from 50519 to 84198 for the
crease in the Re. Optimum saltwater flow of 18 LPH gave a maximum CF best water flow tested of 18 LPH. Maximum COP is found to be 3.34.
of 1.05, which is 2.33% higher compared to that of 12 LPH for the lowest Thermal efficiency represents the effectiveness of heat exchange rate

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S.S. Salins et al. Process Safety and Environmental Protection 180 (2023) 122–135

Fig. 6. Humidification and dehumidification efficiency with the air Reynold’s number.

Fig. 7. Concentration factor and SEEC with the Air Reynold’s number.

between air and water in the spray tower. Water heated by the electrical people dissatisfied with ambient atmosphere. The range of PMV be­
heater enters the packing and loses heat to the air blown from bottom to tween − 1 to + 1 and PPD should lie below 15% as according to the
top in the humidifier. Thermal efficiency is defined by the net heat ASHRAE standard 55 (ASHRAE, 2020) thermal comfort range. PPD is
transfer rate by water to the heat input rate. For any definite water flow related to the PMV value whereas PMV is related to metabolic rate, rate
rate, as the air velocity increases, thermal efficiency increased as of mechanical work, ambient temperature, radiant temperature, air
depicted in Fig. 8. As the air velocity increased, mass of air encountering velocity, relative humidity and clothing insulation and are calculated by
with water increases which increases the heat transfer rate. It reduces using Eqs. 8 and 9. Fig. 9 shows the drop in the PMV value with the rise
the heat rejected by the brine solution and hence higher thermal effi­ in the air Reynold’s number and for all conditions, the PMV value lies
ciency values could be seen. On the hand, on increasing the water flow between 0 to − 0.65 which means that the exiting air meets the thermal
rate, heat transfer rate steadily increases and when it surpasses 18 LPM, comfort standard. 0 being the best thermal comfort and negative value
drop in the heat transfer rate and subsequently drop in thermal effi­ represent the colder side and positive value represent the warmer side.
ciency observed. As the air Reynold’s number rises from 50519 to For 18 LPH and the air Reynold’s number of 50519 the values of PMV is
84198, the thermal efficiency increased by 22.2% for 18 LPH water flow closer to zero and drops by 22% when the air Reynold’s number is
rate. The maximum thermal efficiency was found to be 43.4%. increased to 84198. Maximum PMV value obtained for current desali­
nation system is − 0.51. On the other hand, PPD is lower for the lower
4.6. Predicted mean vote (PMV) and predicted percentage dissatisfaction air Reynold’s number and water flow rate of 18 LPH. It indicates that
(PPD) system is within the thermal comfort limit and much closer to the
neutral boundary. Best value of PPD obtained for the above unit is 10.41
PMV predicts the thermal comfort condition for large group of peo­ for 18 LPH water flow rate which is 15.15% better value compared to
ple under the prevailing climatic condition. PPD provides the number of that of 12 LPH.

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S.S. Salins et al. Process Safety and Environmental Protection 180 (2023) 122–135

Fig. 8. Coefficient of performance and overall thermal efficiency with the Air Reynold’s number.

Fig. 9. Predicted mean vote and predicted percentage dissatisfaction with the Air Reynold’s number.

4.7. Gained output ratio vs. Mass flow ratio

It was observed in Section 4.2 that the change in the air Reynold’s
number and the water flow rate have significant influence on the GOR.
Alternatively, Fig. 10 shows the variation of the gained output ratio
(GOR) with the mass flow ratio (MR). Each curve is plotted for indi­
vidual water flow rates and with the rise in the air Reynold’s number. It
is seen that for lower water flow rates, GOR increases continuously, but
the curve flattens or slightly decreases as the water flow rate is
increased. Furthermore, for any fixed water flow rate at the lowest Re,
GOR is maximum, while it decreases as the Re is increased or, in other
words, MR is decreased. For the best water flow rate tested of 18 LPH,
resulting into the maximum GOR of 2.16, the MR corresponds to the
value of 6.06, which is 158.3% higher than at 10 LPH. As the MR in­
creases from minimum to maximum for the best water flow rate tested of
18 LPH, the GOR rises by 15.4%. Hence an optimum combination of air
velocity and water flow rate is required for maximum freshwater output.

Fig. 10. Gained output ratio with mass flow ratio.

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S.S. Salins et al. Process Safety and Environmental Protection 180 (2023) 122–135

4.8. Psychrometric graph for the spray tower desalination system

Fig. 11. represents the entire psychrometric process that the air un­
dergoes through the spray tower desalination and cooling system. Air
enters the desalination unit with an initial temperature and relative
humidity represented by point 1. At this point, it enters the humidifier
chamber and interacts with high temperature water, that leads to an
increase in the temperature and relative humidity as shown in the pro­
cess 1–2. Then, at the dehumidifier, air moisture starts condensing at it
comes in contact with the condenser unit or cold saline water, due to the
thermal boundary layer, but most condensation occurs once it reaches
its dew point temperature. 2–2′ is the sensible heat loss and 2′- 2″ rep­
resents the condensation process. After 2″ the air passes through a
tubular structure and exits at point 3. Exit air condition is in thermal
comfort conditions as prescribed by the ASHRAE standards 55, thus can
be supplied to the occupied spaces to improve IAQ without introducing
ventilation thermal loads.
Fig. 12 shows the all the exit points obtained for various water flow
rate of 18 LPH and air Reynold’s number marked in a psychrometric
chart. It is clearly observed that all the points are inside the ASHRAE
specified zone, which reveals that the current desalination unit is able to Fig. 12. Thermal comfort range for operating conditions.
generate sufficient amount of fresh water along with fulfilling the exit
air under thermal comfort zone. This air could thus be supplied to the
target spaces without introducing ventilation thermal loads. Table 4 Table 4
shows the maximum output of the desalination unit. Maximum performance of desalination system.
For the highest MR of 6.06, fresh water generated is about 0.9 LPH Sl. No Variables of desalination system Maximum Output
from the current desalination unit. Corresponding overall thermal effi­
1. Gained output ratio (GOR) 2.16
ciency, COP and SEEC are 87.57%,3.3 and 1.15 kWh/m3 respectively. 2. Freshwater generation 0.9 LPH
These details will justify that the proposed system can generate suffi­ 3. Humidification efficiency (HE) 87.14%
cient quantity of fresh water using sustainable techniques with 4. Dehumidification efficiency (DE) 94.56%
consuming least amount of energy. 5. Concentration factor 1.05
6. Specific electrical energy consumption (SEEC) 1.15 kWh/m3
7. Cooling effect 3319.21 W
4.9. pH test of saline and distilled water 8. Coefficient of performance (COP) 3.34
9. Overall thermal efficiency 87.57%
Table 5 gathers the results obtained from the pH test performed on 10. Mass flow ratio (MR) 6.06
saline and distilled water. It has been found that the saline water and 11. Predicted mean vote (PMV) -0.51
12. Predicted percentage dissatisfaction (PPD) 10.41
distilled water has a pH of 8.25 and 7 respectively on a scale of 14 13. Recovery ratio 0.05
(Fig. 13). Saline and distilled water shows base and neutral properties, 14. Concentration factor 1.05
respectively. The distilled water properties obtained are within accept­
able ranges and is suitable for drinking by adding certain minerals to it
as per the US environmental protection agency (EPA) standard (Donia
and Mortada, 2021).

Fig. 11. Psychrometric process of air in the spray tower desalination unit.

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S.S. Salins et al. Process Safety and Environmental Protection 180 (2023) 122–135

Table 5 the proposed system within the ranges of 6–10 m/s air velocity and
Properties of saline and desalinated water. 12–20 LPH water flow rates, while less favourable values had been ob­
Characteristic Unit Acceptable Saline Desalinated tained by previous researchers under wider ranges, and larger capacity
range water water systems.
Colour Hazen Unit NA Light blue colourless Nevertheless, present work demonstrates that it is necessary to
Odour Not NA Sulphury No Odour determine the optimal water flow and air flow rates. Although a certain
Applicable Smell trend on the performance parameters can be observed in terms of the
Taste Not NA Salty taste No taste Mass flow Ratio for the proposed system and the similar experimental
Applicable
Turbidity NTU <1 1.5 0.4
devices characterised in the literature, there may be an optimal water
Total dissolved mg/l 150–250 37000 225 flow ratio that should be identified.
solids (Donia and Compared to other emerging technologies, spray tower desalination
Mortada, 2021) still presents limited freshwater production. Current optimal CF of 1.05
pH Value (at 25 ◦ C) Not 6.5–9 8.25 7
corresponds to a water recovery percentage of scarcely 5%, while data
Applicable
Total Hardness (as mg/L 75–300 6000 80 available on freezing desalination techniques show at least 14% water
CaCO3) recovery (Janajreh et al., 2023) and results for membrane distillation
Calcium (as Ca) ( mg/L 1–135 400 75 range from 60% to 80% (Ahmed et al., 2021; Chehayeb and Lienhard,
Rapant et al., 2015).
2017)
Chloride (as Cl) mg/L 1–4 19,400 3
On the other hand, according to the literature, closed air-open water
Sulphate (as SO4) mg/L 3–30 2700 28 systems can yield better performance in terms of FWGR; however, the
Nitrate (as NO3) mg/L 5–10 0.06 8 open-air configuration enables an additional operational effect, as it is
Fluoride (as F) mg/L 3–4 7.4 3.8 possible to supply the exit air from the humidifier to the occupied spaces
Phenolic mg/L 0.005–0.02 10 0.007
with aims of thermal comfort and improved Indoor Air Quality.
Compounds (as
C6H5OH)
Residual, free mg/L 0.3–0.6 0.25 0.5 6. Conclusions
Chlorine (as Cl2)
Total alkalinity (as mg/L 20–200 80 120 A spray tower based experimental setup is constructed and an open
CaCO3)
air-open water, packed bed humidifier system is characterized for varied
Magnesium (as Mg) mg/L <7 1297 5
air flow rate and water flow rate. The performance of the system is
determined in terms of the parameters GOR, MR, COP, humidification
5. Discussion and comparison of results with the other literature efficiency, dehumidification efficiency, SEEC, and CF (or RR). The sys­
tem also supplies an airflow that is proposed as ventilation air in thermal
Results obtained from the various desalination systems with packed comfort conditions; to address this, the parameters PMV and PPD are
bed humidifiers studied in the literature are compared in Table 6 with also evaluated. Based on the experimental study, various conclusions are
the current spray tower desalination system. It gathers the differences on drawn below.
the packed bed material used and the input conditions. The results ob­
tained for the parameters GOR, humidification and dehumidification 1. These is a rise in the temperature and relative humidity by 160% and
efficiency, as well as freshwater generation rate (FWGR) are observed. 84.61% for the air Reynold’s number of 50519 from the inlet to the
As can be derived from Table 6, present results are not directly bridge, while it drops by 70.51% and 32.63% after the condensation
comparable to those in the existing literature due to the differences in process.
the system design and size, as well as in the input conditions studied. 2. As the water flow rate increases from 12 to 18 LPH, there is a rise in
However, some general ideas can be extracted. the gained output ratio and freshwater generation rate. The perfor­
First, the GOR and the FWGR strongly depend on the air and water mance deteriorates with further increase in water flow rate. Air
flow rates. Maximum GOR of 2.16 and FWGR of 0.9 are obtained with

Fig. 13. a. pH of Saline Water. b. pH of Distilled Water.

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S.S. Salins et al. Process Safety and Environmental Protection 180 (2023) 122–135

Table 6
Comparison of current results with other similar experimental units in the literature.
Research Target study Type of flow and packing Experimental conditions Results obtained

Present work Exiting dehumidified air from the condenser Counter and Celdek 7090 Packing Air velocity= 6–10 m/s GOR= 2.16
reaches thermal comfort value as per Water flow HE= 87.14%
ASHRAE standard 55. rate= 12–20 LPH. DE= 94.56%
FWGR= 0.9 LPH
CF= 1.05
OAOW with packed bed humidifier, Honeycomb cellulose pads (45◦ m˙w = 6 l/min Max. GOR= 2.72
Lawal et al.
integrated with recovery heat pump. corrugated angle, 8.1 m2 wetted ṁa = 0.105 kg/s, 0.0697 kg/ Max. RR= 2.56
(2020) surface, 400 m2/m3 specific surface s, 0,0571 kg/s. FWGR, GOR, and RR increase for
area). Counter flow. Water inlet temperatures: lower MR and higher water
23.5 ± 0.9 ◦ C, 27.2 ± 0.7 ◦ C, temperatures.
31.8 ± 1.1 ◦ C. COP improves for lower water
Air inlet temperature: 27.8 temperatures and maintains with the
MR.
± 0.6 ◦ C, and RH: 51.8

± 0.4%.
Water salinity: 2840 ppm.
OAOW packed bed humidifier, compared to PVC packing, 0.7 m height, m˙w = 0.6, 0.8, 0.9, 1 and 6 l/day fresh water production for
Hussain et al.
closed air-open water configuration. 0.3 × 0.3 m section. Counter flow. 1.2 l/min OAOW.
(2022) Air inlet conditions of a Productivity increases with the salt
typical summer day in water flow rate. Closed air-open water
Baghdad. configuration has larger FWGR.
OAOW, water heated, packed bed 10×10×2mm raschig rings with m˙w = 4 l/min ṁa = 2 l/min Max. RR= 36%
Kaunga et al.
humidifier. 440 m2/m3 surface area. Counter Water inlet temperature: RR increases with the water
(2022) Aims at validating a model intended to flow. 50 ◦ C temperature and lower MR.
optimize HDH systems. Air inlet temperature: 25 ◦ C 10 min required to reach steady-state
and 40% RH operation.
FWGR increases with larger packing
specific area.
OAOW, water heated, packed bed Metal 25 mm pall ring packing. m˙w from 100 to 400 l/h. Max. water evaporation rate at 2
Ranjitha Raj and
humidifier. Counter flow. MR from 1 to 8 MR….
Jayakumar Focuses on the optimal design of the Water inlet temperature from Max. outlet absolute humidity at
(2022) packaging. 35◦ to 70◦ C. about 5 MR. Increases with the water
temperature.
Solar assisted OAOW with packed bed 80 cm × 80 cm x 60 cm cellulose ṁa = 2200 m3/h Max. fresh water production 36.49 l/
Kabeel et al.
humidifier. Air outlet driven to the material with cooling efficiency up to Air inlet conditions from day.
(2022b) condenser coil of a split system. Focuses on 94.5%. Counter flow. June to August 2020 under Average improvement of the GOR of
the improvement achieved in the split Egyptian climate. 60.9% by the use of the leaving cold
system. air.
OAOW, water heated, packed bed Cellulose paper with specific area m˙w = 2–6 kg/min GOR= 0.5
Abbady et al.
humidifier. Studies the system improvement 300 m2/m3. Counter flow. ṁa = 0.8 kg/min HE= 80%
(2020) through heat recovery, fins, and combined Water inlet temperature DE= 78%
heat recovery and fins. = 50 ◦ C, 60 ◦ C, and 70 ◦ C FWGR= 0.7 LPH
DE increases with the water flow rate
and lower water temperature.
The HE and the FWGR increase with
the MR and the water temperature.
The GOR increases with the water
flow rate and the water temperature;
reaches an optimal point at 4–5 MR.
Compact OAOW, packed bed desalination Packaging not specified. Counter m˙w = 4–18 l/min GOR= 1.3
Fares et al.
unit with a recovery heat pump as heating flow. ṁa = 67–134 kg/h. HE= 74%
(2019) and cooling source. Water inlet temperature: FWGR= 0.85 LPH
25 ◦ C Productivity increases with both the
Air inlet conditions: 25 ◦ C water and the air flow rates up to
and 55% relative humidity. 1.14 kg/h at 12 kg/h water and
100 kg/h air, then decreases.
GOR also, reaching its maximum of
1.34 at 15 kg/h water and 100 kg/h
air.

Reynolds number of 50519 and water flow rate of 18 LPH is found to 5. Maximum PMV value obtained for current desalination system is
optimum, where fresh water generated is 0.9 LPM. − 0.51. Best PPD value is 10.41. As per the ASHRAE 55 standard, the
3. COP increases from by 247.91% when the air Reynold’s number value of PPD and PMV is within the thermal comfort range.
increased from 50519 to 84198 for 18 LPH. Maximum COP is found 6. Maximum gained output ratio of 2.16 is obtained for the MR value of
to be 3.34. This implies that the effect of the air velocity on the 6.06 and for 18 LPH. As the MR increases from minimum to
system performance is more significant than the larger power maximum the GOR rises by 15.42%.
requirements.
4. As the air Reynold’s number rises from 50519 to 84198 the thermal The current spray tower based desalination system is a sustainable
efficiency drops by 39.91% for 18 LPH water. The maximum thermal energy technology that consumes less power to give maximum pro­
efficiency is found to be 87.57%. ductivity with zero pollution. In addition to providing fresh water, the
unit is also capable of providing cool air that is suitable to increase the
ventilation rates without hindering the thermal comfort conditions and

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S.S. Salins et al. Process Safety and Environmental Protection 180 (2023) 122–135

the energy consumption. It is applied to provide potable water by mu­ Fares, M.N., Al-Mayyahi, M.A., Rida, M.M., Najim, S.E., 2019. Water desalination using a
new humidification-dehumidification (HDH) technology. J. Phys. Conf. Ser. 1279.
nicipality, in agricultural industry, commercial buildings, providing
[Link]
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Scope for future work: desalination cycle consisting of packed-bed humidifier and finned-tube
dehumidifier. Int. J. Heat. Mass Transf. 183, 122153 [Link]
ijheatmasstransfer.2021.122153.
1. Different packings such as Aspen, PVC, coconut coir, wood shaving, Giwa, A., Akther, N., Housani, A., Al Haris, S., Hasan, S.W., 2016. Recent advances in
jute fibres can be utilized. A comparative study can be carried out. humidification dehumidification (HDH) desalination processes: improved designs
2. Solar heating technology can be adopted to vaporize the feed water and productivity. Renew. Sustain Energy Rev. 57, 929–944. [Link]
10.1016/[Link].2015.12.108.
and make the system more sustainable. He, W., Yang, H., Han, D., 2019. Thermodynamic investigation and optimization of a
3. A mathematical model can be constructed to predict the temperature heat pump coupled open-air, open-water humidification dehumidification
and humidity parameters at various points and also performance can desalination system with a direct contact dehumidifier. Desalination 469, 114101.
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4. A demister can be added at the air exit and studies can be conducted a humidification dehumidification desalination system using a direct-contact
to observe the influence on the quality of the condensate water. dehumidifier. Int J. Therm. Sci. 120, 31–40. [Link]
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Hussain, Z.F., Hamed, A.J., Khalifa, A.H.N., Hassan, M.F., Najim, F.A., 2022.
Environmental effects: Exterimental investigation of a humidification- dehumidification desalination unit
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International Energy Agency, 2016. Water energy xexus- excerpt from the world energy
possible to convert it as a drinking water which can address the outlook 2016. Int Energy Agency 60.
drinking water scarcity problems of urban areas across the globe. Janajreh, I., Zhang, H., El Kadi, K., Ghaffour, N., 2023. Freeze desalination: current
2. Instead of using conventional AC systems for cooling which will in­ research development and future prospects. Water Res 229, 119389. [Link]
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crease the greenhouse effect on the environment, the above system Kabeel, A.E., Hamed, M.H., Omara, Z.M., Sharshir, S.W., 2013. Water desalination using
provides a clean thermal comfort air without any impact on the a technique — a detailed review. Nat. Resour. 4, 286–305.
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Declaration of Competing Interest evaporative air cooler and HDH desalination system assisted by solar energy for
remote areas. Desalination 439, 162–167. [Link]
desal.2018.04.013.
Authors hereby declare that there is no known competing financial Kabeel, A.E., Abdelgaied, M., Omara, Z.M., 2022a. Experimentally evaluation of split air
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence conditioner integrated with humidification-dehumidification desalination unit for
the work reported in this paper. better thermal comfort, produce freshwater, and energy saving. J. Therm. Anal.
Calor. 147, 4197–4207. [Link]
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