KENYATTA UNIVERSITY

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DIGITAL SCHOOL OF VIRTUAL AND OPEN LEARNING

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IN COLLABORATION WITH

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DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS AND ACTUARIAL SCIENCE

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SMA 112: BASIC MATHEMATICS

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WRITTEN BY: Dr. JANE RIMBERIA

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VETTED BY: Dr. WINFRED MUTUKU

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BY KELVIN EKALIYO, THE NEXT.

 INTRODUCTION
Welcome to this module. The module deals with basic concepts and theorems in Mathematics.
This is an interactive instructional module that uses both action and collaborative learning styles
that provide you with diverse online learning experiences and effective learning processes. The
key purpose of this module is to help you build a good and solid foundation to advanced

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understanding of mathematical concepts and operations.

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In this module, we shall look at counting techniques in mathematics; introduce you to set theory

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propositional logic, methods of proof and complex numbers.

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We hope that you will find this module exciting, educative, and engaging.

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 BASIC MATHEMATICS FLOW CHART
WEEK TOPIC

WEEK 1 QUADRATIC EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES

WEEK 2 REMAINDER AND FACTOR THEOREM AND THEIR APPLICATIONS

WEEK 3 & 4 PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS

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WEEK 5 & 6 BINOMIAL THEOREM AND APPLICATIONS

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WEEK 7 & 8 SET THEORY

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WEEK 9 LOGIC

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WEEK 10 METHODS OF PROOF

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WEEK 11 & 12 COMPLEX NUMBERS

WEEK 13 & 14 EXAMINATION S

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REGARDS;LECTOR ABUYA
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OVERVIEW OF THE COURSE

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Week 0: Introduction (Your Context, Your Goals)

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This lesson is intended to help you acclimatize to blended learning and to create a community of
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learners who will motivate each other during the course. You will be required to introduce yourself
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to your lecturer and colleagues either physically during a face to face session or even online before
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other academic interactions start.

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Week 1: Quadratic Equations and Inequalities

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In this first lesson, we will introduce you to various methods of solving quadratic equations and
inequalities. The purpose of this lesson is to help you establish and apply the relationship between
roots and coefficients of quadratic equations.

Week 2: Remainder and Factor Theorem and their Applications

In this lesson, we will consider the Remainder and Factor Theorems. These Theorems are useful
in solving equations involving polynomials of degree greater than two.
BY KELVIN EKALIYO, THE NEXT.
 Week 3 & 4: Permutations and Combinations

In this lesson, we introduce you permutations and combinations. Permutations and combinations
are very useful tools for counting in Mathematics.

Week 5 & 6: Binomial Theorem and Applications

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This lesson considers Binomial Theorem and its applications. This Theorem gives a new way of

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obtaining coefficients in binomial expansion as opposed to the use of the classical Pascal’s

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Triangle method.

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Week 7 & 8: Set Theory

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This lesson introduces the abstract concept of set theory and it’s applications to counting. Algebra
of sets will also be considered.
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Week 9: Logic
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In this lesson you will be introduced to propositional logic. The main emphasis will be
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determination of truth values of logical statements. Logical statements have truth value either
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TRUE or FALSE but not both.

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Week 10: Methods of Proof

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Having studied logic in week 9, we will go a step further in this lesson to consider methods of
proof in Mathematics. We will consider both direct and indirect proofs.
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Week 11 & 12: Complex Numbers

In weeks 7 and 8, you were introduced to sets. In this lesson we will study one particular set called
the set of complex numbers. We will introduce you to arithmetic operations of these numbers,
their polar representation and De Moivere’s Theorem.

BY KELVIN EKALIYO, THE NEXT.

 Week 13 &14: Examination

These two weeks bring together the work you have been doing to an end. This course unit will be
examined and will partially contribute to the award of the degree in the programme that you are
undertaking.
Lector abuya

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PURPOSE OF THE MODULE

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The purpose of this module is to equip students with basic mathematical skills which build the
foundation of Mathematics.

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MODULE LEARNING OUTCOMES

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By the end of this module the learner will be able to:
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i) Solve quadratic equations and inequalities.

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ii) State and apply the Remainder Theorem and the Factor Theorem
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iii) Differentiate permutations and combinations and apply them in counting iv) Perform set
operations and apply set theory to counting
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v) Determine validity of logical arguments

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vi) Prove mathematical statements using direct proof, contradiction, contraposition and
induction. vii)State and apply De Moivere’s Theorem.
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COURSE DESCRIPTION
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Quadratic equations and inequalities. Remainder and Factor Theorem and their applications.
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Permutations and combinations, Binomial theorem and its applications. Set theory: Basic
operations on sets, Laws of set theory, Venn diagrams and application. Logic: Propositions,
compound propositions and truth tables. Methods of proof: Direct, indirect, Induction,
contradiction, cases, counter examples. Complex numbers: Arithmetic operations, Geometric
representations and polar form. De Moiver’s Theorem and its applications.

BY KELVIN EKALIYO, THE NEXT.

 COURSE REQUIREMENTS

This is a blended learning course that will utilize the flex model. This means that learning materials
and instructions will be given online and the lessons will be self-guided with the lecturer being
available briefly for face to face sessions and support and also on-site (online) most of the time.
You are advised to follow the topic flow-chart given so that you cover at least a lesson every week.

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You will be required to participate and interact online with your peers and the e-moderator who

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in this case is your lecturer. Guidelines for the online activities (which we shall keep referring to

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as e-tivities) will be provided whenever there is an e-tivity. Please note that since the online
etivities are part of the learning process, they may be graded at the discretion of your e-moderator.

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Such grading will however be communicated in the e-tivity guidelines and feedback given as soon

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as possible after the e-tivity. The e-tivities will include but will not be limited to online assessment

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quizzes, assignments and discussions. There are also assessment questions that you can attempt at
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the end of every lesson to test your understanding of the lesson. The answers to all the assessment
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questions are at the end of the module after lesson 8. All the resources that have been used in this
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module in form of books are available under the resources section after the answers to the
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questions.
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ASSESSMENT
It is important to note that the module has embedded certain learner formative assessment
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feedback tools that will enable you gauge your own learning progress. The tools include online
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collaborative discussions forums that focus on team learning and personal mastery and will
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therefore provide you with peer feedback, lecturer assessment and self- reflection.
I wish you the very best of experiences in this course.
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Lector Abuya.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
TABLE OF CONTENT .............................................................................................................. vii

LESSON ONE ............................................................................................................................... 1

QUADRATIC EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES................................................................ 1

1.1 Introduction. ............................................................................................................ 1

BY KELVIN EKALIYO, THE NEXT.

 1.2 Learning Outcomes ................................................................................................. 1

1.3 Assessment Questions ........................................................................................... 12

1.4 References ............................................................................................................. 12

LESSON TWO ............................................................................................................................ 13

REMAINDER AND FACTOR THEOREM AND THEIR APPLICATIONS ...................... 13

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2.1 Introduction. .......................................................................................................... 13

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2.2 Learning Outcomes ............................................................................................... 13

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2.3 Assessment Questions ........................................................................................... 20

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2.4 References ............................................................................................................. 20

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LESSON THREE ........................................................................................................................ 22

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PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS ........................................................................... 22
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3.1 Introduction. .......................................................................................................... 22
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3.2 Learning Outcomes ............................................................................................... 22

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3.3 Assessment Questions ........................................................................................... 32

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3.4 References ............................................................................................................. 32

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LESSON FOUR........................................................................................................................... 33

BINOMIAL THEOREM AND ITS APPLICATIONS ............................................................ 33

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4.1 Introduction. ......................................................................................................... 33

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4.2 Learning Outcomes ............................................................................................... 33

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4.3 Assessment Questions ........................................................................................... 42

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4.4 References ............................................................................................................. 42

LESSON FIVE ............................................................................................................................ 43

SET THEORY ..............................................................................................................................43

5.1 Introduction. .......................................................................................................... 43

5.2 Learning Outcomes ............................................................................................... 43

BY KELVIN EKALIYO, THE NEXT.

 5.3 Assessment Questions ........................................................................................... 61

5.4 References ............................................................................................................. 61

LESSON SIX ............................................................................................................................... 62

LOGIC ......................................................................................................................................... 62

6.1 Introduction. .......................................................................................................... 62

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6.2 Learning Outcomes ............................................................................................... 62

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6.3 Assessment Questions ........................................................................................... 76

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6.4 References ............................................................................................................. 77

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LESSON SEVEN ........................................................................................................................ 78

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METHOD OF PROOF ............................................................................................................... 78

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7.1 Introduction. .......................................................................................................... 78
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7.2 Learning Outcomes ............................................................................................... 78
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7.3 Assessment Questions .......................................................................................... 86

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7.4 References ............................................................................................................. 86

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LESSON
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EIGHT ......................................................................................................................... 87
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COMPLEX NUMBERS ............................................................................................................. 87

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8.1 Introduction. .......................................................................................................... 87

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8.2 Learning Outcomes ............................................................................................... 87

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8.3 Assessment Questions ......................................................................................... 108

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8.4 References ........................................................................................................... 108

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ANSWERS ................................................................................................................................. 109

RESOURCES ............................................................................................................................ 111

BY KELVIN EKALIYO, THE NEXT.

 LESSON ONE

QUADRATIC EQUATIONS AND

INEQUALITIES

1.1 Introduction

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In this lesson we discuss quadratic equations and inequalities. In Mathematics we sometimes need

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to use quadratic equations and inequalities to solve word problems. The most important thing when
solving these types of problems is to make sure that they are set up correctly so we can use the

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quadratic equation and inequalities to easily solve them.

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1.2 Learning Outcomes

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By the end of this lesson the learner will be able to:

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i) Solve quadratic equations using factorization, completing square and quadratic formula. ii)
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Solve quadratic inequalities
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1.2.1 Quadratic Equations

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A quadratic equation is an equation of the form ax2 bx c 0 , where a, b and c are real numbers
and a 0 .
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[Link] Methods of solution

i) Graphical method ii)

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Factorization iii)
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Completing square meth iv)

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Quadratic Formula
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Example 1.1
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Solve 2x2 5x 3 0 by factorization method.

Solution

Look for two numbers a and b such that a b 5 and a b 6 , take a 6 and b 1.
Therefore we can write

2x2 5x 3 2x2 6x x 3 0
 2x x 3 x 3 0
2x 1 x 3 =0

Either 2x 1 0 or x

3 0

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x 12 or x 3.

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NB

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2x 1 and x 3 are called factors of 2x2 5x 3 0 while x 12 and x 3 are called

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the roots of the equations.

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Reverse
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x 3 0 or 2x 1 0
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x 3 2x 1 0
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x2 x2 3x 32 0
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2x2 x 6x 3 0 or 2x2 5x 3 0.
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Example 1.3
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Solve the equation 5x2 6x 2 0 by completing square method.

Solution
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Divide throughout by 5 to get

x2 65 x 25 0

Or x2 65 x 25

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Complete the square by adding 12 65 2
on both

sides, x2 65 x 35 = 25 35 2 25 925

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1925.

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Factorize the left hand side to get,

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x 35 2 1925.

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Taking the square root on both sides,

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19 19
x 3 = .
5 25 5
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3 19
x
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x or x .
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Example 1.4
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Solve ax2 bx c 0 by completing square method.

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Solution
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Divide throughout by a to obtain .

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x2 ba x ca 0
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Or x2 ba x ca

Complete the square by adding b 2 on both

sides, 2a

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x2 ba x b2a 2 = ca b2a 2 ca b2 4a2 b24 a42ac .

Factorize the left hand side to get,

x b2a 2 b24 a42ac .

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Taking the square root on both sides,

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x b2a b24 a42ac = b22a 4ac

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b

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x b2 4ac

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2a 2a

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b b2 4ac
x
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2a
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This is called the quadratic formula.

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Now, b2 4ac is called the discriminant of the equation.

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If b2 4ac 0 , then ax2 bx c 0 has two real distinct roots.

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If b2 4ac 0 , then ax2 bx c 0 has two equal real roots.

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If b2 4ac 0 , then ax2 bx c 0 has no real roots.

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[Link] Roots of Quadratic Equation

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Consider the equation ax2 bx c 0 . Then

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x2 ba x ca 0 i)

Let and be roots of equation i), then x

or x .

Therefore,
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 x 0 or x

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x2 x x 0 or

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Or .

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x2 x 0 ii)

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Comparing i) and ii), we get

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b ba

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and
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c.
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Example 1.5
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Write down the sums and products of the roots of the following equations;
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i) 3x2 2x 7 0
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ii) 2x x 1 x
7 iii) 2x2 5x 1
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Solution

i) b 2 2 and c 7
a 3 3 a 3 ii) and iii) Exercise

Example 1.6

Express the following in terms of and .

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 2 2
i) ii)

iii) 3 3

Solution

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2 2 2
i) 2

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2 2 2 2

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2 2 2 2
ii)

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2 2
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2 2 from part i)
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iii) 3 3 3 2 3 2 3

3 3 3 2 3 2 3
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3 3 3 3 .
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Example 1.7
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The roots of the equation 3x2 4x 5 0 are and . Find the equation whose roots are
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1 1
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i) and
ii) 2
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and 2
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Solution

From the given equation,

b 4
Sum: a
3

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 c 5
Product:
a

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1 3 4

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i) Sum: 1 45 5
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and

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1 1 3
Product: 1

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5

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The required equation is: x2 sum of roots x product of roots=0
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i.e. x2 x 53
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i. or
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5x 2 4x 3 0 .
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ii) Sum: 2 2 2 2
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34 2 2 35 = 496
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Product: 2 2 2 35 2_______ 295

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Required equation: x2 x 0 or 9x2 46x 25 0.

E-tivity 1.2.1: Quadratic Equations

Numbering and pacing and 1.2.1

sequencing
Title Quadratic equations

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Purpose To expose you to the relationship between roots and
coefficients of quadratic equations.

Brief summary of overall task Watch the video on Sum and product of roots of
quadratic equations by Mathusay Math Tutorial and then
give the formula for the sum and product of roots of
quadratic equations in terms of equation’s coefficient
Spark

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•

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Individual contribution Watch the video on Sum and product of roots of
quadratic equations

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• Give the formula for the sum and product of roots
of quadratic equations in terms of equation’s

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coefficient

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• Answer the question;
1. Given the roots of the equation
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3x2 4x 5 0 are and to find the
equation whose roots
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are;
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1 1
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i) and
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ii) 2 and 2
Interaction begins • Post your answers on the discussion forum 1.2.1
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Read what your colleagues have posted.

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• In a sentence or two, comment on what two of

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your colleagues have posted keeping netiquette in

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mind
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E-moderator interventions • Focussing group discussion

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• Encouraging lurkers (quiet ones) to contribute

• Providing feedback/ teaching points

• Closing the discussion

Schedule and time This activity should take one hour.

Next Quadratic inequalities

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1.2.2 Quadratic Inequalities
A quadratic inequality is an inequality in which one side is a quadratic polynomial and the other
side is zero.

Eg. 2x2 x 6 0

Consider the quadratic equation ax2 bx c 0 . Now, if b2 4ac 0 , then this equation has two

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distinct real roots. Let the roots be and with . Then this equation can be written as

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ax2 bx c a x x . 1

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Next consider the number line below;

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x x x

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Then values of the factors in equation 1 in the three regions on the number line above are as
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shown in the table below.

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x x x x
x Negative Negative Positive
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x Positive Negative xPositive Positive Negativ

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Positive
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When a 0, ax2 bx c 0 when x or when x . ax2

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bx c 0 when x .
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When a 0, ax2 bx c 0 when x .

ax2 bx c 0 when x or when x.

Example 1.8

Find the set of all values of x for which 2x2 5x 3 0.

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Solution

The roots of the equation 2x2 5x 3 0 are 12 and -3. Therefore

2x2 5x 3 2 x 3 x 12 and a 2 0,

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3 and 12 . Thus we have

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x 3 x 12

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2 x 3 x 12

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x 3 Negative Negative Positive

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3 x 12 Positive Negative Negative

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1 x Positive Positive Positive
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Thus 2 x 3 x 12 0 when x 3 or when x 12 . That is 2x2 5x 3 0 when x 3
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or when x 12 .

Example 1.9
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Find the set of all values of x for which 1 2x 3x2 0.

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Solution
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The roots of the equation 1 2x 3x2 0 are 13 and 1. Therefore

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1 2x 3x2 3 x 13 x 1 and we have the table below;

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x 13 x 1
x 3 x

13 x 1 13 x 1
x 13 Negative Negative Positive Negative

13 x 1 Positive Negative Negative Positive

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1 x Positive Positive Positive Negative

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Thus 3 x 13 x 0 when x 13 or x 1 . That is 1 2x 3x2 0 when x 13 or

x 1.

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[Link] Alternative Method

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Steps

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1. Turn the inequality into an equation
2. Find the solutions to the equation

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3. Make a number line and check each interval.

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Example 1.10

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Solve the inequality x2 2x 8 0.
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Solution
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Solve the equation

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x2 2x 8 0
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x 4 x 2
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0 4 or x
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x
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x 6 -4 x 0 2 x 4
Consider any point less than 4 , say x 6 then

x 4 x 2 6 4 6 2 2 8 16 0

the set of all x such that x 4 is a solution.

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Next, consider any point in the interval 2 , say x 0 then
4 x

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 x 4 x 2 0 4 0 2 4 2 8 0

the set of all x such that 4 x 2 is not a solution.

Finally, consider any point greater than 2, say x 4 then

x 4 x 2 4 4 4 2 8 2 16 0

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the set of all x such that x 2 is a solution

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Hence the solution to the inequality x2 2x 8 0 is the set of all x such that either x 4 or x

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2.

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E-tivity 1.2.2: Quadratic inequalities

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Numbering and pacing and 1.2.2
sequencing S
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Title Quadratic inequalities
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Purpose To enable the learner to solve quadratic inequalities.

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Brief summary of overall task Watch the video on solving quadratic inequalities by Jeff
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Suzuki and solve the given quadratic inequalities.

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Individual contribution • Watch the video on solving quadratic inequalities.

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• Solve the following inequalities

i) x2 5x 6 0 ii)
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x2 3x 2 0 iii) x2
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3x 10
Interaction begins • Post your answers on discussion forum 1.2.2
Read what your colleagues have posted.
• In a sentence or two, comment on what two of
your colleagues have posted keeping netiquette
in mind

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E-moderator interventions • Focussing group discussion
• Encouraging lurkers (quiet ones) to contribute
• Providing feedback/ teaching points

• Closing the discussion

Schedule and time This activity should take one hour.
Next Remainder Theorem

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1.3 Assessment

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1. The roots of 2x2 3x 4 0 are and . Find the values of

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a) 2 2
b) c) 1 1

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1 1

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2. Prove that if one root of ax2 bx c 0 is twice the other, then 2b2 9ac .
3. The sum of the squares of the roots of ax2 bx c 0 is 1, prove that b2 2ac a2 . 4.
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Find the set of all values of x for which
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a) 6 x 12x2
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b) x2 2x 15 0
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1.4 References
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1. Backhouse, J. and Houldsworth, S. (1985). Pure Mathematics Book I, Longman Publishers

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Ltd.
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2. Bostock, L., Chandler, S. and Rourke, C. (1982). Further Pure Mathematics. Stanley
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Thornes Publishers Ltd.

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3. Larson, R. and Hostetler, R. (1997). Precalculus, Houghton Company.

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Lector Abuya.
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LESSON TWO

REMAINDER AND FACTOR THEOREM AND THEIR APPLICATIONS

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2.1 Introduction
In this lesson we will study the Remainder theorem and Factor Theorem and their applications.
The applications include factorization of polynomials of degree greater than two and solution of
equations involving polynomials of degree 3 and higher.

2.2 Learning Outcomes

By the end of this lesson the learner will be able to:

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i) State and apply the Remainder Theorem ii)

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State and apply the Factor Theorem

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2.2.1 The Remainder Theorem

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[Link] Long Division of Polynomials

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A polynomial in x of degree n is an expression of the form anxn an 1xn … a2x2 a1x a0

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, where a0, a1, a2,…,anare real numbers and an 0.

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Eg f x 2x3 4x2 x 1 is a polynomial of degree 3.

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When a polynomial f x is divided by another polynomial g x , we obtain a quotient q x

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r x
and a remainder . This is similar to division of two integers in arithmetic operations.
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The degree of the remainder r x is less than that of the divisor g x .

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q x
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g x f x
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…
…
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r x

f x r x
We write f x g x q x r x or g x q x g x .

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Example 2.1
Divide a) f x 3x3 2x2 x 1 by i) g x x 1

ii) g x x2 2

b) f x 4x3 x 2 by g x 3x 2

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Solution

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a) i) 3x2 5x 6

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x 1 3x3 2x2 x 1

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3x3 3x2

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5x2 x

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5x2 5x

+2
6x 1
6x 6
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5
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q x 3x2 5x 6 and r x 5
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3x 2
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ii) x2 2 3x3 2x2 x 1

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3x3 6x
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2x2 7x
2x2 4
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7x 3
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q x 3x 2 and r x 7x 3
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 4 x2 8 x 7 b) 3x
3 9 27 2
3
4x x 2

4x3 8 x2
3
8 x2 x
3

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8 x2- 16 x

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3 9

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7 x 2
9

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7 x 14
9 27

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40
27

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Therefore q x 4 x2 8 x 7 40
27 and r x 27 .

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3 9

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Theorem 2.1 (The Remainder Theorem)

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If a polynomial f x is divided by x a , the remainder is f a .

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Proof

Suppose that when f x is divided by x a the remainder is r x . Then by division algorithm,

f x x a q x r x .

Putting x a , we get f

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 JO a
B q a
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r a

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0

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 Remainder r a f a
Example 2.2

Find the remainder when x5 4x3 2x 3 is divided by a) x 1

b) x 2

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Solution

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Let f x x5 4x3 2x 3 , then

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a) The remainder when f x is divided by x 1 is

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f 1 1 4 2 3 2

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b) The remainder when f x is divided by x 2 is f 2 2 5

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4 2 3 2 2 3 1
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Example 2.3
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f x
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Prove that when a polynomial is divided by ax b, where a 0 , the remainder

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b 3
is f a . Hence find the remainder when 4x 6x 5 is divided by
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1
2x . Proof
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f x r x
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Suppose that when is divided by ax b, where a 0 the remainder is . Then

CH

f x ax b q x r x .
B
JO

b
Putting x , we get
a

f ba 0q ba r ba .

18
 ba ba
Remainder r
f .

If f x 4x3 6x 5 is divided by 2x 1, the remainder is

9
f 1 4 1

67
f 21 3
2 2 6 12 5

47
5 .
2

86
=

74
E-tivity 2.2.1: The Remainder Theorem

54
+2
Numbering and pacing and 2.2.1
sequencing
Title
S
The Remainder Theorem
ES
Purpose To help you to find the remainder when a polynomial f
GR

x is divided by a linear factor of the form x a

N

Brief summary of overall task Watch the video on Remainder Theorem by Jeff Suzuki
CO

by and solve the given questions.

Spark
st
21
LI
O
ES

Individual contribution • Watch the video on Remainder Theorem.

• Find the remainder when
CH

i) x3 2x 4 is divided by x 1 ii)
2x3 x2 2 is divided by x 3
B
JO

Interaction begins • Post your answers on discussion forum 2.2.1

Read what your colleagues have posted.
• In a sentence or two, comment on what two of
your colleagues have posted keeping netiquette
in mind

19
E-moderator interventions • Focussing group discussion
• Encouraging lurkers (quiet ones) to contribute
• Providing feedback/ teaching points
• Closing the discussion

Schedule and time This activity should take one hour.

Next Factor Theorem

9
67
2.2.2 The Factor Theorem

47
Cororally 2.2 (The Factor Theorem)

86
If for a given function f x ,f a 0 then x a is a factor of f x .

74
54
That is if x a is a factor of f x , then there will be no remainder when f x is divided

+2
by
x a ;
S
ES
GR

R 0 f a 0.
N

Example 2.4
CO

Factorize x4 3x3 4x2 8 completely.

Solution
st
21

We use try and error method together with the factor theorem.
LI
O

Let f x x4 3x3 4x2 8 , then f 1 1 3 4 8 0

ES
CH

x 1 is not a factor of f x f 2 16 24 16 8 0
B

x 2 is a factor of f x
JO

Dividing,

x3 x2 2x 4
x 2 x4 3x3 4x2 8 x4
2x3
- x3 4x2
x3 2x2
20
 ...
JO
B
CH
ES
2x2 8
2x2 -4x

O
4x 8
4x 8

LI
21
st
CO
N

21
GR
ES
S
+2
54
74
86
47
67
9
 x3 . Now
Next, we factorize f1 x x2 2x 4

f1 1 1 1 2 4 0 x 1 is not a factor of f1 x

f1 2 8 4 4 4 0 x 2 is not a factor of f1 x

9
67
f1 1 1 1 2 4 x 1 is a factor of f1 x

47
x2 2x 4

86
x 1 x3 x2 2x 4

74
x3 x2

54
-2x2 2x

+2
2x2 2x
4x 4
S
ES
4x 4
GR

...
By using try and error method, it can be shown that x2 2x 4 no linear factors. Hence x4
N
CO

3x3 4x2 8 x 2 x 1 x2 2x 4
Example 2.5
st
21

Solve the equation x3 7x 6 0.

LI
O

Solution
ES
CH

Let f x x3 7x 6 then, f 1 1 7 6 0 x-
B

1 is not a factor of f x f 2 8 14 6 0 x-
JO

2 is not a factor of f x f 1 1 7 6 0

x +1 is a factor of f x

x2 x 6
x 1 x3 7x 6
x3 x2
22
 x2 7x
x2 x
6x 6
6x 6
... x2 x 6

9
x 3 x 2 .

67
Therefore

47
86
x 1 x 3 x 2 0
x 1, or x 3or x 2.

74
54
+2
Etivity 2.2.2: The Factor Theorem
Numbering 2.2.2
and pacing and S
ES
sequencing
GR

Title The Factor Theorem

N

Purpose To help you to factorize and solve equations involving polynomials of degree
CO

3
Brief summary Watch the video on Factor Theorem by Elroi Academy and solve the given
st

of overall task questions.

21

Spark
LI
O
ES
CH
B

•
JO

Individual Watch the video on Factor Theorem.

contribution • Factorize x3 6x2 11x 6
• Solve the equation 3x3 x2 5x 2 0
Interaction • Post your answers on discussion forum 2.2.2 Read what
begins your colleagues have posted.
• In a sentence or two, comment on what two of your
colleagues have posted keeping netiquette in mind

23
E-moderator • Focussing group discussion
interventions • Encouraging lurkers (quiet ones) to contribute
• Providing feedback/ teaching points
• Closing the discussion
Schedule and This activity should take one hour.
time
Next Permutations

9
2.3 Assessment

67
1. Find the remainder when 2x3 x2 3x 5 is divided by

47
86
a) 2x+1 b) 3x-2

74
2. A cubic polynomial ax3 bx 6 is divisible by x+2. It leaves a remainder -3 when divided
by x-1. Determine the values of a and b and factorize the polynomial completely.

54
+2
2.4 References
1. Backhouse, J. and Houldsworth, S. (1985). Pure Mathematics Book I, Longman Publishers
S
ES
Ltd.
2. Bostock, L., Chandler, S. and Rourke, C. (1982). Further Pure Mathematics. Stanley
GR

Thornes Publishers Ltd.

N

3. Larson, R. and Hostetler, R. (1997). Precalculus, Houghton Company.

CO
st
21
LI
O
ES
CH
B
JO

24
 LESSON THREE
PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS

3.1 Introduction

9
In this lesson we will study Permutations and Combinations. In mathematics, the notion of

67
permutation relates to the act of permuting, or rearranging, members of a set into a particular

47
sequence or order. Permutations occur, in more or less prominent ways, in almost every area of
mathematics. They often arise when different orderings on certain finite sets are considered,

86
possibly only because one wants to ignore such orderings and needs to know how many

74
configurations are thus identified. On the other hand combinations are selections that disregard
order.

54
3.2 Learning Outcomes

+2
By the end of this lesson the learner will be able to:
S
ES
i) Apply permutations in counting ii)
GR

Apply combinations in counting

N
CO

3.2.1 Permutations
[Link] The Fundamental Counting Principle
st

The Fundamental Counting Principle gives the guiding rule for finding the number of ways to
21

accomplish two tasks.

LI
O
ES

Theorem 3.1 [The Fundamental Counting Principle]

CH

If there are m ways to do one thing, and n ways to do another, then there are m n ways of doing
both.
B
JO

Example 3.1
a) Let’s say you want to flip a coin and roll a die. There are 2 ways that you can flip a coin
and 6 ways that you can roll a die. Therefore there are 2 6 12 ways that you can flip a
coin and roll a die.
b) If you want to draw 2 cards from a standard of 52 cards without replacing them, then there
are 52 ways to draw the first and 51 ways to draw the second, so there are a total of 52 51

25
 2652 ways to draw the two cards.
Definition 3.1 (Permutations)

9
67
47
86
74
54
+2
S
ES
GR
N
CO
st
21
LI
O
ES
CH
B
JO

26
A permutation is an arrangement of a number of objects in a particular order.
Example 3.2
In how many ways can letters A, B and C be arranged in three consecutive positions?

Solution

ABC

9
67
ACB

47
BAC
Six permutations

86
BCA

74
CAB

54
+2
2nd 3rd

A B C
S
ES
C B
GR

B A C
N

C A
CO

C A B
st

B A
21

That is
LI

1. If we have ABC, we can choose either A or B or C for the first position. Therefore there are
O

3 distinct ways of filling the first position.

ES

2. Once the first position is filled two letters remain and any of them can be used in the 2 nd
CH

position. For each of the 3 ways of filling the 1st position, we have two ways of filling the
second position.
B
JO

3. The third position can be filled in any of one way.

Therefore total number of arrangements is 3 2 1

6 ways.
Similarly, if there are four objects, then there are

27
 4 3 2 1 24 ways of arranging them and so on
Each of the arrangements in the above example is called a permutation.
Definition 3.2
The number of ways of arranging n distinct objects is

n n 1 n 2 … 3 2 1

9
which is denoted by n! and read as ‘n factorial.’

67
4! 4 3 2 1 24

47
3! 3 2 1 6

86
74
2! 2 1 2

54
1! = 1

+2
By convention 0! = 1, the number of ways of arranging zero objects.

Example 3.3
S
ES
Evaluate
GR

a)b)
N

!
CO

Solution
st

Philipo
21

a) 9! 9 8 7! 9 8 36
2! 7! 2!7! 2
LI
O
ES

b) 6!2 6 5 4 3! 6 5 4 20
(3!) 3!3! 3 2 1
CH

Example 3.4
B
JO

Write 40 39 38 37 in factorial notation. Solution

40 39 38 37 40 39 38 37 36 35 … 3 2 1
36 35 … 3 2 1
!

28
Now, consider a situation where 4 letters are to be filled in two positions. How many arrangements
or permutations are there for 2 objects chosen from 4 objects?

i) There are 4 ways of filling the first position

ii) Once the first position is filled, three letters remain; therefore there are 3 ways of filling the
second position.

Therefore the total number of arrangements of 2 objects chosen from 4 objects will be 4 3

9
67
12 .

47
4! 4!
But 4 3 .

86
2! 4 2 !

74
In the same way,

54
+2
5 4 20 is the number of arrangements of 2 objects chosen from 5 objects.

But 5 4 5! 5! . S
ES
3! 5 2 !
GR

5 4 3 60 is the number of arrangements of three objects chosen from 5 distinct object.

N
CO

5! 5!
But 5 4 3 .
st

2! 5 3 !
21

Definition 3.3
LI
O

The number of arrangements or permutations of r objects chosen from n distinct objects denoted
ES

n!
by nPr is given by nPr ,r n and n is an integer .
CH

n r !
B
JO

Example 3.5
In a lottery a total of a thousand tickets were sold. Determine the winners of the 1st, 2nd, and the 3rd
prizes if three tickets are drawn one after the other?

Solution
This is a permutation of 3 tickets chosen from 1000 tickets. Therefore we have,

29
1000 P3 1000! 1000! 1000 3 !
997!

=
=9.97 108 ways.

Example 3.6

9
67
Five letter words are formed from letters of the word TIEGROUP. How many of these have no
repeated words?

47
86
Solution

74
These are distinct arrangements of 5 letters chosen from 8 letters. Thus we get

54
+2
8 P5 8! 8!
S
ES
8 5 ! 3!
GR

=
=6720.
N
CO

Remark 3.1
In some cases the objects to be arranged may not be distinct as some may be repeated. E.g.
st
21

BOB, BABA, CHOOSE etc.

If we have n objects of which r1 of the first kind are alike, r2 of the second kind are alike, …., rk of
LI
O

the kth kind are alike, then the number of distinct permutations is
ES

n!
CH

.
r1!r2 !…rk !
B
JO

Example 3.7
Determine the number of permutations of letters of the words

a) ARRANGE b) SPEEDOMETERS c) MISSISSIPPI

Solution

i) 7! 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 1260
2!2! 2 1 2 1

30
 ii) 9, 979, 200
!

iii) 34, 650

!

Example 3.8

9
67
How many even numbers, greater than 2000, can be formed with the digits 1, 2, 4, 8 if each digit

47
can be used only once in each number?
Solution

86
If the number is greater than 2000, the first digit can be chosen in 3 ways i.e. 2, 4 and 8. Then

74
whichever has been chosen to be the first digit, there are two ways in which the last digit may be

54
chosen, in order to make the number even. The second digit can be chosen in two ways and this
leaves one integer for the third place.

+2
Therefore there are 3 2 1 2 12 ways.
S
ES
1st 2nd 3rd 4th
GR

3 2 1 2
N

Example 3.9
CO

How many arrangements can be made of the letters chosen from PEAT if the first letter is a vowel
and each arrangement contains three different letters?
st

Solution
21

1st 2nd 3rd

LI

2 3 2
O
ES

Total arrangements 2 3 2 12 .
Etivity 3.2.1: Permutations
CH

Numbering and 3.2.1

pacing and
B

sequencing
JO

Title Permutations
Purpose To help you solve counting problems using permutations.
Brief summary of Watch the video on Permutations by OCL Phase 2 and solve the given
overall task questions.

31
Spark

9
Individual Watch the video on permutations.

67
contribution • Answer the following questions;

47
1. Express 12 11 10 9 in factorial notation.
2. How many 4 letters words can be formed using letters of the

86
word BROWSER?

74
3. In how many ways can five different books be arranged on a
shelf?

54
4. In how many ways can eight people be seated at a round table?

+2
Interaction begins • Post your answers on discussion forum 3.2.1 Read
what your colleagues have posted.
S
ES
• In a sentence or two, comment on what two of your
colleagues have posted keeping netiquette in mind
GR

E-moderator • Focussing group discussion

N

interventions • Encouraging lurkers (quiet ones) to contribute

CO

• Providing feedback/ teaching points

• Closing the discussion
st

Schedule and time This activity should take one hour.

21

Next Combinations
LI

3.2.2 Combinations
O

In permutations, the order in which objects are chosen is important. In some cases, the order of
ES

selection is irrelevant. When the selection of objects is made with no regard being paid to order, it
CH

is referred to as a combination.

Thus ABC, ACB, CBA are different permutations but they are the same combinations of letters.
B
JO

Example 3.10
How many committees of three persons can be made of five persons namely; Anderson, Beatrice,
Charles, Duncan and Eunice?

Solution
Let A Andrew ABC BCD CDE
B Beatrice ABD BCE
C Charles ABE BDE

32
 D Duncan ACD

E Eunice ACE
ADE
Therefore there are 10 different committees or combinations of 3 persons chosen from five.
However there are 5P3 60 distinct permutations of 3 letters chosen from the letters of the word

9
ABCDE. Thus one combination of three letters can be rearranged to give 3! 6 permutations.

67
Definition 3.4

47
In general, the number of combinations of r objects chosen from n distinct objects is given by

86
n r
n n! P

74
n n

54
Cr or r r! n r ! or Cr
r!

+2
In the previous example, the number of combinations of 3 persons chosen from 5 is
S
ES
5 5 5!
GR

C3 or 3 3! 5 3 !
N
CO

=
st

= =10
21
LI

Example 3.11
O
ES

Five policemen are to be selected for duty from a force of 20. In how many ways can this be done?
CH

Solution
B

C5 20!
JO

20

5! 20 5 !

=
!
= 15, 504.

33
Example 3.12
A mixed hockey team containing 5 men and 1 women is to be chosen from 7 men and 9 women.
In how many ways can this be done?

Solution

5 men can be chosen from 7 men in 7 C5 ways and 6 women can be chosen from 9 women in 9 C6

9
ways. Therefore by the Fundamental Counting Principle, the total number of ways of selecting the

67
team is

47
9 7! 9!

86
7 C5 C6

74
5! 7 5 !6! 9 6 !

54
=

+2
=21 84
=1764
S
ES
Example3.13
GR

A girl wants to invite 8 friends but there is only room for 4 of them. In how many ways can she
N

chose whom to invite if two of them are sisters and must not be separated?
CO

Solution
st

Consider two cases

21

i) When both sisters are invited ii)

LI

When both sisters are not invited

O

From i), if the two sisters are to be invited, we select 2 out of 6 in

ES

From ii), if the two sisters are not invited, we select 4 out of 6 in
CH

6!
B

6
C4 15 ways.
JO

4!2!

1 6!
C2 15 ways.
2!4!
34
Therefore the total number of ways is 15

+15 = 30.

E-tivity 3.2.2: Combinations

9
Numbering 3.2.2

67
and pacing
and

47
sequencing

86
Title Combinations

74
Purpose To help you to count using combinations.

54
Brief summary Watch the video on Combinations by OCL Phase 2 and answer the given
of overall task questions.

+2
Spark
S
ES
GR
N
CO
st

Individual • Watch the video on combinations.

21

contribution • Answer the following questions;

1. A committee of ten is to be formed from 9 men and 6 women. In how
LI

many ways can the members be chosen if at least 4 women are to be

O

in the committee?
ES

2. How many different hands of five cards can be dealt from a suit of 13
cards?
CH

Interaction • Post your answers on discussion forum 3.2.2 Read what

B

begins your colleagues have posted.

JO

• In a sentence or two, comment on what two of your

colleagues have posted keeping netiquette in mind

E-moderator Focussing group discussion

interventions • Encouraging lurkers (quiet ones) to contribute
• Providing feedback/ teaching points
• Closing the discussion
Schedule and This activity should take one hour.
time
35
Next Binomial Theorem for a positive integer

3.3 Assessment

1. Simplify
!!

2. How many odd numbers, greater than 500, 000 can be made from the digits 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7

9
67
a) Without repetition b) with repetition allowed?

47
3. A committee of six is to be formed from 9 women and 3 men. In how many ways can the
members be chosen so as to include at most 2 men?

86
74
54
3.4 References

+2
1. Backhouse, J. and Houldsworth, S. (1985). Pure Mathematics Book I, Longman Publishers
Ltd.
S
ES
2. Bostock, L., Chandler, S. and Rourke, C. (1982). Further Pure Mathematics. Stanley
Thornes Publishers Ltd.
GR

4. Larson, R. and Hostetler, R. (1997). Precalculus, Houghton Company.

N
CO
st
21
LI

LECTURE FOUR
O

BINOMIAL THEOREM AND ITS APPLICATIONS

ES

4.1 Introduction
CH

In this lesson we will study the Binomial Theorem and its applications. The Binomial Theorem
B

describes the algebraic expansion of powers of a binomial without actually multiplying out.
JO

4.2 Learning Outcomes

By the end of this lesson the learner will be able to:

i) State and apply the Binomial Theorem for a positive integer. ii)

. State and apply the Binomial Theorem for any index.

36
4.2.1 Binomial Theorem for a positive integer

[Link] Expansion using the Pascal’s Triangle

Definition 4.1
A binomial is a sum or a difference of two terms. E.g.

x +y, 2x + 3y are binomials.

9
Consider the following expansions;

67
47
a b 0 1

86
1
a b a b

74
54
2
` a b a2 2ab b2

+2
3
a b a3 3a2b 3ab2 b3

a b 4
a4 4a3b 6a2b2 4ab3 b4 S
ES
Writing the coefficients in a triangular array gives;
GR

1
N

1 1
CO

1 2 1
st

1 3 3 1
21

1 4 6 4 1

This triangular array is called the Pascal’s Triangle (up to degree 4). The entries of any row in the
LI

Pascal’s triangle can be obtained from the row immediately above it by simply adding consecutive
O

entries of the latter row.

ES

Example 4.1
CH

3
Expand 2x 3y in descending powers of x.
B
JO

Solution
This is a binomial of degree 3. Thus from the Pascal’s triangle the coefficients are
1, 3, 3, 1

Therefore letting a 2x and b 3y we have,

37
 3 3 2 2 3
2x 3y 2x 3 2x 3y 3 2x 3y 3y
=8x3 36x2 y 54xy2 27y3

Example 4.2

9
1
Obtain the expansion of 2x 2 4 , in descending powers of x.

67
47
86
Solution

74
This is a binomial of degree 4. Thus from the Pascal’s triangle the coefficients are

54
1, 4, 6, 4, 1

+2
Therefore letting a 2x and b 12 we have,
S
ES
GR

2x 1 4 2x 4 4 2x 3 12 6 2x 2 12 2 4 2x
N

12 3 12 4
CO

2
st

1 1 1
21

=16x4 4 8x3 2 6 4x2 4 4 2x 8 16

1
LI
O
ES

=16x4 16x3 6x2 x .

CH

[Link] Binomial Theorem

B
JO

3
Consider the binomial a b of degree 3. Expanding we get

a3 3a2b 3ab2 b3 .

Observe that the coefficients in this expansion can also be obtained as follows;

3 3 3 3
1 0 , 3 1 , 3 2 , 1 3 .
In general, we have
38
Theorem 4.1 (The Binomial Theorem)
If n is a positive integer,

a b n n0 an 1n an 1b n2 an 2b 2 … nn bn , where

9
n n!

67
47
r r! n r !.

86
Example 4.3

74
Find the coefficient of x10 in the expansion of 2x 3 14
.

54
+2
Solution

S
ES
2x 3 14 140 2x 14 141 2x 13 3 … 144 2x 10
GR

3 4 …
N
CO

Therefore the coefficient of x10 is

st

14 10 4
21

4 2 3 83, 026, 944 .

LI
O
ES

Example 4.4
CH
B

Obtain the first four terms of the expansion of 1 12 x 10 in ascending powers of x. Hence
JO

10
find the value of 1.005 correct to four decimal places.

Solution

1 1x 10
100 110 101 19
2
39103 17 12 x 3
…
 12 x
JO
B
CH
102

ES
O
18

LI
21
12 x

st
CO
N

40
GR
ES
S
+2
54
74
86
47
67
9
 2

1 5x x2 15x3 …
6.1
Since

9
67
10 10 1 10
1.005 1 .005 and comparing with 1 x we get

47
2
12 x 0.005

86
74
x 2 0.005 0.01

54
1

+2
Substituting this value of x in equation 6. we obtain

S
ES
1.005 10 1 5 0.01 0.01 2 15 0.01 3 …
GR

=1+0.05+0.001125+0.000015+…
N

=1.0511 (4 dp)
CO

Example 4.5
st
21

Obtain the expansion of 1 x 2x2 8 as far as the term in x3.

LI

Solution
O
ES

1 x 2x2 8
x 2x2
CH

1 8
B

2 2 2 2
8 8 8 3
JO

=1+ 1 x 2x 2 x 2x 3 x 2x …

=1+8 x 2x2 28 x2 4x3 … 56 x3 … …

=1 8x-16x2 28x2 112x3 56x3 …

=1 8x 12x2 56x3 …

41
Etivity 4.2.1: Binomial Theorem for a positive integer
Numbering and pacing and 4.2.1
sequencing
Title Binomial Theorem for a positive integer

Purpose To you to carry out expansion using Binomial Theorem for

a positive integer

9
Brief summary of overall task Watch the video on Binomial Theorem General term by

67
Manoj Singh and answer the given questions.

47
Spark

86
74
54
•

+2
Individual contribution Watch the video on Binomial Theorem General
Term
•
S
Answer the following questions;
ES
1. Write the coefficients of the terms
GR

indicated in the expansions of the

following
N
CO

a) 2x 3 6
, 6th term

b) x 2 20 , 20th term
st

2. Use Binomial Theorem to find the value

21

of
LI

10 10
1.01 , 3 dp b) 2.001 , 6 sigf
O
ES
CH

Interaction begins • Post your answers on discussion forum 4.2.1

Read what your colleagues have posted.
B

• In a sentence or two, comment on what two of

JO

your colleagues have posted keeping netiquette

in mind

E-moderator interventions • Focussing group discussion

• Encouraging lurkers (quiet ones) to contribute
• Providing feedback/ teaching points
• Closing the discussion
Schedule and time This activity should take one hour.

42
Next Binomial Theorem for any index

4.2.2 Binomial Theorem for any Index

Theorem 4.2
For any rational number n, the binomial theorem is given by

9
1 x n 1 nx n n 1 x2 n n 1 n 2 x3 …,

67
2! 3!

47
provided 1 x 1 ie x 1.

86
74
Example 4.6

54
1 3

Expand in ascending powers of x as far as the term in x .

+2
1 x
Solution S
ES
GR

1 1
1 x n -1
N

1 x
CO

Therefore
st
21

1 2 1 2 3
1 x 1 1 1 x 2! x 2 3! x
LI
O

3 …
ES

=1 x x2 x3 , provided x 1.
CH

Example 4.7
B
JO

Obtain the first five terms of the expansion 1 2x in ascending powers of x. State the values of
x for which the expansion is valid.

Solution

1 2x 1 2x 12
,n 12
43
 JO Therefore
B
CH
ES
O
LI
21
st
CO
N

44
GR
ES
S
+2
54
74
86
47
67
9
 1 12 1 1 3
2
1 2x 12 1 12 2x 2! 2x 2 2 3!2 2 2x 3

12 12 32 52
4! 2x 4 …

9
67
47
=1 x 12 x2 12 x3 58 x4 …

86
74
The expansion is valid for 1 2x 1 ie x 12.

54
Example 4.8

+2
1 3

S
Expand 2 in ascending powers of x as far as the term in x and state the values of x for 2 x
ES
which the expansion is valid.
GR

Solution
N

2
CO

2 1x 2 2 x 2 2 1
2x
st
21
LI

2 2 1 2x 2
O
ES
CH

3
x 2
2 3 4
B

2
= 14 1 2 2 2! 2x + 3! 2x +
3
JO

= 14 1 x 34 x2 12 x3 …

= 14 14 x 316 x2 18 x3 …

For the expansion to be valid,

45
 1 12 x 1 ie x 2.

Example 4.9

1 2x 3

Expandup to the term including x . 1 x

Solution

9
67
47
1 2x 1 2x 12 1 x 1

86
1 x
Now,

74
54
1 1 1 1 3

+2
2 2 2 2
1 2x 12 1 12 2x 2 2! 2x 2
3 ! 2x 3 …
S
ES
1 x 12 x2 12 x3 …
GR
N

and
CO

1 x 1
1 ( 1)( x) ( x) 2 ( x) 3 …
st

=1 x x2 x3
21

Therefore
LI
O
ES

11 2xx
1 x 1 x2 12 x3 … 1 x x2 x3
CH

2
B
JO

= 1 x x2 x3 x x2 x3 12x2 12x3

12 x3 … …
=1 2x+ 32 x2 2x3 …

46
Example 4.10

12
Find the first four terms in the expansion of 1 8x in descending powers of x. Substitute

x and obtain the value of 23 correct to five significant figures.

Solution

9
67
47
12 12 12 12 32
12 ( 8x) 2 ( 8x) 3 …

86
1 8x 1 12( 8x) 2! 3!

74
54
=1 4x 8x2 32x3

+2
Substituting x with we have,
S
ES
GR

1 8 12 10092 12 23100 4 12 1004 12 23 12

N

100 2
CO

10
= 23
st
21

Also
1
LI
O

1 1008 2 1 4(0.01) 8(0.01) 2 32(0.01) 3

ES
CH

=1 0.04 0.0008 0.000032

=0.959168
B
JO

2 23 0.959168
10
23 0.959168 10 4.79584
2
4.7958.
Etivity 4.2.2: Binomial Theorem for any index

47
Numbering and pacing and 4.2.2
sequencing
Title Binomial Theorem for any index
Purpose To enable you to carry out binomial expansion for any
index.
Brief summary of overall task Watch the video on Binomial Theorem for any index by
Doubtnut and answer the given questions.

9
67
Spark

47
86
74
Individual contribution • Watch the video on Binomial Theorem for any

54
index
• Answer the following questions;

+2
Expand the following in ascending powers of x as
S
far as the term in x3
ES
1
GR

1
3 1 x
b)
a) 1 2 x 2 x c)
N

1 x
CO

Interaction begins • Post your answers on discussion forum 4.2.2

Read what your colleagues have posted.
st

• In a sentence or two, comment on what two of

21

your colleagues have posted keeping netiquette

in mind
LI

E-moderator interventions • Focussing group discussion

O

• Encouraging lurkers (quiet ones) to contribute

ES

• Providing feedback/ teaching points

CH

• Closing the discussion

Schedule and time This activity should take one hour.
B

Next Introduction to set theory

JO

4.3 Assessment

1. Expand 1 2x x2 6
as far as the terms in x3 .

12
2. Obtain the first four terms of the expansion of 1 8x in ascending powers of x.

Putting x obtain the value of 3 correct to five decimal places.

48
 3. Show that if x is small enough for its cube and higher powers to be neglected,

1 x x2
1 x .
1 x 2

9
4.4 References

67
1. Backhouse, J. and Houldsworth, S. (1985). Pure Mathematics Book I, Longman Publishers

47
Ltd.

86
2. Bostock, L., Chandler, S. and Rourke, C. (1982). Further Pure Mathematics. Stanley

74
Thornes Publishers Ltd.

54
3. Larson, R. and Hostetler, R. (1997). Precalculus, Houghton Company.

+2
S
ES
GR
N
CO
st
21
LI
O
ES
CH
B
JO

49
LECTURE FIVE

SET THEORY
5.1 Introduction

In this lesson we introduce sets theory, Venn diagrams and applications to counting. The concept
of set is fundamental to mathematics and computer science. Everything mathematical starts with
sets. For example, relationships between two objects are represented as a set of ordered pairs of

9
objects, the natural numbers, which are the basis of other numbers, are also defined using sets,

67
graphs and digraphs consisting of lines and points are described as an ordered pair of sets and so

47
on.

86
5.2 Learning Outcomes

74
By the end of this lesson the learner will be able to:

54
i) Discuss basic concepts in set theory ii)

+2
Perform set operations iii) Simplify set
expressions using set laws iv) Apply set
theory to counting. S
ES
GR

5.2.1 Introduction to Sets

N

Definition 5.1
CO

A set is a well-defined list or collection of objects. The different objects that form a set are called
st

members or elements of the set. The members making up a set are enclosed in braces (curly
21

brackets) i.e. { }. We usually denote sets by capital letters. For example A 1,10, 5, 3 is a set
having four members.
LI

A set is finite or infinite according to whether it has a finite or infinite number of members. For
O

example
ES
CH

i) A a, b, c, d is a finite set. ii)

B

N 1, 2, 3,… is an infinite set.

JO

There are two ways of describing a set;

i) By listing down all of its members.

ii) By stating the properties characterizing each one of the members.
For example

a) A a, b, c, d, e, f denotes a set A whose members are a, b, c, d, e and f.

b) B x: x 0 and x is an integer . Then the members of B are 1, 2, 3, …

50
 c) E x x2 3x 2 0 and x is a real number . Then the members of E are all real

numbers satisfying the equation x2 3x 2 0 , that is E 1,2 .

Null or Empty Set

It is a set with no members and it is denoted by or { }.

9
Example 5.1

67
47
a) The set x x2 1 0 and x is a real number is empty for x2 1 0 has no real solution.

86
74
b) The set x: x is an even integer lying between 10 and 11, 10 not included is empty.

54
Membership of a Set

+2
The symbol means is a ‘member of’ or ‘belong to’.

S
ES
Thus if A 1, 5, 6, 7 , then 1 A .
GR

d
N

The symbol means ‘is not a member of’ or ‘doesn’t belong to’. Thus if B b, e, then
CO

a, ,
x B.
st

Equality of Sets
21

Two sets A and B are said to be equal, written A B , if they have exactly the same members.
LI
O

Remark 5.1
ES

The order in which members of a set are listed down is immaterial.

CH

For example
B
JO

A a, b, c, d, e, f and B f , d, e, a, c, b are equal.

Remark 5.2
It is not allowed to repeat a member of a set more than once.

Thus if A a, b, a, d, e, e, f and B a, b, d, e, f , then A B.

51
Cardinality of a set

The cardinality or the order of a set A is the number of elements in A. It is denoted by n A or

A . For example if B 3, 7,8, 9,11 , then n B 5.

Subsets

9
If every member of a set A is also a member of a set B, then A is said to be a subset of B or A is

67
contained in B. If A is contained in B, we denote this by A B . If A is a subset of B, then B is called

47
a superset of A. The notation A B means A is contained in B but A B . In this case, A is called

86
a proper subset of B. Furthermore the symbol A B means A is not contained in B, thus we can
find x A but x B .

74
Example 5.2

54
+2
Find all the subsets of A 1,2,3 .
Solution S
ES
GR

a) b) {1} c) {2} d) {3} e) {1, 2} f) {1, 3} g) {2, 3} h) A {1, 2, 3}

Remark 5.3
N
CO

The empty set is a subset of any other set since it has no members. The subsets a) to g) are proper
subsets of A.
st
21

If A contains an element which is not in B, the A cannot be a subset of B. We denote this by A B

.
LI
O
ES

Example 5.3
CH

If A 1, 2, 4, 5 and B 4, 5, 7,8 , then A B since 1, 2 A but 1, 2 B.

B
JO

If n A m, then the number N of all subsets of A is N 2m .

Example 5.4

If n A 3, then the number of all subsets of A is 23 8.

Equality of Sets
A set A is said to be equal to B written A B if A B and B A . Therefore in order to prove that
A B we need to show that x A x B and x B x A.
52
Universal Set
If we have some sets under consideration, a fixed set which contains all these subsets is called the
universal set and it is denoted by U.

Example 5.5

Let A 1, 2, 3, 4 and B 7, 9 and C 10,12,13 Then we can take the universal

5, .

9
67
set to be either

47
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,8, 9,10,11,12,13 , 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,8, 9,10,11,12,13,14,15 ,N 1,

86
2, 3,... or Z ..., 2, 1, 0,1, 2,... .

74
54
E-tivity 5.2.1: Introduction to sets

+2
5.2.1 S
ES
Numbering and pacing and
sequencing
GR

Title Introduction to sets

N

Purpose To expose you to various basic concepts in set theory so

CO

that you can be able to perform set operations.

st

Brief summary of overall task Watch the video on introduction to set theory Jeff
21

Suzuki and then

Discuss the basic concepts in set theory
LI

Spark
O
ES
CH
B
JO

Individual contribution • Watch the video on introduction to set theory

• Reflect on the ways set theory can be applied in
real life
• Explain the basic concepts in set theory

53
Interaction begins • Post your answers on the discussion forum
5.2.1 Read what your colleagues have posted.
• In a sentence or two, comment on what two of
your colleagues have posted keeping netiquette
in mind

E-moderator interventions •
Focussing group discussion
•
Encouraging lurkers (quiet ones) to

9
contribute

67
• Providing feedback/ teaching points

47
• Summarising key points
• Closing the discussion

86
Schedule and time This activity should take 1 hour

74
Next Venn diagrams and set operations

54
5.2.2 Venn Diagrams and Set Operations

+2
[Link] Venn Diagrams

S
Set and set problems may be represented by diagrams called Venn diagrams. The universal set is
ES
represented by a rectangle while subsets of the universal set are represented by circles or discs
GR

lying inside the rectangle as illustrated below;

N
CO

U
st
21

A
LI
O
ES
CH
B
JO

Complement of a set

If U is the universal set and A is a subset of U, then all elements of U which do not belong to A
form the complement of A. The complement of A is denoted by Ac . Thus Ac x: x U and
x A .
Diagrammatically,

54
 U

A
Ac

9
67
47
86
74
Shaded area represents Ac .

54
Example 5.6

+2
Let U 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and A 1, 3, 5 .
S
ES
GR

Then Ac 2, 4, 6 .
N
CO

[Link] Set Operations

st

We consider the following set operations;

21

Intersection
LI

Let A and B be two sets. Then the set of elements which are common to both A and B is called the
O

intersection of A and B, denoted by A B .

ES

Thus
CH
B

A B x: x A and x B .
JO

Diagrammatically,

55
 U

A
B

9
67
47
86
74
The shaded region represents A B .

54
Examples 5.7

+2
If A 1, 3, 5, 7, 9 and B 7, 9,11
S
, find A B .
ES
Solution
GR
N

A B 7, 9
CO

If A and B have no elements in common i.e. A B , then A and B are said to be disjoint.
st
21

Diagrammatically,
LI
O

U
ES
CH

A B
B
JO

Example 5.8

If A 1, 3, 5, 7 and B 4, 6,8 , then A and B are disjoint since A

Union

56
 2, B .

The union of two sets A and B is the set of all elements contained in A or B. The union of two sets
A and B is denoted by A B (read A union B). Therefore

9
67
47
86
74
54
+2
S
ES
GR
N
CO
st
21
LI
O
ES
CH
B
JO

57
A B x x A or x B .
Diagrammatically,

9
67
47
A B

86
74
54
+2
Shade area represents A B .
S
ES
Difference of Two Sets
GR

The relative complement of a set B with respect to a set A, or simply the difference of A and B
N

denoted by A\ B (or A B ) is the set of elements which belong to A but do not belong to B.
CO

Therefore
st
21

A\ B A B x x A, x B .
Diagrammatically,
LI
O

U
ES
CH

A B
B
JO

Shaded area is A\ B .

58
Example 5.9

Let A 1, 2, 3, 4 and B 3, 4, 6 . Then

a) A\ B 1, 2 and b) B \ A 6

9
67
U

47
86
A B

74
54
+2
S
ES
GR

Shaded area is A\ B .
N

Example 5.9
CO

Let A 1, 2, 3, 4 and B 3, 4, 6 . Then

st
21

a) A\ B 1, 2 and b) B \ A 6
LI

E-tivity 5.2.2: Venn diagrams and set operations

O
ES

Numbering and pacing and 5.2.2

CH

sequencing
Title Venn diagrams and set operations
B

Purpose To expose you to various set operations and pictorial

JO

representation of sets.

Brief summary of overall task Watch the video on Set and set operations by GVSU
Math and solve problems involving set operations.

59
Spark Venn diagram involving three sets

9
67
47
86
74
•

54
Individual contribution Watch the video on set and set operations
• Answer the question;

+2
Let A 1, 2, 3, 4 and B 3, 4, 5
S
ES
Find (i) A B (ii) A B (iii) A B (iv)
GR

B A
N

Interaction begins • Post your answers on the discussion forum

CO

5.2.2 Read what your colleagues have posted.

• In a sentence or two, comment on what two of
st

your colleagues have posted keeping netiquette

21

in mind
LI

E-moderator interventions • Focussing group discussion

•
O

Encouraging lurkers (quiet ones) to

contribute
ES

• Providing feedback/ teaching points

CH

• Summarising key points

• Closing the discussion
B
JO

Schedule and time This activity should take 1 hour

Next Algebra of sets

5.2.3 Algebra of sets

Theorem 5.1 (Set Laws)
Let A, B and C be sets. Then

60
 1. A A A A A A Idempotent Law

2. A B C A B C A B C A B C Associative
Law

3. A B B A A B B A Commutative Law

9
67
4. a)A B C A B A C

47
b) A B C A B A C Distributive Law

86
5. a)A A

74
54
b) A U A

+2
c) A U U Identity Laws

d) A
S
ES
GR

6. Ac c A Involution Law
N
CO

7. a)A Ac U

Complement Laws
st

b) A Ac
21

c)
LI

Uc
O

d) c
U
ES
CH

8. a) A B c
Ac Bc De Morgan’s Laws
B

b) A B c Ac Bc
JO

Remark 5.4
To prove equations involving set operations we use definition of equality of two sets. The
alternative method of proof involves use of a Venn diagram.

Example 5.10
We prove the first of the De Morgan’s Laws.

61
Proof Method 1

We first show that A B c Ac Bc . If x A B c , then x A B . Thus x A and x B ,

so that x Ac and x Bc . Hence x Ac Bc .

9
Next we show that Ac Bc A B c
. Let x Ac Bc , then x Ac and x Bc , so x A and x B .

67
Hence x A B , so x A B c . Together, these inclusions

47
86
prove that A B c Ac Bc .

74
Method 2

54
+2
S
ES
GR
N
CO
st
21
LI
O
ES
CH
B
JO

62
 Figure III

9
67
A B

47
86
74
54
+2
Ac Bc shaded S
ES
GR

c
Since the shaded region in Figures I and III are identical then, A B Ac Bc.
N

Example 5.11
CO

Use set algebra to simplify

st
21

a) A Ac B
LI

A B A Bc
O

b)
ES

Solution
CH

a) A Ac B A Ac A B
B
JO

U A B
A B.

b) A B A Bc A B Bc
A U
A.
E-tivity 5.2.3: Algebra of sets
63
Numbering and Pacing and 5.2.3
Sequencing
Title Algebra of sets

Purpose To expose you to algebra of sets so that you can be able

to simplify set expressions.

Brief summary of overall task Watch the video Laws of set theory by Mouna Naravani and

9
then simplify set expressions.

67
Spark

47
86
74
54
+2
S
ES
Individual contribution Watch the video on Laws of set theory
GR

Simplify the following set operations;

N

a) A Ac B
CO

b) S T Sc T S Tc
st

Interaction begins • Post your answers on the discussion forum

21

5.2.3 Read what your colleagues have posted.

• In a sentence or two, comment on what two of
LI

your colleagues have posted keeping netiquette

O

in mind
ES

•
CH

E-moderator interventions Focussing group discussion

•
Encouraging lurkers (quiet ones) to
contribute
B

• Providing feedback/ teaching points

JO

• Summarising key points

• Closing the discussion
Schedule and time This activity should take one hour

Next Applications of set theory to counting

5.2.4 Applications of Set Theory to Counting A set is finite or infinite according to whether it
has a finite or infinite number of elements.
For example
64
 a) A a,b,c is finite since n A 3 .

b) N 1,2,3,... is an infinite set.

Lemma 5.2

If A and B are disjoint finite sets, then A B is finite and n A B

9
n A n B .

67
Proof

47
86
n A
In counting elements of A B , first count those that are in A. There are of these. The only

74
other elements of A B are those that are in B but not in A. But since A and B are disjoint, no

54
n B
elements of B is in A, so there are elements that are in B and not in A. Therefore

+2
n A B n A n B . S
ES
Theorem 5.3 [Inclusion-Exclusion Principle]
GR

Let A and B be any finite sets, then A B is finite and n A B

N
CO

n A n B n A B .
st

Proof
21

n A n B
This follows from the fact that when we add and , we have counted the elements
LI
O

of A B twice.
ES
CH

This Principle holds for any number of sets.

For three sets we have

B
JO

Theorem 5.4
For any finite sets A, B, C we have

n A B C n A n B n A n A B n A C n B C n A B C .
Example 5.12
Among 50 students in a class, 26 got an A in the first examination and 21 got an A in the second
examination. If 17 students did not get an A in either examination, how many students got A in
both the examinations?
65
COURTESY OF SANDRAH [Link] SCHOOL OF
EDUCATION. 0793394796
Solution

Let P be the set of students who scored A in the first exam, then P 26
Let Q be the set of students who scored A in the second exam, then P 21
Also

9
U 50 and P Q c 17 . Therefore

67
P Q 50 17 33 .

47
But

86
P Q P Q P Q

74
and so

54
33 26 21 P Q

+2
P Q 26 21 33 14
S
ES
Hence 14 Students scored an A in both exams.
GR

Example 5.13
N

In a survey of 60 people, it was found that

CO

25 people read the Newsweek magazine

st

26 read Time
21

26 read Fortune
LI
O

9 read both Newsweek and Fortune

ES

11 read both Newsweek and Time

CH

8 read both Time and Fortune

B

3 read all the three magazine

JO

a) Find the number of people who read at least one of the three magazines.

b) Fill in the correct number of people in a Venn diagram.

c) Find the number of people who read exactly one magazine.

66
COURTESY OF SANDRAH [Link] SCHOOL OF
EDUCATION. 0793394796
Solution

a) We need to find n N T F . Now n N T F n N n T n F n N

T n N F n T F n N T F

25 26 26 11 9 8 3 52

9
67
b) The required Venn diagram is obtained as follows;

47
3 read all the three magazines

86
11-3 = 8 read Newsweek and Time but not all the three magazines

74
9-3 = 6 read Newsweek and Fortune but not all the three magazines

54
8-3 = 5 read Time and Fortune but not all the three magazines

+2
25-8-6-3 = 8 read only Newsweek
S
ES
26-8-5-3 = 10 read only Time
GR

26-6-5-3 = 12 read only Fortune

N

60-52 = 8 read no magazine at all

CO

N
st
21

8
LI
O

8
ES

6
CH

3 T
B

12 5 10
JO

67
COURTESY OF SANDRAH [Link] SCHOOL OF
EDUCATION. 0793394796
c) 8+10+12 = 30 read only one magazine.

E-tivity 5.2.4: Applications of set theory to counting

Numbering, pacing and sequencing 5.2.4

9
Title Applications of set theory to counting

67
Purpose To expose you to applications of set theory to counting so

47
that you can be able to solve real life problems.

86
Brief summary of overall task Watch videos on Applications of set theory Part 1 and

74
Applications of set theory Part 3 by Integrity Gurukul

54
and then solve counting problems.

+2
Spark Applications

S
ES
GR
N
CO

of set theory
Individual contribution • Watch videos on applications of set theory part 1
st

and 3
21

• Answer the question;

There are 30 students in a class. Among them, 8
LI

students are learning both English and French. A

O

total of 18 students are learning English. If every

ES

student is learning at least one language, how

CH

many students are learning French in total?

Interaction begins • Post your answers on the discussion forum 5.2.4
B

Read what your colleagues have posted.

JO

• In a sentence or two, comment on what two of

your colleagues have posted keeping netiquette in
mind
E-moderator interventions • Focussing group discussion
• Encouraging lurkers (quiet ones) to contribute
• Providing feedback/ teaching points
• Summarising key points
• Closing the discussion
Schedule and time This activity should take 1 hour

68
COURTESY OF SANDRAH [Link] SCHOOL OF
EDUCATION. 0793394796
Next Logic

5.3 Assessment
1. In a class of 80 students, 50 students know English, 55 know French and 46 know
German language. 37 students know English and French, 28 students know French
and Germany, 25 students know English and Germany and 7 students know none of the
languages. Find out

9
a) How many students know all the three languages?

67
47
b) How many students know exactly 2 languages?

86
c) How many know only one language?

74
2. Prove the following identities

54
i) A Bc Ac B A B

+2
A B . ii)
S
ES
A B C A B A C
GR
N

5.4 References
CO

1. Goldstein, L., Schneider, D. and Siegel, M., Finite Mathematics and its applications, 7th
st

Ed., Prentice Hall, 1998.

21

2. Grimaldi, R.P., Discrete and Combinatorial Mathematics. An applied introduction, 5th Ed.,
Pearson Addison Wesley, 2004.
LI

3. Edgar, G., Goodaire, M., Parmenter, M., Discrete Mathematics with graph theory, 2nd Ed.,
O

2002.
ES

4. Seymour Lipschutz and Marc Lipson. Schaum’s Outline Serires Discrete Mathematics, 3rd
edition, McGraw-Hill Companies,Inc., 2007.
CH

[Link]
LECTURE SIX
B
JO

LOGIC
6.1 Introduction

In this lesson we will study Logic and logical operations. Logic is a language for reasoning. It is a
collection of rules we use when doing logical reasoning. Human reasoning has been observed over
centuries from at least the times of Greeks, and patterns appearing in reasoning have been
extracted, abstracted, and streamlined. In logic we are interested in true or false of statements, and
how the truth/falsehood of a statement can be determined from other statements. However, instead
of dealing with individual specific statements, we are going to use symbols to represent arbitrary
69
COURTESY OF SANDRAH [Link] SCHOOL OF
EDUCATION. 0793394796
statements so that the results can be used in many similar but different cases. The formalization
also promotes the clarity of thought and eliminates mistakes.

6.2 Learning Outcomes

By the end of this lesson the learner will be able to:

i) Explain what is meant by a proposition. ii) Perform logical

operations on propositions iii) Construct truth tables for propositions

9
67
iv) Determine truth values of conditional and biconditional statements.

47
6.2.1 Introduction to Propositions

86
Many proofs in Mathematics and many algorithms in Computer Science use logical expressions of

74
the form

54
‘IF p THEN q ’ or ‘1F p1 AND p2 , THEN q1 OR q2 ’ .

+2
It is necessary to know the cases in which these expressions are either TRUE or FALSE; what we
refer to as the truth values of such expression. S
ES
Definition 6.1
GR

A proposition (or a statement) is a declarative sentence which is either true or false but not both.
N

Consider the following eight sentences;

CO

a) Paris is in France b) 1+1 = 2

st

c) 2+2 =3 d) London is in Denmark

21

e) 9<6 f) x = 2 is a solution of x2 4
LI

g) Where are you going? h) Do your homework

O
ES

All are propositions except g) and h). Moreover a), b) and f) are true whereas c), d) and e) are false.
CH

[Link] Compound propositions

A logical connective is a symbol or word used to connect two or more propositions in a
B

grammatically valid way, such that the sense of the resulting proposition (called compound
JO

proposition) depends only on the original proposition. A proposition which cannot be broken down
into simpler propositions is called a primitive proposition.

Example 6.1
a) Roses are red and violets are blue is a compound proposition with sub propositions ‘Roses
are red’ and ‘Violets are blue.’

b) John is intelligent or studies every night is a compound proposition with sub propositions
‘John is intelligent’ and ‘John studies every night.’

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E-tivity 6.2.1: Introduction to Propositions

Numbering and 6.2.1

pacing and
sequencing
Title Introduction to Propositions

9
Purpose To introduce you to propositional logic

67
Brief summary Watch the video on Introduction to propositional logic by Digiimento and

47
of overall task answer the given questions.

86
Spark

74
54
+2
S
ES
GR
N

Individual
• Watch the video on introduction to propositional logic
CO

contribution
• Explain in your words giving examples the concepts of proposition
and compound proposition
st
21

Interaction • Post your answers on discussion forum 6.2.1 Read what

begins your colleagues have posted.
LI

• In a sentence or two, comment on what two of your

O

colleagues have
ES

posted keeping netiquette in mind

CH

E-moderator • Focussing group discussion

interventions • Encouraging lurkers (quiet ones) to contribute
B

• Providing feedback/ teaching points

JO

• Closing the discussion

Schedule and This activity should take one hour.
time
Next Basic Logical Operations
6.2.2 Basic Logical Operations

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Conjunction p q

Any two propositions p and q can be combined by the word ‘and’ denoted to form a
compound proposition called conjunction of the original propositions. Symbolically this is
written p q,

and is read ‘p and q’. Since p q is a proposition, it has truth values that depend only on truth
values of p and q.

9
67
Definition 6.3

47
If p and q are true, then p q is true; otherwise p q is false.

86
The truth values of p q may be defined equivalently by the following table:

74
p q

54
p q p q

+2
T T T
S
ES
T F F
GR

F T F
F F F
N
CO

The four lines correspond to the four possible combinations of T and F for sub propositions p and
q.
st

Example 6.2
21

Consider the following statements

LI

i) Paris is in France and 2+2 = 4 ii)

O
ES

Paris is in France and 2+2 = 5 iii)

CH

Paris is in England and 2+2 = 4 iv)

Paris is in England and 2+2 = 5

B
JO

Only the first statement is true. Each of the other statements is false since at least one of its sub
statements is false.

Disjunction p q

Any two propositions p and q can be combined by the word ‘or’ denoted to form a compound
proposition called disjunction of the original propositions. Symbolically this is written

p q

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and is read as p or q. The truth values of p q depends only on the truth values of p and q as
follows;
Definition 6.4

If p and q are false, then p q is false; otherwise p q is true. Truth value of p q may be defined
equivalently by the table;

9
p q

67
p q p q

47
T T T

86
T F T

74
F T T

54
F F F

+2
Example 6.3
Consider the following statements S
ES
i) Paris is in France or 2+2 = 4
GR

ii) Paris is in France or 2+2 = 5

N
CO

iii) Paris is in England or 2+2 = 4

iv) Paris is in England or 2+2 = 5

st
21

Only the last statement is false. Each of the other statements is true since at least one of its sub
statements is true.
LI

Negation ~p
O
ES

Given any proposition p, another proposition called negation of p, can be formed by writing ‘it is
not the case that ….’ or ‘it is false that …’ before p or if possible by inserting in p the word not.
CH

Symbolically this is written

B

~p
JO

and is read ‘not p ’ or negation of p.

Definition 6.5
If p is true, then ~p is false, and if p is false, then ~p is true.

~p

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p ~p

T F
F T

E-tivity 6.2.2: Basic Logical Operations

9
Numbering and pacing and 6.2.2

67
sequencing

47
Title Basic Logical Operations

86
Purpose To introduce you to connectives and
basic logical operations

74
Brief summary of overall task Watch the video on Propositional logic: operations by

54
Math Forge and answer the given questions.
Spark

+2
S
ES
GR
N
CO

Individual contribution • Watch the video on Propositional logic:

operations
st
21

• Determine the truth values of each of the

following statements;
LI

a) 4+2 = 5 and 6+3 = 9

O
ES

b) 3+2 = 5 or 6+1 = 7
CH

Interaction begins • Post your answers on discussion forum 6.2.2

Read what your colleagues have posted.
B

• In a sentence or two, comment on what two of

JO

your colleagues have posted keeping netiquette

in mind
E-moderator interventions • Focussing group discussion
• Encouraging lurkers (quiet ones) to contribute
• Providing feedback/ teaching points
• Closing the discussion
Schedule and time This activity should take one hour.
Next Propositions and truth tables

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6.2.3 Propositions and Truth Tables

P ,
Let p1, p2 …, pn denote an expression constructed from the logical variables p1, p2,..., pn ,
which take truth value TRUE (T) or FALSE (F) and various logical connectives , and ~ .
P
Such an expression p1, p2,…, pn will be called a compound proposition. The main property
P
of the proposition p1, p2,…, pn is that its truth value depends exclusively upon the truth

9
67
values of the variable. A simple and concise way to show this property is through a truth table.
[Link] Steps for constructing Truth Table

47
86
1. In the first row of the truth table the first n columns are for the variables p1, p2,..., pn .
Next, ensure that there are enough rows in the table to allow for all possible combinations

74
of T and F for these variables. (For two variables, 4 rows are necessary; for three variables,

54
8 rows are necessary and in general for n variables, 2n rows are necessary.

+2
2. There is then a column for each elementary stage of construction of the proposition, the
truth value of each step being determined from previous stages by definition of connectives
and ~ . S
ES
,
GR

P
3. Finally we obtain the truth values of the proposition p1, p2,…, pn which appears in
N
CO

the last column.

Example 6.4
st
21

Construct the truth table for the proposition ~ p ~q .

LI
O

Solution
ES
CH

~ p ~q
B

p q ~q p ~q ~ p ~q
JO

T T F F T

T F T T F
F T F F T
F F T F T

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Remark 6.1
We adopt the following order of precedence for logical connectives;

~ has precedence over which has precedence over Eg

~ p q means ~p q and not ~ p q .

9
Example 6.5

67
Construct the truth table for the proposition p q r .

47
Solution

86
74
By Remark 2.1, the given proposition can be written as p q r .

54
p q r

+2
p q R qr p q r
S
ES
T T T T T
GR

T T F F T
N

T F T F T
CO

T F F F T
st

F T T T T
21

F T F F F

F F T F F
LI
O

F F F F F
ES
CH

[Link] Tautologies and Contradictions

B

P
JO

Some proposition p1, p2,…, pn contain only T in the last column of their truth tables or, in
other words, they are true for any truth values of their variables. Such propositions are called
tautologies.

P
Analogously, a proposition p1, p2,…, pn is called a contradiction if it contains only F in the

last column of its truth table, in other words, it is false for any truth values of its variables.

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Example 6.6

The proposition p or not p, that is p ~ p is a tautology, and the proposition p and not p, that is p
~ p is a contradiction.

a) p ~ p b) p ~ p

p ~p p ~ p ~p p ~p

9
67
T F T T F F

47
F T T F T F

86
Example 6.7

74
Determine whether or not p q p is a tautology or contradiction.

54
Solution

+2
The given proposition can be written as p q p
S
ES
GR

p q p
p q q p p q p
N
CO

T T T T
T F F T
st
21

F T F F
F F F F
LI
O
ES

Hence p q p is neither a tautology nor a contradiction.

CH

[Link] Logical Equivalence

B
JO

Two propositions P p1, p2,…, pn and Q q1, q2,…,qn are said to be logically equivalent or

equivalent, denoted

P p1, p2,…, pn Q q1, q2,…,qn

if they have identical truth tables.

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Example 6.8

Consider the truth tables of ~ p q and ~ p ~ q

a) ~ p q b) ~ p ~ q

p q ~ p q p q ~p ~q

9
p q ~p ~q

67
T T F F F

47
T T T F
T F F T T

86
T F F T F T T F T

74
F T F T F F T T T

54
F F F T

+2
Observe that the last columns of both tables are the same; that is both propositions are false in the
first case and true in the other cases. Accordingly, we write
S
ES
~ p q ~p ~q.
GR

Example 6.9
N
CO

Show that ~ p q ~ p ~ q.
st

Solution
21

Consider the truth tables of ~ p q and ~ p ~ q

LI
O
ES

a) ~ p q b) ~ p ~ q
CH

p q p q ~ p q p q ~p ~q ~p ~q
B

T T F F F
JO

T T T F
T F F T F
T F T F F T T F F
F T T F F F T T T
F F F T

Hence ~ p q ~ p ~ q.
E-tivity 6.2.3: Propositions and truth tables

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Numbering 6.2.3
and pacing and
sequencing
Title Propositions and truth tables

Purpose To you to develop skills of constructing truth tables

Brief summary Watch the video on Truth table logic basics by KarByte CS and answer the given

9
67
of overall task questions.
Spark

47
86
74
54
•

+2
Individual Watch the video on Truth table logic basics
contribution
• S
Verify that the proposition p ~ p q is a tautology
ES
Interaction • Post your answers on discussion forum 6.2.3 Read what
GR

begins your colleagues have posted.

• In a sentence or two, comment on what two of your
N

colleagues have posted keeping netiquette in mind

CO

E-moderator • Focussing group discussion

st

interventions • Encouraging lurkers (quiet ones) to contribute

21

• Providing feedback/ teaching points

• Closing the discussion
LI

Schedule and This activity should take one hour

O

time
ES

Next Conditional and biconditional statements

CH

6.2.4 Conditional and Biconditional Statements

Many statements, particularly in Mathematics are of the form ‘if p then q’. Such statements are
B
JO

called conditional statements and are denoted by p q .

The conditional statement p q is frequently read as ‘p implies q’.

Another common statement is of the form ‘ p if and only if q’. Such statements are called
biconditional statements and are denoted by p q .

Definition 6.6

a) The conditional statement p q is false only if the first part p is true and the second part q
is false.
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Accordingly, when p is false, the conditional p q is true regardless of the truth value of
q.

b) The biconditional p q is true whenever p and q have the same truth values and false
otherwise.

a) p q b) p q

9
p q p q p q p q

67
T T T T T T

47
T F F T F F

86
F T T F T F

74
F F T F F T

54
+2
Now consider the following truth table of ~ p q .
S
ES
c) ~p q
GR

p q ~p ~p q
N

T T F T
CO

T F F F
st

F T T T
21

F F T T
LI

Then the truth tables of ~ p q and p q are identical, that is, they are both false only in the second
O

case. Accordingly p q is logically equivalent to ~ p q ; that is p q ~ p q .

ES

Example 6.10
CH

Rewrite the following statements without using conditionals.

B

a) If it is cold, he wears a hat.

JO

b) If productivity increases, then the wages rise.

Solution

a) Let p be ‘It is cold’ and q be ‘He wears a hat’. Then using p q ~ p q , we have

It is not cold or he wears a hat.

b) Similarly if we let p be ‘Productivity increases’ and q be ‘Wages rise’ then using p

q ~
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p q we get

9
67
47
86
74
54
+2
S
ES
GR
N
CO
st
21
LI
O
ES
CH
B
JO

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Productivity does not increase or wages rise.

[Link] Converse, Inverse and Contrapositive

Consider the conditional proposition p q . Then the simple propositions q p, ~ p ~ q and ~

q ~ p are called respectively, the converse, inverse and

9
contrapositive of p q.

67
Which of these propositions are logically equivalent to p q?

47
Consider the truth table below;

86
p q ~p ~q Conditional Converse Inverse Contrapositive

74
p q q p
~p ~q ~q ~p

54
T T F F T T T T

+2
T F F T F T T F
S
ES
F T T F T F F T
GR

F F T T T T T T
N
CO

We observe that columns 5 and 8 are identical, thus only the contrapositive ~ q ~ p is logically
equivalent to the original conditional proposition p q .That is
st
21

p q ~q ~p.
LI

In addition columns 6 and 7 are identical, thus q p ~p ~q.

O

Example 6.11
ES
CH

Give the converse, inverse and contrapositive of each of the following;

B

i) If it snows, they will drive the car. ii) Only if Mark

JO

studies will he pass the examination.

Solution
i) Let p be ‘It snows’ and q be ‘They will drive the car’. Then Converse
q p
If they drive the car, then it will snow.

Inverse ~p ~q

If it does not snow, then they will not drive the car.
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Contrapositive ~ q p
~

9
67
47
86
74
54
+2
S
ES
GR
N
CO
st
21
LI
O
ES
CH
B
JO

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If they will not drive the car, then it will not snow.

i) The given statement can be written as;

If Mark passes the examination, then he studied. Thus if we let p be ‘Mark passes the
examination’ and q be ‘Mark studied’ then
Converse q p
If Mark studies, then he will pass the examination.

9
Inverse ~ p ~ q

67
If Mark does not pass the examination, then he did not study.

47
Contrapositive ~ q ~ p

86
If Mark does not study, then he will not pass the examination.

74
54
Etivity 6.2.4: Conditional and Biconditional statements
Numbering and pacing and 6.2.4

+2
sequencing
Title S
Conditional and biconditional statements
ES
GR

Purpose To help you to determine truth values of conditional and

N

biconditional statements
CO

Brief summary of overall task Watch the videos on Logic: Conditional statements by
Shaunteaches, Related conditionals by Keith Mann and
Examine whether by Doubtnut answer the given
st

questions.
21

Spark
LI
O
ES
CH

•
B

Individual contribution Watch the three videos

JO

• Show that the converse and the inverse are

logically equivalent.

Interaction begins • Post your answers on discussion forum 6.2.4

Read what your colleagues have posted.
• In a sentence or two, comment on what two of
your colleagues have posted keeping netiquette
in mind

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E-moderator interventions • Focussing group discussion
• Encouraging lurkers (quiet ones) to contribute
• Providing feedback/ teaching points

• Closing the discussion

Schedule and time This activity should take 1 hour
Next Methods of proof

9
67
6.3 Assessment Questions

47
Show that

86
i) p q r p q

74
p r ii) ~ ~p p iii) p q

54
q p

+2
6.4 References

S
ES
1. Goldstein, L., Schneider, D. and Siegel, M., Finite Mathematics and its applications, 7th
Ed., Prentice Hall, 1998.
GR

2. Grimaldi, R.P., Discrete and Combinatorial Mathematics. An applied introduction, 5th

N

Ed., Pearson Addison Wesley, 2004.

3. Edgar, G., Goodaire, M., Parmenter, M., Discrete Mathematics with graph theory, 2nd Ed.,
CO

2002.
4. Seymour Lipschutz and Marc Lipson. Schaum’s Outline Serires Discrete Mathematics, 3rd
st

edition, McGraw-Hill Companies,Inc., 2007.

21

[Link]
LI
O
ES
CH
B
JO

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LECTURER SEVEN METHODS OF PROOF

7.1 Introduction
In the previous lesson we considered how to determine the truth values of propositions
(statements). In this lesson we move a step further and consider methods of proving mathematical
statements. We will consider proof by Induction, Contradiction and Contraposition and direct
proof.

9
67
7.2 Learning Outcome

47
By the end of this lesson the learner will be able to:

86
i) Prove mathematical statements using direct proof. ii)

74
Prove mathematical statements using indirect

54
proofs. iii) Prove mathematical statements by induction.

+2
7.2.1 Direct Proof
S
ES
Direct proof is a way of showing the truth or falsehood of a given statement by a straightforward
combination of established facts, usually axioms, existing lemmas and theorems, without making
GR

any further assumptions. Logical deduction is employed to reason from assumptions to conclusion.
N

A direct proof assumes that the hypothesis of a conjecture is true, and then uses a series of logical
CO

deductions to prove that the conclusion of the conjecture is true.

st

Example 7.1
21

Show that the square of an even integer is even.

LI

Proof
O
ES

Suppose n is an even integer, then n 2m for some integer m. Therefore n2

CH

2m 2
4m2 2 2m2 .
B
JO

Hence n2 is even.
Etivity 7.2.1: Direct Proof

Numbering and pacing 7.2.1

and sequencing
Title Direct Proof

Purpose To expose you to direct method of proof.

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Brief summary of overall Watch the video on Direct proof by Centre of Maths and answer the
task given question.

Spark

9
67
47
86
Individual contribution • Watch the video on direct proof.

74
• Prove that the sum of two odd integers is an even integer.

54
Interaction begins • Post your answers on discussion forum 7.2.1 Read

+2
what your colleagues have posted.
• In a sentence or two, comment on what two of your
S
colleagues have posted keeping netiquette in mind
ES
• Focussing group discussion
GR

E-moderator
interventions • Encouraging lurkers (quiet ones) to contribute
N

• Providing feedback/ teaching points

CO

• Closing the discussion

Schedule and time This activity should take 1 hour.
st

Next Indirect proof

21

7.2.2 Indirect Proof

LI

In an indirect proof, instead of showing that the conclusion to be proved is true, you show that all
O

of the alternatives are false. To do this, you must assume the negation of the statement to be proved.
ES

Then, deductive reasoning will lead to a contradiction: two statements that cannot both be true.
CH

There are two types of indirect proofs: contradiction, contraposition and counterexample.
B

[Link] Proof by Contradiction

JO

Sometimes the only (or the best) way to show why some conclusions holds, is to assume that it
doesn’t. If this leads to ‘nonsense’ contrary to reality or a result contrary to the hypotheses, then
we have reached a contradiction. Such a proof is called a proof by contradiction.

Example 7.2

Prove that 2 is irrational.

p

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(A number is rational if it can be written in the form with p and q integers q 0 and gcd of p
q

and q is 1 i.e. p,q 1 and is irrational if it is not rational.)

Proof

Assume to the contrary that 2 is rational. Then

9
67
47
p
2 , with p,q 1, q 0 and p and q are integers.

86
q

74
p

54
Therefore 2 qp22 2q2 .

+2
2

S
ES
Hence p2 is even so that p is also even. This implies that p 2k for some integer k , thus
GR

2
2k 4k 2 2q2 and therefore q2 2k 2 .
N
CO

Thus q2 and q are also even. Therefore both p and q are even, contradicting our earlier statement.
Hence 2 is irrational.
st
21

[Link] Contrapositive Proof

LI
O

Given a set of hypotheses H1,H2,...,Hn from which we want to infer a conclusion C, for
ES

contrapositive proof we need to show that ~ C ~ H1 H2 ... Hn .

CH

That is, we show that negation of the conclusion implies negation of the hypothesis.
Example 7.3
B
JO

Prove that if n2 is even, then n is even.

Solution

We prove the contraposition that if n is not even, then n2 is not even If

n is not even (is odd), then n 2k 1 for some integer k.

Therefore,

2
1
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n2 2k

9
67
47
86
74
54
+2
S
ES
GR
N
CO
st
21
LI
O
ES
CH
B
JO

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4k2 4k 1

2 2k2 2k 1

Hence then n2 is not even (is odd).

9
67
[Link] Counter Example

47
A counterexample is a special kind of example that disproves a statement or proposition.
Identifying counterexamples is a way to show that a mathematical statement is false.

86
Obtaining counterexamples is a very important part of mathematics, because doing mathematics

74
requires that you develop a critical attitude toward claims. When you have an idea or when

54
someone tells you something, test the idea by trying examples. If you find a counterexample which
shows that the idea is false, that's good: Progress comes not only through doing the right thing, but

+2
also by correcting your mistakes.
S
ES
Example 7.7
GR

a) The statement “All prime numbers are odd numbers” is false since for example 2 is a prime
number and it’s not odd. In this case 2 is counter example.
N
CO

b) The statement “for all real numbers x, we have x 1 2

x2 1 ” is false since for example
st

1 is a real number and 1 1 2 12 1 i.e. 4 2 . In this case x 1 is a counter example.

21

E-tivity 7.2.2: Indirect Proof

LI
O
ES

Numbering 7.2.2
CH

and pacing and

sequencing
Title Indirect proof
B
JO

Purpose To expose you to various methods of indirect proof.

Brief summary Watch video on Proof by contradiction by GVSUMath, Proof by contradiction
of overall task by Centre of Maths, Proof by contraposition by GVSUMath and Finding a
Counter example by Keith Mann answer the given questions.

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Spark

9
Individual • Watch the four videos

67
contribution
• Prove the following statement by a) contradiction b)

47
contraposition If 3n+5 is odd, then n is even.

86
74
• Disproof by counter example that n2 n 17 is prime

54
Interaction • Post your answers on discussion forum 7.2.2 Read what
begins your colleagues have posted.

+2
• In a sentence or two, comment on what two of your
colleagues have posted keeping netiquette in mind
S
ES
E-moderator • Focussing group discussion
GR

interventions • Encouraging lurkers (quiet ones) to contribute

• Providing feedback/ teaching points
N

• Closing the discussion

CO

Schedule and This activity should take 1 hour

time
st

Next Proof by Induction

21

7.2.3 Proof by Induction

LI

This is an important tool used when proving theorems on natural numbers (positive integers).
O
ES

Theorem 7.1
CH

Let p n be a statement that is either true or false for each n N , then p n is true for
B
JO

all n N provided that i) p 1 is true.

ii) For each k N , if p k is true, then p k 1 is true.

Example 7.4

Prove that 1 2 3 … n 12n n 1 for any natural numbers n.

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Proof

Let p n 12n n 1 , then

i) RHS p 1 1 2 1 and LHS 1, hence the statement is true for n 1.

9
67
p k
ii) Assume that is true for some k N , that is p k 12k k 1 and show that

47
p k 1

86
is true.

74
Now, p k 1 1 2 3 … k k 1

54
p k k 1

+2
12k k 1
S k 1
ES
GR

= 12 k 1 k 2
N
CO

12 k 1 k 1 1
st

p 1
21

Hence k is true. Hence by inductive hypothesis the statement is true for all natural
LI

numbers n.
O

Example 7.5
ES

Prove that 7n 4n is a multiple of 3 for all n.

CH

Proof
B
JO

i) Let p n 7n 4n . For n 1, p 1 3, which is divisible by 3. Hence the statement is

true for n 1.

ii) Next assume that p k is true. We want to show that p k 1 is a multiple of 3.

Now, p k 1 7k 1
4k 1
7k
7 4k 4

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7k 4 3 4k 4

7k 4 7k 3 4k 4

4 7k 4k 7k 3

9
67
4 p k 7k 3 ;but p k 3m for some m N

47
4 3m 7k 3

86
74
3 4m 7k , which is a multiple of 3.

54
p 1

+2
Hence k is true so that by inductive hypothesis the statement is true for all natural

numbers.
S
ES
Example 7.6
GR
N

Prove that 2 4 6 2n n n 1 for all n .

CO

Solution
st
21

Let p n n n 1 . Then
LI

i) If n 1 , LHS 2 and RHS p 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 . Hence the statement is

O
ES

true for n 1.
CH

ii) Assume that p k is true for some k N , that is p k k k 1 and show that
B

p k 1 is true.
JO

Now, p k 1 2 4 6 … 2k 2 k 1

p k 2 k 1

k k 1 2 k 1
k2 k 2k 2

k 2 3k 2
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k 1 k 2

k 1 k 1 1

p 1
Hence k is true so that by inductive hypothesis the statement is true for all natural

numbers.

9
67
E-tivity 7.2.3: Proof by induction

47
Numbering and pacing 7.2.3

86
and sequencing

74
Title Proof by induction

54
Purpose To expose you to method of proof by induction

+2
Brief summary of Watch the video on Proof by induction by Centre of Math on and
overall task answer the given question.
S
ES
Spark
GR
N
CO
st
21
LI
O

Individual contribution • Watch videos on proof by mathematical

ES

• Prove that
CH

a) … 2n 1 n2 , for all n N 1 3 5
n
b) 9 7 is always divisible by 8
B
JO

Interaction begins • Post your answers on discussion forum 7.2.3 Read

what your colleagues have posted.
• In a sentence or two, comment on what two of your
colleagues have posted keeping netiquette in mind

E-moderator • Focussing group discussion

interventions • Encouraging lurkers (quiet ones) to contribute
• Providing feedback/ teaching points

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• Closing the discussion

Schedule and time This activity should take 1 hour.

Next Introduction to complex numbers

7.3 Assessment

9
67
1. Prove that the sum of two odd integers is an even integer.

47
2. Prove that

86
74
12 22 … n2 16n n 1 2n 1 ,n N.

54
3. Prove that 9n 7 is always divisible by 8.

+2
S
ES
7.4 References
GR

1. Goldstein, L., Schneider, D. and Siegel, M., Finite Mathematics and its applications, 7th
Ed., Prentice Hall, 1998.
N

2. Grimaldi, R.P., Discrete and Combinatorial Mathematics. An applied introduction, 5th Ed.,
CO

Pearson Addison Wesley, 2004.

3. Edgar, G., Goodaire, M., Parmenter, M., Discrete Mathematics with graph theory, 2nd Ed.,
st

2002.
21

4. Seymour Lipschutz and Marc Lipson. Schaum’s Outline Serires Discrete Mathematics, 3rd
edition, McGraw-Hill Companies,Inc., 2007.
LI

[Link]
O

LECTURE EIGHT
ES

COMPLEX NUMBERS
CH

8.1 Introduction
B
JO

In this lesson we will study complex numbers. The set of all real numbers is incomplete in the
sense that standard operations applied to some real numbers do not yield a real number result (e.g.,
square root: 1 ). It is surprisingly easy to enlarge the set of real numbers producing a set of
numbers that is closed under standard operations, that is the subject of this lecture.

8.2 Learning Outcomes

By the end of this lesson the learner will be able to:

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i) Carry out arithmetic operations on complex numbers ii)

Determine the modulus and argument of any complex

number iii) State and apply De Moivere’s Theorem

8.2.1 Introduction to Complex Numbers

9
67
Consider the quadratic equation x2 1 0 . Then x2 1, hence x2 1 0 has no real roots.

47
To solve an equation of this type, we need another category of numbers called complex numbers.

86
We define i 1 , where i is an imaginary unit. This can be extended to find the square root of

74
other negative numbers.

54
Eg. 25 25 1

+2
= 25 1
S
ES
= 5i
GR

Definition 8.1
N

The general form of a complex number z is x iy , where x and y are real numbers and i is the
CO

imaginary unit. The numbers x and y are called the real and imaginary parts of z respectively written
st

x Re z and y Im z .
21

For example if z 2 7i , then Re z 2 and Im z 7.

LI
O

The set of all complex umbers is denoted by C.

ES

Definition 8.2
CH

Let z x iy be a complex number, then the number x iy denoted by z is called the complex
conjugate of z.
B
JO

Example 8.1

If z 3 2i, then z 3 2i.

[Link] Arithmetic operations on Complex Numbers

Let z1 x1 iy1, z2 x2 iy2 , then we have

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1. z1 z2 x1 iy1 x2 iy2

x1 x2 i y1 y2

2. z1 z2 x1 iy1 x2 iy2

9
x1 x2 i y1 y2

67
47
3. z1z2 x1 iy1 x2 iy2

86
x1x2 x1y2i x2 y i1 y1y2i 2

74
54
x1x2 i(x1y2 x2 y1) y1y2

+2
x1x2 y1y2 i(x1y2 x2y1)
S
ES
In particular
GR

z1 z1 x1 iy1 x1 iy1
N

x12 x1y i1 x1y i1 y12i2

CO

=x12 y12 (real number)

st
21

4. z1 x1 iy1 z2 x2 iy2
LI

We can rationalize the denominator by multiplying by the conjugate of z2 in the numerator and
O

denominator;
ES

z1 z1 z 2 x1 iy1 x2 iy2
CH

z2 z2 z2 x2 iy2 x2 iy2
B
JO

xx1x222 xx21 yy22ii xx22 yy12ii yy12y22

(x1x2 y1 yx2 )2 iy(2x22 y1 x1 y2 )

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x1xx222 yy12y2 2 i xx2 2y21
xy12y2 2 .

Example 8.2

9
67
Let z1 1 i, z2 2 3i . Find

47
86
a) z1 z2 b) z1 z2 c) z1z2 d) z1 z2

74
54
Solution

+2
1. z1 z2 1 i 2 3i 3 1 3
S i
ES
GR

2. z1 z2 1 i 2 3i
N
CO

1 1 3 i
st
21

3. z1z2 1 i 2 3i
LI

2 3i 2i 3
O
ES
CH

2 3 3 2 i
4. Rationalizing the denominator, we get
B
JO

z1 z1 z2 z2

z2 z2

1 i 2 3i

2 3i 2 3i
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2 3i 2i 3

4 2 3i 2 3i 3

2 3 2 3 i

9
67
7

47
86
2 3 i2 3.
7 7

74
54
[Link] Equal Complex Numbers

+2
If z1 x1 iy1 and z2 x2 iy2 , then z1 z2 if and only if x1 x2 and y1 y2.

Example 8.3 S
ES
Solve for x and y if
GR
N

a) 3 4i x iy 1 i
CO

b) 3x 2iy 7 5i xi 5y
st

x iy
21

c) 5 i
LI

2 i
O

Solution
ES

a) 3 4i x ix iy y
CH

x y i x y
B
JO

Therefore

x y 3
x y__ 4

-2y -1 y 12

x 72

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b) Rearranging the given equation
3x 5y i 2y x 7 5i
Therefore

3x 5y 7
x 2y 5 x 1
y 2

9
67
x iy

47
c) 5 i implies that

86
1 i x iy

74
(5 i)(2 i)

54
10 5i 2i 1

+2
11 3i
x 11 and y 3. S
ES
GR

E-tivity 8.2.1: Introduction to complex numbers

N
CO

Numbering 8.2.1
and pacing
st

and
21

sequencing
Title Introduction to complex numbers
LI
O

Purpose To help you to perform basic operations on complex numbers

ES

Brief Watch the video on Operations on complex numbers by Professor J and answer the
CH

summary of given questions.

overall task
Spark
B
JO

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Individual • Watch the video on operations with complex numbers
contribution
• Answer the questions;

1. Simplify

a) 2 i 3 4i b) 5 4i 7 i c) 3 i 4 i

9
2. Express with rational denominators

67
1 i 3i 2 5 4i 1

47
2
a) b) c) d) 1 i 1 2i 5 4i 1 i

86
Interaction • Post your answers on discussion forum 8.2.1 Read what

74
begins your colleagues have posted.
• In a sentence or two, comment on what two of your

54
colleagues have posted keeping netiquette in mind

+2
E-moderator • Focussing group discussion
• Encouraging lurkers (quiet ones) to contribute
interventions
S
ES
• Providing feedback/ teaching points
• Closing the discussion
GR

Schedule This activity should take 1 hour.

N

and time
CO

Next Geometric representation of complex numbers

st

8.2.2 Geometric Representation of Complex numbers

21

y
The complex number z x iy can be represented by the ordered pair . This suggests that
LI

x,
O

z can be represented in the xy-plane called the z-plane or the complex plane or the Argand diagram.
ES

On an Argand diagram, real numbers are represented on the x-axis and imaginary numbers on the
CH

y-axis.
B

Thus the complex number P in the figure below for example can be read as 2,5 or 2 5i.
JO

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The Argand Diagram

Im (z)

P 2,5

9
67
Re (z)

47
86
74
54
+2
[Link] Modulus and Argument
S
ES
Let P represent the complex number z where z x iy , then P has Cartesian coordinates (x, y) .
GR

Consider the figure below

N
CO

P x, y
st
21

r y
LI
O
ES

x
CH
B
JO

By Pythagoras Theorem, r2 x2

y2 r x2 y2 .

Also
y y
cos xr , sin r and tan x.

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Definition 8.3

Given any complex number z x iy , the modulus of z, denoted z is defined by

z r x2 y2 .

The argument of z denoted arg z, is defined by

9
67
47
y
arg z tan 1
x .

86
74
y
There is an infinite set of angles whose tangent is , so there is also an infinite set of arguments

54
x

+2
y
for x iy . But the position of x, is unique and corresponds to only one value of in

S
ES
the range . This value is called the principal argument of z. Now,
GR
N

x
CO

cos x rcos
r
st

and
21
LI

x
sin x rsin
O

r
ES
CH

Thus a non-zero complex number z, can also be written as

z x iy r cos i rsin
B
JO

r cos isin.......................................................( )

( ) is called the polar form of the complex number z. The polar coordinates of z are r, .

(where is the principal value of arg z).

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Example 8.4

Let z 2 2i , find z , arg z and the polar form of z.

Solution

Modulus z 22

2 2

9
67
22

47
Also z is in the 4th quadrant;

86
74
54
+2
S
ES
GR
N
CO

2, 2
st
21
LI
O

2 1
Principal value tan 1 2 tan 1 2 4 74 .
ES
CH

Therefore
B

arg z 74 2n , n 0,1, 2, …
JO

And the polar form of z is z 2

2 cos74 isin74 .

Example 8.5
Let z i , find z and arg z

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Solution

The complex number z i is on the y-axis;

9
67
3

47
2

86
74
-i

54
+2
S
ES
GR

z 0 i 1 and r z 02 1 2
N
CO

Principal value is 3 2.
st
21

arg z 3 2 2n , n 0,1, 2,…

LI
O
ES

[Link] Products and Quotients of Complex Numbers We

CH

can use polar form to multiply complex numbers. If z1

B
JO

r1 cos 1 isin 1 and z2 r2 cos 2 isin 2 , then

z1z2 r1 cos 1 isin 1 . r2 cos 2 isin 2

cos 1 cos 2 sin 1 sin 2 i cos 2 sin 1 cos 1 sin 2

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r1r2 cos 1 2 isin 1 2

Thus 1 2 is the principal argument of z1z2 , hence

arg z1z2 arg z1+ arg z2 .

Also z1z2 z1 z2 .

9
67
Since multiplication and division are inverse operations, it can be deduced that

47
z r

86
z 12 r 12 cos 1 2 isin 1 2

74
54
z1

+2
arg arg z1 arg z2 z2

and
S
ES
GR

z1 z1
. z2
N

z2
CO

Remark 8.1
st
21

It is sometimes convenient to write cos isin as ei or cis .

LI

so that
O
ES

rcis rei r cos isin .

CH

The expression ei cos isin is called the Euler’s formula. The Euler’s formula can be
B

generalized to ez ex iy
[Link] ex cos y isin y .
JO

Example 8.6

1 3
If z1 i and z2 1 i 3 , find
2 2

a) z1z2

b) arg z1z2
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z1
c) arg
z2

Solution
3
zz 1 i 1 i
2

9
1 2 3
2

67
a)

47
1 2 2.

86
74
b) arg z1z2 arg z1 arg z2

54
Now,

+2
3

S
ES
arg z1 tan 1 12 tan 1 3 3
GR

2 2
3
N
CO

.
st

and arg z2
21

tan 1
3 3.
LI
O

Thus arg z1z2

ES
CH

23 3 .

c)
B
JO

zz12 2 3 3.
d) arg 3

E-tivity 8.2.2: Geometric representation of complex numbers

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Numbering and 8.2.2
pacing and
sequencing
Title Geometric representation of complex numbers

Purpose To help you to represent any complex number in polar form

9
Brief summary of Watch the video on Polar form of complex numbers by Vasudeva

67
overall task Vamadevan and answer the given questions.

47
Spark

86
74
54
+2
S
ES
GR
N
CO

Individual • Watch the video on Polar form of complex numbers

contribution
st

• Answer the questions;

21
LI

3
1. Find the modulus and argument of w given that w i .
O

2
ES

1 i
CH

2. Express the quotientin its polar form.

3 i
B

Interaction begins • Post your answers on discussion forum 8.2.2 Read

JO

what your colleagues have posted.

• In a sentence or two, comment on what two of your
colleagues have posted keeping netiquette in mind

E-moderator • Focussing group discussion

interventions • Encouraging lurkers (quiet ones) to contribute
• Providing feedback/ teaching points
• Closing the discussion
Schedule and time This activity should take 1 hour

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Next De Moivere’s Theorem and its applications

8.2.3 De Moivere’s Theorem and its Applications [Link]

Powers of Complex Numbers

Let z r cos isin and let z1 z2 z , then z1z2

9
67
z2 r2 cos2 isin2 .

47
z2 … zn

86
In general, if z1 z , then

74
zn rn cosn isinn ..................................... 1) .

54
+2
If z r 1, then equation 1) becomes cos isin n

cosn isin n . S
ES
GR

Theorem 8.1 (De Moivere’s Theorem) Let

N
CO

be any angle and n be any integer, then

st

n
cos isin cosn isin n .
21

If n is a negative integer, then

LI
O

n
cos isin cos n isin n .
ES
CH

Proof
B

n
We wish to show that cos isin cosn isin n . We proceed by induction. If n = 1,
JO

LHS cos isin 1

cos isin and RHS cos1 sin1( ) cos isin .

Hence the result is true for n = 1.

Assume that the result holds for some integer k, that is

k
cos isin cosk isin k .

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Then

cos isin k 1 cos isin k cos isin

cosk isink cos isin

cosk cos icosk sin isink cos sink sin

9
67
cosk cos sink sin i cosk sin sink cos

47
cos k isin k

86
74
cos k 1 isin k 1

54
Hence the theorem is true for the positive integer k + 1. Hence by the principal of mathematical

+2
induction it holds for any positive integer. It can similarly be shown that cos isin n

cos n isin n .
S
ES
Example 8.7
GR

Use De Moivere’s theorem to evaluate

N
CO

a) 4 i43 b) 11 ii 33
st

5 10
21

Solution
LI
O

We write 4 i 4 3 in polar form;

ES
CH

4 i43 42 43 2
8 and arg 4 i43 3
B
JO

4 i43 8 cos 3 isin 3

By De Moivere’s Theorem,

5
4 i43 85(cos 3 isin 3)5

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85(cos 53 isin 53 )

85 12 i 3 2

Example 8.8

9
By using De Moivere’s theorem show that

67
3
3tan tan tan3

47
2 .

86
1 3tan

74
Solution

54
+2
tan3 sin3 cos3

By De Moivere’s theorem, cos3 isin3 cos

S
isin 3
ES
GR

cos3 3icos2 sin 3cos sin2 isin3

N
CO

cos3 3cos sin2 i 3cos2 sin sin3

Equating the real and imaginary parts,
st
21

cos3 cos3 3cos sin 2 .........................................i) sin3

LI

3cos2 sin sin3 ........................................................................ ii)

O
ES

tan3
CH

3cos3 2 sin sin32

cos 3cos sin
B
JO

3cos2 sin sin3

3 3

c3os cos2 cos

3cos sin
3 3

cos cos

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COURTESY OF SANDRAH [Link] SCHOOL OF
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3tan tan2 3 .

1 3tan

Example 8.9

Use De Moivere’s theorem to show that

9
67
sin5 4 2

47
16cos 12cos 1

86
sin

74
Solution

54
By De Moivere’s theorem,

+2
cos5 isin5 cos isin 5

But
S
ES
GR

5
cos isin cos5 5icos4 sin 10cos3 sin2 10icos2 sin3 5cos sin4 isin5
N

cos5 10cos3 sin2 5cos sin4 i(5cos4 sin 10cos2 sin3 sin5 )
CO

Equating the real and imaginary parts cos5 cos5 10cos3 sin2 5cos sin4 and sin5
st
21

5cos4 sin 10cos2 sin3 sin5

Now,
LI
O

sin5
ES

4 2 2 4

5cos 10cos sin sin

CH

sin
B
JO

5cos4 10cos2 1 cos2 1 cos2 2

5cos4 10cos2 10cos4 1 2cos2 cos4 16cos4 12cos2 1.

[Link] Roots of Complex Numbers

A complex number z is said to be the nth root of the complex number z0 if

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zn z0................................................................................................ 1)

Thus if z r cos isin and z0 r0 cos 0 isin 0 , then we

have rn cosn isinn r0 cos 0 isinn

0 .

9
Since cos isin 1 for all real , then rn

67
47
r0 r r01n

86
and

74
54
n 0 2 k, for k 0, 1, 2,…

+2
0 n2 k , for k 0, 1, 2,…

S
ES
GR

2 k
z r0 1n cos 0 n isin 0
n2 k is the nth root of z0 for
N
CO

n 0,1, 2,..., n 1.
st

Thus there are n distinct roots to be determined, the rest are merely repeated.
21

Example 8.10
LI
O

Find all values of z for which z5 32 0.

ES

Solution
CH

z5 32 0 z5 32
B
JO

In polar form

32 32 cos 2 k isin 2 k , where k 0, 1,

2,… . Now, z 32 15 3215

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cos 2 k isin 2 k 15

9
67
47
86
74
54
+2
S
ES
GR
N
CO
st
21
LI
O
ES
CH
B
JO

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2 k 2 k
2 cos 5 isin 5 , where k 0,1, 2,

3, 4.

The values of z are; w0 2 cos 5

9
isin 5 , for k 0

67
47
86
3 3
w1 2 cos 5 isin 5 , for

74
54
+2
k 1 w2 2 cos isin , for k

S
ES
7
2 w3 2 cos 5 isin7 5
GR

,
N
CO

for k 3
st
21

9
w4 2 cos 95 ___ sin 5 , for k 4
Example 8.11
LI
O

Find all the cube roots of 2 i2.

ES

Solution
CH

Let z0 2 i 2 . Then
B
JO

1
z0 2 2 2 and arg z0 tan 1 34 . Thus z0

2 cos 34 2 k isin 34 2 k , k 0, 1,

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2,… Now,

9
67
47
86
74
54
+2
S
ES
GR
N
CO
st
21
LI
O
ES
CH
B
JO

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z z013 213 cos 3 2 k 34 2 k , k 0,1, 2

4
isin
3 3

9
67
2 k 2 3k
13
isin 4 , k 0,1, 2 .

47
86
2 cos 4 3

74
The three roots are w0 213 cos 4

54
+2
isin 4 , for k 0
S
ES
GR

1 1 1 1
N

w1 213 cos 1 2 isin 1 2 , for k

1
CO
st
21

1 9 1 9
w2 213 cos 1 2 isin 1 2 , for k 2.
LI
O

Example 8.12
ES
CH

1 i 16
B

Evaluate 1 i .
JO

Solution

Since

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COURTESY OF SANDRAH [Link] SCHOOL OF
EDUCATION. 0793394796

9
67
47
86
74
54
+2
S
ES
GR
N
CO

w0 cos 12 isin 12, for k 0 w1

st
21

cos3 4 isin3 for k w2

4, 1
LI
O
ES

cos17 12 isin17 12, for k 2.

CH
B

E-tivity 8.2.3: De Moivere’s Theorem and it’s applications

JO

Numbering and 8.2.3

pacing and
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Title De Moivere’s Theorem and it’s applications

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Purpose To help you to apply De Moivere’s Theorem to simplify trigonometric

identities and find roots of complex numbers

Brief summary of Watch videos on Using De Moivere’s Theorem by Mattam66, De Moivere’s

overall task Theorem by Tayler Wallance and Problems on De Moivere’s Theorem by MA
Classes and answer the given questions.

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Spark

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Individual • Watch the three videos
contribution S
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• Use De Moivere’s Theorem to; a) Simplify
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i) cos isin 2 cos3 isin3 ii) cos3 isin3 2

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cos isin
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b) Find 3 i .
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Interaction begins • Post your answers on discussion forum 8.2.3 Read what
your colleagues have posted.
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• In a sentence or two, comment on what two of your

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colleagues have posted keeping netiquette in mind

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E-moderator • Focussing group discussion

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interventions • Encouraging lurkers (quiet ones) to contribute

• Providing feedback/ teaching points
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• Closing the discussion

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Schedule and time This activity should take 1 hour

Next End of the lessons

8.3 Assessment
1. Solve for x and y

2 5i y x 3 i
a) i 1 2
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iy x y
b) 2x 3iy 4ix 2y 5 10i
2. Use De Moivere’s theorem to show that

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i) tan4 4tan 2 4tan 3 4 ii) tan5
5tan 102tan3 tan4 5

1 6tan tan 1 10tan 5tan

5 3
iii) cos5 16cos 20cos 5cos

3. Solve the equation z4 16i 0.

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8.4 References

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1. Backhouse, J. and Houldsworth, S. (1985). Pure Mathematics Book I, Longman Publishers

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Ltd.

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2. Spiegel, M. (1999). Shaum’s Outline of Theory and Problems of Complex Variables,

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McGraw-Hill.

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LECTOR ABUYA SCHOOL OF EDUCATION MATHS DEPART

ANSWERS
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Lesson One Assessment Questions

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1. a) 254 b) 34 c) 52
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4. x x
a) Either the set of all x such that 23 or the set of all x such that 34 .
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3 x 5
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b) Either the set of all x such that .

Lesson Two Assessment Questions

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1. a) -7 b) a 4 b 13 4x3 13x 6

x 2 2x 1 2x 3

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2. ,

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Lesson Three Assessment Questions

1. 1820
2. a) 144 b) 7776 c) 756

Lesson Four Assessment Questions

1. 1 12x 54x2 100x3

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2 . 1 8x 12 1 4x 8x2 32x3 and 3 1.73205

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Lesson Five Assessment Questions

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1. a) 12 b) 54 c) 7

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Lesson Eight Assessment Questions

1. a) x 32 and y 72 b) x 537 S
and y 347
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3. w0 2 cos 4
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isin 4 w1
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2 cos3 4 isin3 4
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w2 2 cos5 4

isin5 4 w3

2 cos7 4 isin7 4

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RESOURCES
1. Backhouse, J. and Houldsworth, S. (1985). Pure Mathematics Book I, Longman Publishers
Ltd.

2. Bostock, L., Chandler, S. and Rourke, C. (1982). Further Pure Mathematics. Stanley
Thornes Publishers Ltd.

3. Larson, R. and Hostetler, R. (1997). Precalculus, Houghton Company.

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4. Goldstein, L., Schneider, D. and Siegel, M., Finite Mathematics and its applications, 7th
Ed., Prentice Hall, 1998.

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5. Grimaldi, R.P., Discrete and Combinatorial Mathematics. An applied introduction, 5th Ed.,

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Pearson Addison Wesley, 2004.
6. Edgar, G., Goodaire, M., Parmenter, M., Discrete Mathematics with graph theory, 2nd Ed.,

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2002.

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7. Seymour Lipschutz and Marc Lipson. Schaum’s Outline Serires Discrete Mathematics, 3rd
edition, McGraw-Hill Companies,Inc., 2007.

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[Link]

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