MINISTRY OF HIGHER EDUCATION AND SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

UNIVERSITY OF ALGIERS 2 ABOU EL KACEM SAADALLAH

Faculty of Foreign Languages

Department of English

A dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the Master degree in
Applied Linguistics and TEFL.

A Critical Review of two Academic Articles:

The Impact of Extensive Reading on Writing
Proficiency.

Submitted by: Supervised by:

Fatma Zohra FERDJANI Dr. Siham BOUZAR FODIL-CHERIF

Walid CHIBANI

Academic Year:
2019/2020
 Board of Examiners

Chairperson: Prof. Kamal KHALDI

Supervisor: Dr. Siham BOUZAR FODIL-CHERIF

Examiner: Dr. Lynda SILHADI

i
 Declaration of Originality

We, F. Zahra FERDJANI and Walid CHIBANI, hereby declare that the essence of this
dissertation is entirely the outcome of our investigation. It contains no plagiarism nor does it
include any studies previously published or written by another person except those stated.

We are properly informed that any person practicing plagiarism will be subject to
disciplinary sanctions issued by university authorities under the rules and regulations in
force.

Date: ………………………….

Signed: ……………………….. ………………………….

ii
 Dedication

I would like to dedicate this work to my precious mother and father for all
their support, patience, help, and care.

Without you I wouldn’t have accomplished this.

Zahra

I would like to dedicate this work to both my parents for their sustained
efforts, patience, and support.
Walid

iii
 Acknowledgements

I would like to thank my partner in this dissertation Walid CHIBANI for his
infallible commitment in this study, his encouragement, and comprehensiveness from the
beginning of the work until the end.

I would also like to thank my supervisor Dr. Siham BOUZAR FODIL-CHERIF for her
valuable and constructive feedback and comments that helped us in the accomplishment of
this work.

I would like to thank the members of the jury for reading and evaluating this piece of work.

Finally, I must express my very profound gratitude to my beloved ones, my parents, my

brothers, my friends: Sihem, Dounia, Lamia, Maya, Rania, Aquila, Houda, Afraa, and
Ichrak for providing me unfailing support and continuous encouragement throughout the
year of study and through the process of writing this research paper. This accomplishment
would not have been possible without you all. I will be grateful forever for your love. Thank
you so much.
Zahra

My great and deep acknowledgement for my friend and partner in this work Zahra
FERDJANI who was very helpful patient and collaborative in the accomplishment of this
dissertation.

A special gratefulness to my supervisor DR. Siham BOUZAR FODIL-CHERIF for her

precious feedback and comments on this work.

A special gratitude to my aunt Badiaa who has supported me during my study path.

Finally, without forgetting to thank my parents, my brother, and my sister for their support.
I would also like to thank my friends: Dalal Ayoub, Wassim, Samy, Nassim, Samir, and
Aimene for being my source of motivation and help, thank you all so much.
Walid

iv
 Abstract

This dissertation is a critical review of two academic articles written about the correlation of
extensive reading and writing. The work attempts to provide an insight of an academic
article’s components. The focus of the review is on the evaluation of the literature review,
research design, and data collection methods. In addition, it compares the extent of validity,
reliability, and the ethical implications of both studies. The purpose of our work is to provide
students with some help for future secondary research. The research of the first article written
by Mermelstein (2015) was conducted on Taiwanese EFL students; whereas the study of the
second article written by Ouafi (2019) targeted first-year Algerian EFL students. The results
from the current study suggest that due to the lack of some standards, Ouafi’s research lacks
validity and reliability unlike Mermelstein’s study that is highly valid and reliable.

Keywords: extensive reading, writing, EFL context, validity, reliability.

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 Table of Contents

Board of Examiners…………………………………………………………………… i
Declaration…………………………………………………………………………...... ii
Dedication ...………………………………………………………………………....... iii
Acknowledgements………...………………………………………………………….. iv
Abstract……………………………………………………………………………....... v
Table of Contents..…………………………………………………………………….. vi
List of Abbreviations ...…....………………………………………………………….. viii
General Introduction…………………………………………………………………... 1

1. Chapter One: Literature Review

Introduction…………………………………………………………………………… 3
1.1. Reading Skill……………………………………………………………………… 3
1.1.1. Definition of Reading…………………………………………………….. 3
1.1.2. Reading Comprehension………………………………………………….. 4
1.1.3. Types of Reading…………………………………………………………. 4
[Link]. Intensive Reading……………………………………………….. 4
[Link]. Extensive Reading………………………………………………. 5
1.1.4. Characteristics of Extensive Reading…………………………………….. 5
1.1.5. The Basic Principles of Extensive Reading………………………………. 5
1.1.6. The Importance of Extensive Reading…………………………………… 6
1.1.7. Objectives of Extensive Reading………………………………………..... 6
1.1.8. Reading and Writing Relationship……………………………………… 6
1.2. Writing Skill……………………………………………………………………… 7
1.2.1. Definition of Writing……………………………………………………... 7
1.2.2. Characteristics of Academic Writing…………………………………….. 8
1.2.3. Academic Writing within the Classroom………………………………… 10
[Link] Studies………………………………………………………………….. 11
[Link] of an academic Article………………………………………………. 12
Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………….. 16

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 2. Chapter Two: Critical Review of the Articles
Introduction…………………………………………………………………………..... 17
2.1. Evaluation of Mermelstein’s Article entitled Improving EFL Learners’ Writing
through Enhanced Extensive Reading…………………………………………….. 17
[Link] of the Article………………………………………………….. 18
[Link] of the Literature Review……………………………………….. 20
[Link] of the Methodology……………………………………………. 21
[Link]. Evaluation of the Research Design……………………………. 22
[Link]. Evaluation of the Data Collection Methods…………………….. 23
[Link] of Ouafi’s Article labeled The Effect of Extensive Reading on
Algerian University Students’ Writing Performance……………………………… 24
2.2.1. Summary of the Article…………………………………………………... 24
2.2.2. Analysis of the Literature Review ……………………………………….. 27
2.2.3. Analysis of the Methodology…………………………………………….. 28
[Link]. Evaluation of the Research Design……………………………… 28
[Link]. Evaluation of the Data Collection Methods…………………….. 30
[Link] Drawn from the Evaluation of the Articles………………………….. 31
[Link] and Reliability of the Articles………………………..…………. 31
[Link] Implications…………………………………………….…….…... 33
Conclusion……………………………………………………………………….……. 33
General Conclusion……………………………………………………………………. 35
References……………………………………………………………………………... 37
‫………………ملخص‬.………………………………………………………………….. 42

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 List of Abbreviations

CG: Control Group

EFL: English as a Foreign Language

ER: Extensive Reading

SSR: Sustained Silent Reading

TEEP: Test of English for Educational Purposes

TG: Treatment Group

viii
 General Introduction

Academic articles are one type of sources used to find out what has been studied on a
topic in any field. They are written by experts or professionals for the aim of reporting an
experimentation to the audience. EFL learners rely on academic articles when they are given
assignments, most of them are not aware of how to deal with these articles, due to the lack
of experience in this field. Therefore, they face difficulties in tackling an article and deducing
the needed information. Writing a critical evaluation of an article cannot be done without an
overview of its major components.

1. Statement of the purpose:

Our study is a critical review of two academic articles in the extensive reading and
writing fields. The main objective of this work is to analyze the structure and content of both
articles in terms of literature review, research design and methods of data collection. In
addition, the aim is to compare and contrast the strength and weaknesses of the articles’
validity and reliability, and the goal of the study is to provide future researchers with some
suggestions for the secondary research.

2. Research Question

This study raised the following question:

To what extent are the articles written by Mermelstein and Ouafi in the ER and writing fiels
valid and reliable?

3. Hypothesis

This study is designed to assess the hypothesis that if the triangulation of data
collection methods, and the generalization of the research findings increases the validity and
reliability of that research.

4. Limitation of the study

The main limitation of this work was the spread of the COVID19 Pandemic.
Therefore, we didn’t have access to libraries, only the intenet. The same reason made it
difficult for us to meet our supervisor, and have face to face discussions which are much
more helpful than emails. Finally, our limited knowledge of methodology may affect our
article’s research design, development and organization of the content.

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Structure of the dissertation:

This research consists of two main chapters. The first chapter presents the theoretical
background of reading and writing. Its first section tackles the reading skill, it presents the
extensive reading with its principles and importance and connection with the writing. The
second section discusses the perspectives of the writing skill. The third section of the first
chapter presents some of the major studies conducted on the ER and writing fields; and the
last section deals with the components of an academic article. The second chapter provides
a critical evaluation and analysis of the articles written by Mermelstein (2015) and Ouafi
(2019) in terms of structure and content.

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Chapter One
Literature Review
CHAPTER ONE LITERATURE REVIEW

Introduction

Reading is an important part in the EFL classroom. It supports the processes of

language learning in terms of knowledge and new experiences in different domains.
Therefore, it is highly recommended for learners to become active readers. This chapter
consists of three sections. The first section provides definitions of reading, and reading
comprehension. Henceforth, we will identify the extensive reading (ER), its benefits,
importance and objectives, then, we will finish with the relationship between reading and
writing. The second section is devoted to academic writing, its characteristics, and the
academic writing within the classroom. Then, we will identify some of the empirical studies
conducted on the ER field, and finally, we will devote the last section to the components of
an academic article.

1.1. The Reading Skill

The present section opens with defining the reading skill, and highlights the common
types of reading. In addition, it provides an overview on ER, its benefits, importance and
objectives.

1.1.1. Definition of Reading

A wide range of definitions has been given to reading by many experts. Reading is
identified as a very important skill that the students must master since it is a fundamental
element in the teaching and learning process.

Reading is the ability to comprehend written words and utilize the knowledge for
personal growth and development (Dadzie, 2008). People read for various reasons and
purposes, such as pleasure, relaxation, information, and for knowledge.

Kimberly (2014) refers to reading in her blog as “a dynamic process in which

information from the text and knowledge possessed by the reader interact to enable him to
construct meaning before, during and after reading”. That is, reading as a cognitive-driven
process, is a way of constructing ideas and meanings that are shaped in a text. Indeed, that
makes it a complex process and a skill that requires interrelated sources and mental
mechanisms that generate and critically discuss information.

Urquhart and Weir (1998, p.22) considered reading as “reviewing and interpreting

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CHAPTER ONE LITERATURE REVIEW

information encoded language from the medium of print”. Throughout the variant
definitions, reading seems to be a mechanism of comprehending that occurs when we check
information and analyze them from a sign or a text. The common conclusion states that
reading is such a complex process, it cannot be captured in one single statement.
Understanding the reading skill necessitates an overview of the reading comprehension
which will be tackled in the next section.

1.1.2. Reading Comprehension

Reading comprehension means understanding what is read. Kimberly (2014) clarifies

the concept of comprehension as a process of constructing meaning. She emphasized the
word ‘recognition’ as being an important step in reading for decoding and understanding.
Moreover, Snow (2002) describes reading comprehension as a way of eliciting and
structuring meaning through the dynamic interaction and involvement with the written text,
she adds that the reader, the text and the activity are the three main elements involved in
reading comprehension.

Reading comprehension is defined by Bos and Vaughn (2003, p.312) as a process of

interacting with the text. Thus, the author’s intended meaning is caught by the reader through
the latter’s background knowledge and capability of comprehending. In sum, comprehension
comes as a result of an interaction between the author, the text, and reader. Several researchers
believe that reading comprehension is reinforced with the diversity of the topics that are to
be read in addition to the comprehensive essence of reading instruction. Such a dynamic
process gives instances of different reading types that should be highlighted.

1.1.3. Types of Reading

Reading is one important skill in the language classroom and it can be divided into
two main types, intensive and extensive reading, which may differ in terms of purpose, level
and length.

[Link]. Intensive Reading

In intensive reading (or reflective) reading, learners usually read a page to explore
the meaning of words, sentences, and paragraphs. During this type of reading, the learners
gain detailed text comprehension. Intensive reading is also called a creative process, for
learners will be able to form a critical view; in terms of stating opinions about the content,

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CHAPTER ONE LITERATURE REVIEW

the arguments, the language used, the message, the intention, and the form of the text.
Learners try to grasp every meaning including the arguments and details. It involves the
learning of complex grammatical structures and discourse analyses techniques that form the
reading process.

[Link]. Extensive Reading

Extensive reading is a language teaching method in which students are asked to read
large amounts of materials or long texts for global comprehension; the main objective is to
obtain pleasure from the content. (Bamford and Day, 2004).

The term "extensive reading" was initially instituted by Palmer (1917) and later on
various terms have been utilized to refer to ER such as: supplementary reading, Book Flood,
uninterrupted sustained silent reading, sustained silent reading, free voluntary reading, free
reading, etc.

There are two types of extensive reading. Nation (2009) claimed that the first type is
when readers focus on meaning as input; whereas the second type is to read for fluency
development (p.64). From this standpoint, we can summarize that extensive reading refers
to a case where students -with less or no guidance from the teacher- learn to read by reading
(Paulson and Bruder, 1976, p.199). In this respect, some features of extensive reading should
be clarified for further simplification.

1.1.4. Characteristics of Extensive Reading

Hedges (2000) listed some of the extensive reading characteristics. He started by the
quantity since large number of stories, novels, newspapers are the materials. Also, time
characterizes extensive reading because reading frequently requires time. Another feature is
that first reading is for general meaning, primarily for pleasure, curiosity, or professional
interest; then reading over for concentration. Extensive reading of longer texts can be during
class time but also engaging in individual, independent reading at home, ideally of self-
selected material (p.202).

1.1.5. The Basic Principles of Extensive Reading

Bamford and Day (2004, p.2) presented ten basic principles of ER approach. We note
that the easiness and the availability of the reading materials are the main principles. They

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CHAPTER ONE LITERATURE REVIEW

further listed others like learners choice of reading, reading frequency, speed and purpose,
reading as individual and silent, reading as an own reward, guidance to reading, the teacher
as a role model as a reader. These principles are important, for they are the ER guidelines
that every reader should identify.

1.1.6. The Importance of Extensive Reading

Nation (1997, p.15) claims that with time various studies have revealed that extensive
reading plays a significant role on language learners in different ways. Those who read
extensively would improve their reading proficiency, reading habits, reading fluency, and
vocabulary retention, as well as writing and spelling.

In addition, Bamford and Day (2004, p.1) states that “students who read more will
not only become better and more confident readers, but they will also improve their reading,
writing, listening, speaking abilities and their vocabularies will get richer”. He raised the
motivational aspects of extensive reading as well as the inspirational parts of broad, seeing
its significance in creating developing attitudes towards the foreign language and expanding
the motivation for learning that language. Furthermore, extensive reading is significant
within writing assignments for it gives students devices to make reading progressively
important and to enhance their general language skills.

1.1.5 Objectives of Extensive Reading

Day and Bamford (1998) claimed that the main aims of extensive are to increase
confidence and motivation in reading; to create comfortable reading without stopping to look
up to unfamiliar vocabulary or difficult items; and to increase speed and fluency in reading.
Extensive reading also helps students to choose reading materials for their own interests and
language ability. Day and Bamford (1998) added other aims like enhancing background and
world knowledge as well as sharing information and personal reactions and opinions about
books in informal situation. (p. 45-46)

2.1.5 Reading and Writing Relationships

Various researchers held the view that extensive reading results in writing
proficiency. This view was elaborated based on Krashen (1982) to L2 in his “reading input
hypothesis,” which is related to his “comprehensive input” hypothesis. Krashen’s “reading
input hypothesis” states that extensive, self-directed pleasure reading in the target language

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CHAPTER ONE LITERATURE REVIEW

impacts writing competence and enhances writing style. This hypothesis suggests that good
readers have a significant skill that can help them become good writers.

Reading and writing are viewed as separated skills because the former is passive
whereas the latter is productive; however, these two language skills are complementary and
can be developed in a close matter. Johnson (2008, p.07) believes that the relationship
between these two skills is that better writers are the result of good readers, who are constantly
in contact with the rules of grammar, consequently they develop the language structure, and
increase their vocabulary; hence, in the writing classroom, reading is viewed as the
appropriate input for the acquisition of writing skill.

Stotsky (1983) described the connection between reading and writing as the former
is an achievement while the latter is an ability. Also, writing quality depends on reading
experience. For that, many considered that good writers are those who experienced reading
well. Better readers produce more qualified writing that poorer ones do (p.42). At this point,
it becomes necessary to provide some space for writing to be introduced and detailed.

1.2. Writing Skill

In relation to the reading skill, writing is also an important skill and process in the
language learning. The present section defines writing and presents its steps. The features of
academic writing are also provided.

1.2.1. Definition of Writing

Numerous researchers and analysts characterized writing in various manners.

Yakhontova (2003 p.18) stated that writing is seen as a sort of verbal art that is thought to
be mastered in its three perspectives—orthographic, grammatical, and stylistic.

In terms of pedagogy, writing is a foundation in the language teaching setting as

students are required to write notes and to take composed tests. However, throughout the
years it has appeared that writing has been viewed as just supportive system for learning
sentence structure and jargon instead of an aptitude in its own right. Similarly, scholars have
taken a closer look at writing in the foreign language study classroom and recognized the
importance of writing as an essential aptitude for speakers of a foreign language as much as
for everybody utilizing their first language. (Harmer, 2004).

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CHAPTER ONE LITERATURE REVIEW

Writing as a skill has a solid connection with different abilities, particularly speaking
and reading. Writing, according to Rivers and Temerly (1978, p.263) as different to speaking,
is a regulated arrangement of communication and a basic device in the academic learning.
Also, written topics remain as permanent while the spoken language is impermanent.
Additionally, Widdowson (1978) defined writing as an act of producing right words and
transmitting them into sentences on paper. That is, writing is a way to recording one's
thoughts and emotions through utilizing a right sentence structure.

The previous definitions refer to writing in the general term; nonetheless, there is a
specific term which is academic writing. Students in universities are obliged to compose
distinctive tasks during their studies (e.g. essays, research papers, articles). All those are
academic writings and they have some principles such as style, structure, and content. They
are written for a specific type of audience (Mennens and Wilkinson, 2002).

Academic writing cannot be defined as “academic” if some features and

characteristics are not apparent in its process, content, and criticality. Thus, it is important at
this point to provide the major characteristics of academic writing.

1.2.3. Characteristics of Academic Writing

Academic writing has a number of language features that make it appear formal.
These characteristics are as follows: organization, clarity, coherence, and word choice.

[Link]. Organization

Organization is the structural system of writing. It is important because it gives

readers a framework to assist them in fulfilling their expectation for the text. The procedure
of organization needs some stages. Starkey (2004) stated:

By following an organized method of writing, you will guide your reader from
your first to last sentence. He or she will be able to see how the various points you
make in your [piece of writing] work together and how they support your thesis
(p.2).

Shannon (2011) stated that there are two sorts of methods used to arrange the
composed material. The informal methods which incorporate brainstorming, free writing and
mind mapping which are utilized so as to manage the organization of the paper. Whereas,

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CHAPTER ONE LITERATURE REVIEW

formal techniques which represent the classic layout which contains the general idea with its
well developed and organized details for the reason of supporting the writer.

[Link]. Clarity

Academic writing should be clear enough for the readers to assist them with
assimilating the ideas easily. Clarity is basic in writing essays it makes them understandable.
Murray and Hughes (2008) indicated that accomplishing clarity is to write clear, short
sentences, relevant, and not ambiguous.

Murray and Hughes (2008) added that clear writing is when writers provide their
topic sentences in paragraphs, establish the topic at the beginning, move smoothly from a set
of information to another, and keep their directness in expressing ideas. Clear academic
writing makes professional writers.

[Link]. Coherence

Coherence is a significant perspective of academic writing; the good style implies

relating the smallest components which are sentences and paragraphs into a linked chain that
will strike the large number of readers. Harmer (2004, p.25) stated that readers can
comprehend the author's motivation and his/her line of thoughts just if the content is
intelligible and coherent. Coherence, therefore, is achieved by putting information and
sentences in order and without ambiguities.

[Link]. Word Choice

The most ideal method for the students to precisely pass on their thoughts in writing
is to pick the correct words. Shannon (2011, p.18) noted "authors should always aim for the
most precise language possible in writing. In academic and scholarly writing, that principle
is even more important". The right utilization of words guarantees the comprehension of the
written work, and the most ideal method to convey the ideas accurately. Shannon (2011) and
Starkey (2004) claimed that there are two angles that students ought to consider while
picking the words to be utilized: denotation and connotation. Denotative meanings represent
the major or basic literal meaning of words. However, connotative meanings are the implied
or secondary meanings of words (Starkey, 2004, p.21)

Academic writing characteristics are viewed as significant components that students

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CHAPTER ONE LITERATURE REVIEW

must be aware of. Those components would improve the learning procedure in general and
improve the writing skill knowledge specifically. However, from the teacher’s perspective,
there are some approaches to teach the writing skill and incorporate these components in the
academic shape.

1.2.4. Academic Writing within the Classroom

The two main actors in class are the teacher and the learner. For that, the role of both
should be demonstrated in relation to teaching/learning writing as well as the reading
material.

[Link]. The Role of the Teacher

In order to value the learning experience, students ought to be involved in the process
of writing. First of all, the teacher should motivate students to participate, refine, and extend
the writing ability which requires a specific pragmatic methodology. Along these lines,
educators or instructors ought to be clear about the skill expected to improve, next they
should decide the suitable approach that encourages and facilitates the objective. Commonly,
the instructors' job became noteworthy to guide their students' work, practice in the aspects
of various writings and clarifications, give them opportunities, and then provide criticism
and freedom. Indeed, instructors are responsible for students' product in writing essay,
reports, or whatever bit of writing. (Flower et al., 2007)

[Link]. The Role of the Student

During the learning of the writing aptitude, students should be confident. In

particular, they should be autonomous and independent; although, they frequently abstain
from writing and take it with less proficiency unlike different aptitudes; speaking, reading,
and listening, the explanation is that the students face a white paper, or the screen; therefore,
they feel that they don't have the knowledge, and experience that language learning require;
in addition to that, the view in the classroom that writing must be correct fortifies the
students' intention to write effectively.(Flower et al., 2007)

[Link]. The Role of Reading Material

It is common that the reading skill is the backbone of writing. Palmer (1993) viewed
it as the accomplishment of writing since a perfect essay cannot be done by students who

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CHAPTER ONE LITERATURE REVIEW

learn English as L2; however, reading other works will assist them to build a solid
background; moreover, gain some matters of style, structures and so on. Generally, reading
tasks help students avoid making mistakes, familiarize with topic and develop ideas. "In the
classroom reading with a goal in mind can help students focus their writing process" (Flower
et al., 2007, p.182).

Writing is such a complex skill that cannot occur in vacuum; thus, numerous studies
have been conducted in order to prove the belief that says ER improves writing. The next
chapter will provide some of these studies that were of positive results.

1.3. Empirical Studies

Over the last decades, many researchers have conducted studies to prove the
correlation between reading and writing. They demonstrated the benefits and positive effects
of ER on writing proficiency. This section is devoted to some of these studies that were in
favor to the claim.

Hafiz and Tudor (1989) adopted an ER program with some follow up writing
assignments. The experiment was conducted on Pakistani ESL learners in a UK school. ER
took place outside the classroom, the study lasted for three months and the outcomes of the
experimental were compared with a control group from the same city at the end. The results
showed that the experimental group achieved a significant improvement and outperformed
the control group. The researchers concluded that the improvement took place due to the
exposure to a variety of lexical, syntactic, and textual features in the reading material.

Tsang (1996) conducted another study that shows the effectiveness of ER on the
writing skill. He adopted an ER program with different-level participants from Hong Kong.
The aim of the study was to know to what extent the combination of ER and frequent writing
on developing descriptive skills in writing. Students participated in three English programs:
(A) regular plus ER, (B) regular plus unrelated mathematics program, and (C) regular plus
frequent writing practice. Results showed significant improvement in the writing skill of the
participants. Thus, the regular plus ER program was significantly effective while the regular
plus frequent writing practice and regular plus mathematics program were not.

Furthermore, Alrajhi (2004) conducted a qualitative research to investigate the

impact of internet ER on the participants’ writing style. The participants were two groups.

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CHAPTER ONE LITERATURE REVIEW

The first one included five males and five females Saudi participants who have an experience
with ER through the internet, and the other one represented three males and three females
who were skeptical about the benefits of reading online. All the participants were interviewed
and samples of the participants’ writings were analyzed. The study showed that internet
reading has a positive impact on writing styles.

Mermelstein (2015) conducted an ER study during one year. Based on previously

conducted programs, he established an enhancement of five conditions for the purpose of
receiving significantly higher levels of writing improvements. The participants were EFL
Taiwanese learners divided into two groups, the treatment group that consisted of 27 male
and 80 female students, in addition to a control group that consisted of 33 male and 71 female
students. The results showed that the treatment group outperformed the control group. The
researchers concluded that the enhanced ER program achieved significant gain among the
learners.

In the Algerian context, Ouafi (2019) investigated the effect of ER on EFL university
students’ writing performance. She developed a newly designed experiment with two
groups. The participants were 30 first year female students divided into the experimental
group that had to read 12 stories over three months and a control group who did not receive
any treatment. The results indicated a positive effect of the ER program as the experimental
group outscored the control group on the narrative paragraph writing test.

1.4. Components of an Academic article

Writing a critical review requires a general insight of the components of an academic

article written in the educational research. The typical structure of an academic article is as
follows: title, abstract, keywords, introduction, literature review, research methods, results,
discussion, and references.

1.4.1. The Title

The purpose of the title is to inform the reader about the field of the study. According
to Fischer and Zigmond (2004), the title is a major determinant of whether to read the paper
or not. It should demonstrate the main theme of the paper, and contain relevant terms to help
readers find that paper when searching a relevant topic. Kotzé (2007) believes that the title
should reflect the nature and focus of the study, should be specific and answer the what,

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CHAPTER ONE LITERATURE REVIEW

how, with whom, and in what context the study is conducted.

1.4.2. Abstract and Keywords

The abstract is one of the important components of a research article. It summarizes

the content of the article in a one block paragraph. The readers scan the abstract of an article
in order to decide whether it is convenient for their research or not. Perry et al (2003, p.658)
stated that an abstract ought to include these elements:

• A brief sentence to guide the reader towards the issue addressed in that research. It
should attract his/ her attention

• It should demonstrate the purpose of the study

• It should explain the academic and/or practical importance of the study

• It should briefly describe the methodology used in the research

• The major findings of the research should be summarized

• The gap filled in the literature should be indicated in a statement of conclusion

Directly after the abstract a maximum of eight keywords should be included in the
abstract to serve as a hook that attracts the readers’ attention to the theme, the research
design, and the context of the study.

1.4.3. Introduction

Perry et al. (2003, p.658) describes the introduction as an executive summary that
provides the readers with an overview of what is included in the article. The introduction
should provide the reader with background on the study described in the paper, it should
orientate them to the research. It includes introducing the problem and the question of the
study, and stating the purpose and rationale of the research. The information included in the
article should be stated in the following order:

• The reason behind undertaking the research: it should state the gap in the
knowledge of the field that the author is trying to fill with his research.

• The nature of the research: it should include the variables and the methods used

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CHAPTER ONE LITERATURE REVIEW

in the research.

• The problem clearly stated at the end of the study: it should contain a brief
statement of the main results presented in the article in addition to the implications of
the study.

1.4.4. Literature Review

The literature review is one important component of an academic scholarly article. It

should provide an overview of the available theories and literature of the research’s theme
and problem. The main purpose of the literature review is to “look again” at what has been
said and done regarding a specific topic (Leedy and Ormrod, 2005). The literature review
critically evaluates and synthesizes the previous work in order to identify a gap to fill it in
with the present research to be conducted. The author of the article has to go through the
literature and focus on the issue, he/she should represent opposite views while presenting a
theoretical framework in order to fill the gap in the knowledge.

1.4.5. Methodology

The purpose of this section is to enable readers to evaluate the methods used, the
consistency, the reliability and validity of the study. The researcher describes all the aspects
of methodology used in this section in order for readers to replicate the work (Fischer and
Zigmond, 2004). The methods or methodology section normally has sub-sections, Kotzé
(2007) stated them as follows:

• Participants or Sample: This sub-section describes the target population in terms

of number and characteristics, research context and units of analyses, in addition to the
sampling procedure.

• Data Collection Procedures: The researcher should provide a brief description

of the instruments used in data collection, and explain the function of each tool. Each
step in the research procedure also should be explain in details; for instance, the
instructions to the participants, the group formation, and the experimental
manipulations if there are any.

• Measurement: This sub-suction should describe the scales and questions of the
questionnaire in details.

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CHAPTER ONE LITERATURE REVIEW

1.4.6. Results

This section should contain a synopsis of the data collected and the main findings
of the study so that the researcher justifies the way he/she reached the conclusions drawn in
the article. All data surrounding the hypothesis should be discussed. The results should be
reported in enough details in order for the reader to identify which statistical analyses were
undertook and why (American Psychological Association, 2001, p.20). In order for the data
to be clearly represented, tables and figures should be used by the researcher so that the
reader understands what it means and why it is important.

1.4.6. Discussion

The discussion serves as an interpretation of the data and findings expressed in

figures and tables in the results section (Fischer and Zigmond, 2004). This section provides
information in a form of texts, it evaluates and interprets the results of the study in relation
to the research question.

According to Perry et al (2003) the discussion section should:

• Contain the main purpose of the study.

• Provide a summary of the results in relation to the study’s objectives or

hypothesis.

• Indicate the relation of the findings with the literature and the results reported by
previous researchers.

• Identify some explanations for ambiguous ad unexpected findings.

• Provide the major limitations of the study that may influence its validity.

• Suggest some possible directions for future research.

1.4.7. References

The aim of the references is to identify the full citation for a source referenced in
the text (Fischer and Zigmond 2004). It should be a list of all the sources accessed in the
preparation of the article. It includes the authors’ names, the title of the article, the journal

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CHAPTER ONE LITERATURE REVIEW

name, the volume number, page numbers, and the year of publication.

Conclusion

In this theoretical chapter, we have provided an overview of Extensive reading and

Academic writing. The first section was devoted to reading, in which we attempted to define
the skill based on different researchers’ views along with the reading comprehension, and
then, we identified the types of reading including intensive and extensive reading. The
objectives of extensive reading were highlighted along with the relationship between reading
and writing relying on different scholars’ beliefs.

The second section was assigned to the writing skill, including definitions and the
most important characteristics of academic writing. Moreover, we have mentioned the
importance of the students and teachers’ roles in the academic writing within the classroom..
The third section was devoted to some of the major empirical studies conducted on this field,
we identified their procedures and their results that were in favor of the belief that says ER
improves writing. The last section highlighted the components of an academic article
namely, the title, abstract and keywords, introduction, literature review, methodology,
discussion, and the list of references.

In brief, reading and writing are not easy skills, they require both instructors and
students to obtain some knowledge and information that would reinforce the process of
teaching and learning. Therefore, the extensive reading within the classroom is crucial as it
guides learners to become better writers. Research has shown the positive impact of ER on
writing proficiency. In our research we will examine some of the studies mentioned
previously, the one of Mermelstein (2015) in Taiwan, in addition to Ouafi’s study in Algeria.
We will critically review and compare the strengths and weaknesses of both research papers.

16
 Chapter Two
Critical Review of the Articles
CHAPTER TWO CRITICAL REVIEW OF THE ARTICLES

Introduction

The main purpose of this part of the study is to analyze two chosen articles written
on ER and writing in terms of research design, methods of data collection used, and to
compare the extent of their validity, reliability, and the ethical considerations.

The first article written by Mermelstein (2015) (henceforth article A) is concerned

with improving EFL learners’ writing through enhanced extensive reading. It highlights the
importance of an enhanced design of extensive reading towards developing learners’ writing
abilities. The second article written by Ouafi (2019) (henceforth article B) discusses
extensive reading and its effect on Algerian university students’ writing performance. It
concentrates on investigating the potential impact of ER on EFL students’ performance in
narrative writing.

The rationale behind choosing these articles is to find out how different they are in
terms of their research strategies, and the data collection tools. Also, to check to what extent
their studies made the change in the existing knowledge, and who among the two researchers
identified the gap in the literature and filled it in with his/her findings. Hence, this study will
be useful for its readers to conduct studies in their complete procedures, and also to create a
guideline for future research.

In this chapter, we will begin with providing the reviews, analyses and evaluations
of the components of both articles separately, then compare and contrast the conclusions
drawn from the evaluation. The first section is devoted to article A: the overview of the study,
the analysis of the research design, in addition to the evaluation of data collection methods
used. For the second section, we will review and evaluate article B based on the same
structure. Finally, the last section compares and contrasts the two studies in terms of
weaknesses and strengths in regards to validity, reliability, and the ethical implementations.
The rationale for choosing this outline is to guide the readers toward a detailed review and
evaluation of the two articles separately first, then, provide them with a clear comparison of
the two articles in terms of structure and content.

2.1 Evaluation of Mermelstein’s Article entitled Improving EFL Learners’

Writing through Enhanced Extensive Reading.

The present section opens with a summary of the article’s components. Moreover, it

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CHAPTER TWO CRITICAL REVIEW OF THE ARTICLES

highlights the analysis of the literature review undertook in this research paper. It also
provides a critical evaluation of the methodology in terms of research design and methods
of data collection of the study.

2.1.1. Summary of the Article

As clearly stated in the title, this article is about an enhanced extensive reading
program and its effect on improving EFL learners’ writing. This article is composed of an
abstract, an introduction, previous related studies, methods, results, discussion, conclusion,
and a list of references.

The first part is the abstract, in which the author started with presenting the purpose
of this study that seeks out methods to improve the reading and writing of the EFL learners.
It was a one year study of the impact of an ER enhanced design towards improving the
writing abilities. Mermelstein measured the writing’s pre and post-tests according to the scale
of Jacobs, Zingraf, Wormoth, Hartfield, and Hughey (1981) that focuses on five key areas:
content, organization, vocabulary, language use, and mechanics; however, he added a sixth
subscale which is fluency. In addition, he shed light on the positive outcomes of his enhanced
previously established ER protocols among the learners.

Then, he started the introduction of his article with some background information
with regards to the issues that EFL teachers face during their teaching journey. He held the
view that time is an important key factor in the language learning classrooms for both
teachers and students. He also presented some studies that have been conducted with regard
to reading and writing relationship, and linked them to the common definition of ER that is
individualized and aims at pleasure. From this point, he defined ER according to his study as
follows “…reading as much as possible within the learner’s peak acquisition zone, for the
purpose of gaining reading experience and general language skills”. Mermelstein (2015,
p.182)

The following point in Mermelstein’s article is the literature review. In this section,
he dealt with previous studies related to ER and writing improvements in order to shed light
on the fact that the integration of ER in the classroom can effectively develop the writing
abilities among EFL learners. He gave many references that agree with and support this
belief; nevertheless, he only focused on five of those studies that a) examined the effect of a
reading program on the writing aptitudes of EFL learners, b) used the descriptive writing as

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CHAPTER TWO CRITICAL REVIEW OF THE ARTICLES

an evaluation of the students’ abilities, and c) noted that the participants’ performance was
at higher levels than their comparisons groups in many key areas. Mermelstein identified the
gap in the previous studies; therefore, he based his study on a hypothesis of exposing EFL
learners to five main conditions that form the enhanced design, and would gain more
effective results.

The next section dealt with the research method; the researcher identified the setting,
the participants, the reading materials, the intervention and the data collection instruments
used to conduct this study. He provided a rationale behind each choice and gave a detailed
description of the steps and procedures he followed. The participants were Taiwan university
students of different majors, gender, and language levels and abilities. The university
provides its students with a four year EFL course of eight levels; however, the classes were
of mixed-ability levels since there were no specific placement exams upon entering the
university. Henceforth, the ER treatment took place in the treatment groups’ classrooms once
a week as sustained silent reading, and lasted only twenty minutes; the graded reader books
were given to students according to their levels after conducting a reading placement test.
The data collection instruments used were a graded reader record sheets, classroom
observation during the SSR, and the writing samples of the pre- and post-tests. On the other
hand, the control groups were given an hour of English homework assignments weekly.

The following section in the article is the results where he began with the
observation’s findings under the title ‘Time on Task’. He explained that the observation was
done weekly during the SSR where he took notes about the participants’ eye movements,
pages turned, body language and movements, in addition to their facial expressions. He also
discussed the outcomes from the students’ reading record sheets both inside and outside the
classroom. The last point dealt with in the results is the writing measurements where the
researcher provided us with the content of both pre- and post-tests which was ‘descriptive
writing’ in both cases with similar topics. The results of the pre-tests indicated that there was
no statistically significant difference between the treatment and the comparison groups in
five out of six categories except fluency that was slightly different. The results of post-tests
were analyzed using a paired sampled t test, starting with comparing the control groups’
means scores for pre- and post-tests, then, the treatment groups’. The results were yielded in
2 different tables, in addition to another table and interpretation and comparison of both pre-
and post-test scores of the TG to the CG in all six subscales using the mean scores.

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CHAPTER TWO CRITICAL REVIEW OF THE ARTICLES

The next section was given to the discussion in which the researcher provided the
purpose behind conducting the study, the detailed procedures he followed during the
treatment period, and the positive results of both the TG and the CG in all the subscales. In
this section, Mermelstein compared his findings to the five similar studies using statistical
significance first, then, to two studies using effect sizes, and finally, he compared this study’s
total duration to the total time spent in reading.

The last section was devoted to the conclusion, Mermelstein imparted the importance
of integrating ER that provided greater results in his study; hence, he suggested considering
the use of ER methods in the classroom to promote the learning. In addition, he provided us
with the limitations to his study that were the control over the time spent on the outside class
English homework for the CG, and the manner of scoring the pre- and post-tests that was
done in separate times; thus, he suggested a blind rating system for future researchers.

The upcoming section provides a critical analysis and evaluation of the procedures
used by Mermelstein in the review of literature.

2.1.2. Analysis of the Literature Review

Aveyard (2010) defines the literature review as a "comprehensive study and

interpretation of literature that addresses a specific topic" (p.2). Indeed, the review of
literature focuses on understanding what has been said and done about one specific topic. As
previously mentioned, Mermelstein in his study devoted this part of the article to the
previous studies related to ER and writing improvements. This type of literature review is
known as the systematic review which can be explained as a research method and process
of synthesizing relevant research findings in a systematic, clear, and consistent way (Davis
et al, 2014). It aims at finding much reliable research on the particular research question to
produce varied and reliable results. In this case, the researcher analyzed the previous studies
conducted in the field of ER and writing developments. Nevertheless, his focus was on only
five of those studies which met at the use of a reading program on descriptive writing’s
proficiency.

Mermelstein reported that Lee and Hsu’s study (2009) presented the highest
improvement in all key areas: fluency, content, organization, vocabulary, language use, and
mechanics. However, the rest of the five studies mentioned previously had some negative
finding in addition to their positive ones, for their treatment groups did not outperform their

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CHAPTER TWO CRITICAL REVIEW OF THE ARTICLES

comparison groups in one or two areas. Lee and Hsu (2009) suggested that the lack of
improvement in some of the key areas is due to the design flaws of their studies. Henceforth,
Lee and Hsu created a new program that focused on more reading materials, less
accountability and longer duration which was of 30 weeks. The participants were asked to do
a 50 minutes in- class reading, one book per week, and filling out reading logs, in addition
to writing a brief reflection paragraph summary at the end of each book reading. This is why
their results were highly significant in all six areas. However, Mermelstein identified the gap
in Lee and Hsu’s study (2009) concerning the practicality of the ER treatment, the ER
treatment itself in terms of the reading proficiency level of the students, and the after reading
requirements. He believed that 50 minutes is a long reading activity for the learners, and it
might be impractical to devote such period of classroom time for reading each week. Also,
allowing the students to choose the reading material according to their interests neglects the
fact that their reading proficiency level maybe lower or higher; in addition, he emphasized
that the amount of requirements placed upon the participants by Lee and Hsu was still too
high for many EFL learners saying that it goes against the principles of Day and Bamford
(1998) for a successful ER program that is related to pleasure, information and
understanding.

In this regard, the researcher established five conditions to conduct his study for the
purpose of receiving a significantly higher levels of writing improvements of the TG who
were exposed to the ER unlike the CG. These conditions were in terms of large and varied
reading materials, placing students in their optimal reading level, longer and balanced
duration of the treatment, in addition to placing less accountability on the students.

Henceforth, we can say that Mermelstein provided the detailed steps in analyzing the
relevant evidence, identified a gap, and created a new enhanced ER treatment. The aim was
to build a knowledge base for his research that helped him addressing the gap and supporting
his hypothesis. This will lead us to evaluating the methodological section of Mermelstein’s
article.

2.1.3. Analysis of the Methodology

In this part of the critical review, we will deal with an evaluation of the research
design in terms of the aim of the article, the research hypothesis, the layout, and the
procedures in which the research paper was carried out. In addition, we will shed light on the

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CHAPTER TWO CRITICAL REVIEW OF THE ARTICLES

methods of data collection used by Mermelstein in conducting his research in terms of

weaknesses and strength.

[Link]. Evaluation of the Research Design

In his article, the researcher provided a clear academically designed framework of a

research paper. The first component was the title, in which the researcher clearly indicated
what the research was about without being too long or short to be informative, for it presented
the nature of the relationship between the variables which is the correlation between the
extensive reading and writing, in addition to the context of the study that is the EFL
classrooms.

As for the abstract, the author started by providing the purpose behind his study, why
and how the research was carried out, in addition to the outcomes and the conclusion he
reached. Mermelstein followed the informative abstract that allows the readers to elaborate
upon each major aspect of the paper, and to decide whether to read the rest of the article or
not. Since his abstract was informative and attractive enough, it caught our attention as
readers to continue the rest of the paper’s components. Keywords were also given
importance in the abstract in order to define the field and the context of the study.

In the following section, Mermelstein was at a specific extent ambiguous, because

his introduction was only based on some background information in addition to what other
researchers have done in the field of ER and writing. When dealing with the introduction,
the reader finds himself looking for the problem and the aim of the study. What lacks in the
introduction is a clear statement that presents the purpose behind conducting such study in
such field.

Mermelstein stated that his study is based on a hypothesis that says if EFL learners
were exposed to the five conditions of his enhanced ER program, improvements would be
significantly higher on the measurements of writing. Hypotheses in the educational field are
defined as predictions made about the expected relationships between variables (Creswell
2009). In this study the type of hypothesis used was the alternative or directional hypothesis.
Mermelstein made a prediction about the expected outcome that is the improvements of
writing abilities, this prediction was based on prior literature and studies that suggested a
potential result. In this regard, the hypothesis in the research field has both advantages and
disadvantages, if the hypothesis is well thought out, it will place clear and specific objectives

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CHAPTER TWO CRITICAL REVIEW OF THE ARTICLES

and guide the researcher toward selecting the appropriate sample and processes to meet these
goals. On the other hand, stating hypothesis can prevent researchers from noticing other
aspects that may be important to the study (Pandey and Pandey 2015). Nevertheless, in his
study, Mermelstein tried to cover all the important aspects. He provided a detailed report of
the procedures taken in the study to confirm his hypothesis.

The researcher described his sample in details in terms of characteristics, number,

and the selection process, in addition to the procedure; he explained the instructions given
to the participants, the formation of the groups, and the experimental manipulation. He
started by providing us with the general steps he went through in choosing the sample that
he described as the convenience sample due to a policy of the university; this sampling is
one type of the non-probability sampling also known as the accidental or incidental sampling.
The participants are samples in the study just because they are convenient sources of data
for the researcher, they are the available subjects without any randomization. As method of
sampling the convenient sampling has some demerits in addition to the merits. It is true that
this method of sampling is an easy one that reduces the time money and energy; however, it
is not free from errors and does not represent the whole population (Pandey and Pandey
2015). The researcher mentioned that the participants received an informed consent form
that they signed to indicate their agreement to participate in the study. This informs us of the
ethical considerations perceived by the researcher and implemented in his research.

[Link]. Evaluation of the Data Collection Methods

The methods employed in this research were the students’ writing samples as pre-
and post- tests, classroom observation, and the graded reader record sheets. Both the TG and
the CG were tested prior to the study, the observation took place during the ER treatment
weekly, and the students were asked to take notes of their progress in the graded reader
record sheets. At the end of the study a writing post-test for both the TG and CG was carried
out to compare the results of the improvements between the two groups. Henceforth, it is
important to mention that a triangulation approach was used to collect the data. In research,
this approach is defined as the use of multiple sources for data collection in order to enhance
the credibility of the study. Salkind (2010).

The researcher presented a recognizable methodological approach to demonstrate the

credible way of collecting, analyzing, and discussing the data for the research. The

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CHAPTER TWO CRITICAL REVIEW OF THE ARTICLES

positivistic view was chosen in interpreting the results, for Mermelstein interpreted his
findings depending on the results he gained, hence drawn his conclusions on. In this regard,
Dudovskiy (2016) states:

As a philosophy, positivism adheres to the view that only “factual” knowledge

gained through observation (the senses), including measurement, is trustworthy.
In positivism studies the role of the researcher is limited to data collection and
interpretation in an objective way. In these types of studies research findings are
usually observable and quantifiable. (p.12)

After interpreting his study, Mermelstein in the discussion section, provided a clear
comparison of the five previous studies in which his hypothesis was based upon in order to
highlight that his enhanced previously established ER treatment was of higher effects among
his participants than theirs. Then, he made some suggestions in integrating the ER treatment
among the EFL classrooms and provided some limitations to his study that may help future
researchers. All sources referred to in the research paper were cited clearly in the list of
references.

To sum up, this article clearly stated the exact detailed procedures that the researcher
undertook to confirm his hypothesis. Ethical implementation was appealing in his study, the
data collection methods were varied, analyzed and discussed in a clear manner which helps
the reader to follow the process step by step, and understand that the researcher is
experienced in this field. The next section is assigned to the second article we chose for our
critical review.

2.2 Evaluation of Ouafi’s Article: “The Effect of Extensive Reading on

Algerian University Students’ Writing Performance”

This section begins with a summary of the article’s components. In addition, it

underlines the evaluation of the literature review, and also provides a critical analysis of the
methodology in terms of research design and methods of data collection of the study.

2.2.1 Summary of the Article

As stated in the title, this article explores the effect of extensive reading on first year
Algerian university students’ writing performance. It is divided into the following parts:

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CHAPTER TWO CRITICAL REVIEW OF THE ARTICLES

abstract, introduction, theoretical background, the experimental investigation, presentation

of the results, discussion, pedagogical recommendations, limitations, conclusion, and list of
references.

The first part is the Abstract; the author stated the purpose of the study which is to
investigate the effect of extensive reading on first year Algerian university students’ writing
performance. She followed by presenting the experiment which includes two groups of
students: an experimental group who had to read 12 stories and a control one who didn’t
receive any treatment. Correcting the pre-test and post-test of both groups was done using
the Test in English for Educational Purposes attribute writing scale, and the author
highlighted the positive results of her study when the experimental group outscored the
control one in the post-test. The suggestion of integrating the ER into the writing syllabus
was proposed.

The author used the introduction to state the purpose and the structure of the study.
She divided it into two main parts: a theoretical one dedicated to reading and writing, and a
practical one dealing with the research methodology.

In the theoretical part, Ouafi explored numerous theories and hypotheses about her
field of research. She emphasized the reading-writing connections claiming that there is a
high correlation between good readers and good writers. She also stressed the effect of
extensive reading on students’ writing and followed it by the definition of ER, she described
it as the practice of pleasure reading for extended periods of time. The researcher pointed at
the reason behind conducting this study which is the little attention given to this area of
research in a foreign language context. The objective of her research lied in investigating the
impact of a three months ER program on the writing performance of the first-year university
students in terms of attitude and language gain. Ouafi highlighted that her study was to
answer the following research question: Does an ER program have any effect on first year
student’s performance in paragraph writing?

The following part was devoted to the experimental investigation. The research
methodology described the study as quasi-experimental that involved both quantitative and
qualitative approach to data collection. Therefore, a questionnaire which explored the
reaction of the students to the ER program was designed in addition to the pre- and post-
tests. The aim was to compare two groups’ performance on the tests. The author presented

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CHAPTER TWO CRITICAL REVIEW OF THE ARTICLES

the subjects, 18-20-year-old female intermediate Algerian students of the first-year English
degree course at the University of Algiers II who had five years of compulsory English at
school. Two equal groups of 15 participants in each were part of the study. The author
explained that the experimental treatment consisted of asking the experimental students to
read 12 stories within a period of three months.

The author described that this ER program is her own development to check its
impact on the writing performance. The experiment consisted of students writing a one
paragraph long composition for both pre- and post-tests. The groups were assigned different
questionnaires as presented in the appendixes. The experimental group’s questionnaire was
to provide insights into their attitude toward this ER program; whereas the control group’s
questionnaire was meant to gather some useful information for the sake of comparison
between the two groups.

The tests were scored using the TEEP Attribute Writing Scale to make the assessment
objective. The assessment criteria cover both communicative effectiveness and degrees of
accuracy. The tests were marked by an experienced teacher who scored both groups out of
21. According to their scores, student were divided into three categories: low achievers,
average achievers and high achievers. Both groups were labelled average achievers
according to the scores they received.

The pre-tests took place a week before initiating the ER program, their results were
clearly presented in a chart and showed that the scores of both groups were very close. The
results of the post-tests indicated that both groups increased due to the exposure to narration;
however, the TG outscored the CG. Hence, according to the results, the ER program had a
positive impact on students’ writing. The aim of the questionnaire administered in the same
week as the pre-test was to elicit the student’s reaction to the ER program. As presented in
the appendix and the researcher’s interpretation, it took about 30 minutes for the majority of
the students to answer the questionnaires. The findings indicated a positive influence on
students’ attitude towards the reading.

In the discussion section, the researcher provided a considerable sight of the results
in order to answer the research question. She started with the student’s writing performance
and ER, she suggested that reading a large amount of materials in English might develop
writing performance of first year students due to the positive impact of her ER program.

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CHAPTER TWO CRITICAL REVIEW OF THE ARTICLES

Thus, making the point that receptive activities like ER should be given greater importance.
Another point she discussed was the students’ attitude, she stated that it was rated as
enjoyable and interesting despite the fact that they were not used to reading.

Ouafi, in the pedagogical recommendations, stated that promoting the EFL teaching
of writing would occur when some type of importance is given to reading as an input. Thus,
she suggested setting up an ER library of different, interesting books and appropriate
language levels. In addition, she emphasized on integrating the ER program in the writing
syllabus of the first-year students, and reinforcing the teacher’s role in the ER program to
increase the success.

The following part was devoted to the limitation of the study, the author described
the difficulties faced when conducting the experiment, such as the tight schedule, and
experimental mortality that affected the results and was taken into consideration.

In the conclusion part, the authors restated the objective of study, and briefly
reminded us of the methodology used (the experimental period, pre- and post-tests, and the
questionnaires). She also explained that the implementation of the ER program would be
beneficial in the first-year English course, for her results support the belief that ER affects
positively the writing performance.

The forthcoming sections deals with a critical analysis and evaluation of the article’s
review of literature.

2.2.2 Analysis of the Literature Review

In the theoretical background of the study, Ouafi examined the major theories of
reading and writing correlation. This type of the literature is called the traditional or narrative
review in which the researcher focuses on the theoretical approach to identify patterns in the
literature that will help in identifying gaps in the knowledge. (Baker, 2016). In this regard,
the researcher indicated the effect of ER on writing performance by giving a clear definition
of ER and supporting it with previous theories and hypotheses. She advocated that ER aims
at pleasure and entertainment when reading large materials for extended period of time
without testing. She added that language acquisition occurs when accomplishing the
exposure to the comprehensible language in a stress-free atmosphere; thus, the ER is
satisfactory to both these conditions.

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CHAPTER TWO CRITICAL REVIEW OF THE ARTICLES

The researcher provided the reason for conducting the study which is the lack of
attention given to this area of research in the EFL classroom. Henceforth, her study seeks to
investigate the impact of ER on writing performance; however, it concentrates on the
leaners’ attitudes toward the reading in addition to the language gains. She claims that the
majority of the studies of this field focused on the language only; therefore, she established
her work to report both the language gains and attitudinal benefits of ER. She raised a
research question to define exactly what her study is trying to find out, in this case the impact
of ER on writing performance. It is important to mention that the researcher has not identified
a clear gap in the literature to fill in; she reviewed what is said and done about reading and
writing and created her own ER program which was reading twelve stories within a period of
three months. She did not provide a rationale for choosing this program, nor did she define
it and its content.

Henceforth, we can say that Ouafi provided the general sight of the knowledge in this
field. She focused her study on the little attention given to students’ attitude toward the ER.
However, ambiguity was appealing in her ER program. She needed to further explain her
choice and the content of the program. This opens the way to evaluating the methodological
section of her Article.

2.2.3 Analysis of the Methodology

In this part of the section, we will analyze and evaluate the research design in terms
of the layout, the research question, and the procedures in which the research paper was
carried out. In addition, we will shed light on both strengths and weaknesses of data collection
methods used by Ouafi in conducting her research.

[Link] Evaluation of the Research Design

In this article, the researcher provided a clear research paper outline. The first
component to be reviewed is the title, Ouafi indicated what the research was about, and
presented the nature of the relationship between the variables which is the correlation
between the extensive reading and writing.

As for the abstract, the author presented the fields of her study, how the research was
conducted, in addition to the results and the suggestions proposed. What lacks in her abstract
is the rationale behind conducting this research, its significance, and the conclusions reached.

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CHAPTER TWO CRITICAL REVIEW OF THE ARTICLES

Nevertheless, this does not prevent the readers from understanding what the article will
include. This was an informative abstract as well, for it provided some of the main arguments
and important results. Key words were mentioned in order to contextualize the research.

The next section was the introduction; the writer mentioned the purpose of the study,
and gave a firm sense of what was done in the two main parts of her study: the theoretical
part and the practical one. Ouafi did not develop the background of the study nor did she
introduce the question of her research. This will confuse the readers instead of orientate them
to the study.

The researcher stated that her study aimed to answer a research question in the ER
and writing fields. Developing a research question is essential to the research process, it does
not commit the researcher with the outcomes, and also, it influences the steps taken to
conduct the research. According to Khoo (2015) a well formulated research question has a
number of characteristics:

• The question is important and relevant.

• It is interesting to the researcher and others.

• It is simple.

• It is feasible, i.e., answerable within a set timeframe.

• It is clear and succinct.

• It is original, setting out to discover something new.

The research question of this article consisted of some of the feature mentioned
above, for it is relevant to the field of study which makes it interesting to the researchers, it
is convenient, concise, and original in terms of specificity.

In order to answer the research question, Ouafi presented the experimental

investigation. She described the research as a quasi-experimental. According to Cook and
Wong (2008), quasi experiments are considered as a subtype of non-experiments that tries
to imitate true experiments in rigor and structure but lacks random assignments.

The researcher described her sample in terms of characteristics, number, and gender.

29
CHAPTER TWO CRITICAL REVIEW OF THE ARTICLES

However, the selection process, the rationale behind choosing one gender only, and the
participants’ consent were not mentioned. The research instruments were identified and
described in addition to their function. As per the procedures, Ouafi mentioned that this ER
program was her own development. She stated that the materials used should meet the ability
level of the students; however, she did not mention how she managed to identify the students’
ability level since she has not conducted a placement test, nor has she described the type of
material used in the ER program. Another point which should be raised is how this
experiment was conducted i.e. what steps were included in the research procedure in terms
instructions, and formation of the groups. She did not provide a clear view of her experiment;
the reader can neither know when the students were reading, nor how long this reading took
place each day, week, or session during the three months experiment.

[Link] Evaluating Data Collection Methods

In her research, Ouafi relied on three data collection instruments for both the TG and
the CG: a writing pre- and post-tests, and two different questionnaires for both groups. The
questionnaires and the pre-tests took place prior to the experiment, and the post-tests after
the end of the ER program. This indicates that the triangulation of data collection was taken
into consideration by the researcher. She justified it according to Allwright and Bailey (1991)
who stated that a precise sight of a particular phenomenon is reached when at least two
perspectives are considered. Cohen et al (2007) defines triangulation as the use of different
data collection methods to search into some aspects of human behavior.

In analyzing the results, like Mermelstein (2015), the positivistic view was followed
by Ouafi. When interpreting her findings, for she drew conclusions according to the facts
she gained from the research. In this regard, Dudovskiy (2016) held the view that the
researcher is independent form the study, and there are no provisions for human interests
within. This was the case of Ouafi, as she was objective in her result interpretation.

After the interpretation, Ouafi, provided a discussion on the findings that were in
favor to her ER program, for the writing performance of the TG was improved in comparison
to the CG. She also tackled the student’s attitude that showed greater engagements with the
reading material. Her research question was answered and the findings of her study were
identical to the relevant literature. Therefore, the belief that is held on the fact that good
readers are good writers was confirmed in this research.

30
CHAPTER TWO CRITICAL REVIEW OF THE ARTICLES

The researcher provided a number of suggestions based on the data analyses to show
the importance of integrating the ER program to the writing syllabus of the first year
students. Then, she presented limitations to her study and summarized the main points of her
research in the conclusion section. In addition to the list of references that contained all
sources referred to in the article.

To conclude, this article answered the research question raised by the author in a
detailed framework, the data collection methods were varied, analyzed and discussed;
however, some minor lacks and ambiguities were identified in the research when comparing
this article to the previous one. Henceforth, we provide a comparison of the two articles in
the next section.

2.3 Conclusions Drawn from the Evaluation of the Articles.

In this section, we provide a comparison of the strengths and weaknesses of both

articles in terms of reliability, validity and ethical implementations.

2.3.1 Validity and Reliability of the Articles

Both articles were quasi-experiments. Their participants were randomly assigned to

the TG and CG. Nevertheless, Mermelstein’s study lasted one year and targeted the second
and third year university students; unlike Ouafi’s research that lasted three months and
targeted Algerian first year EFL students. The sampling procedures were explained in details
by Mermelstein; however, Ouafi did not mention any point about it.

The research design determines the validity of the study. Validity is defined as the
extent to which a data collection tool measures exactly what it is supposed to measure, Zoharbi
(2013). In research, there are two main types of validity, the internal and the external validity.
The internal validity refers to the degree to which the study builds up the cause-and- effect
connection between the treatment and the outcome variables, Haller and Kleine (2001).
Whereas, the external validity is divided into population and ecological validity. The
population validity relies on the generalization of the findings from the sample to a large
group of people; on the other hand, ecological validity is the extent to which the findings of
a study are generalized to a broader context or settings. Bhandari (2020).

In article A, Mermelstein used four instruments in gathering the data, classroom

observation, graded reader record sheets, in addition to the pre- and post-tests. Based on the
31
CHAPTER TWO CRITICAL REVIEW OF THE ARTICLES

findings, these data collection tools have a high internal validity since there has not been any
force affecting the variables of the results; in addition, the researcher did not intervene while
collecting the data. As per the external validity of the article in terms of population,
Mermelstein included participants of different characteristics and generalized his findings to
other settings and broader contexts. Thus, we can say that the article is of a high population
and the ecological validity.

The methods used in article B were questionnaires, in addition to the writing pre- and
post-test for both TG and CG. According to her findings, Ouafi’s data collection instruments
are of a high internal validity due to the fact that she did not interfere in the data collection
procedures. However, she stated that the experimental morality was one variable to affect
the results of her study; therefore, she started with a large number of subjects and expecting
that not all of them were to engage in the reading on a regular basis. In terms of population
and ecological validity, the researcher did not include a sample of different characteristics,
nor did she generalize the findings to a broader setting, because she only based her study on
female first year English students. Thus, we can say that the article lacks external validity.

Reliability, on the other hand, is defined as the replication of the research findings if
it was conducted the same way on the same sample. Cohen et al (2007). That is, at the point
when a research is conducted by a researcher under certain conditions, and afterward a
similar study is done again and produces similar outcomes, data are considered highly
reliable.

In article A, Mermelstein compared his study to the previous ones and his findings
matched those of the previous studies which could be proved as reliable. Also, he stated that
the intervention of this study was based on the intervention used in his previous study in
2013, but he did not mention whether they were the same participants or the same context.
Hence, we cannot decide whether these results are reliable or not.

As per Article B, Ouafi stated that the experiment was her own development, i.e. it
has not been previously conducted by any other researchers. Also, she did not mention
whether she was replicating the study or not; henceforth, we deduce that her research lacks
reliability unless it is conducted again the same way on the same sample with the same
results.

32
CHAPTER TWO CRITICAL REVIEW OF THE ARTICLES

2.3.2 Ethical Implications

Ethical considerations form a crucial component in educational research. According

to Johnson and Christensen (2014), Ethics in research is the guideline that the researchers
must know prior to conducting their research. They held the view that the researchers must
ask the participants’ approval to join the sample. The researchers have to clearly inform,
explain, and make their participants aware of the purposes, procedures, and confidentialities;
hence, when they agree informed consent takes place.

In Article A, written by Mermelstein, he stated that his participants received an

informed consent form that they read, understood its content, and signed to indicate their
agreement. This shows that the researcher was aware of the principles and ethical
considerations in conducting a research, for he obeyed the school’s policy which stated that
the teacher has to teach only one class per department, and he made sure that all participants
are informed of and agreed on what they were doing and why they were doing it.

On the other hand, Ouafi in her article, was so ambiguous in terms of the ethical
implications, she did not mention anything related to the participants’ consent, she may have
conducted her study without asking their permission. This action could lead to unethical
conducts. Even though the study was for their benefits; still gaining consent is essential in
conducting the research.

Conclusion

This chapter examined the research design, data collection methods, validity,
reliability and the ethical implications of the two chosen articles in the ER and writing fields.
The first article written by Mermelstein (2015) dealt with improving EFL learners’ writing
through enhanced extensive reading. Whereas the second article written by Ouafi (2019)
tackled the extensive reading and its effect on Algerian university students’ writing
performance.

The two articles were different in many aspects; such as research design, methods of
data collection, validity, and reliability. Henceforth, a critical evaluation of the content of
their study was provided in our research. First, we began with reviewing the components of
the two articles separately in two sections; the first section dealt with article A where we
provided a summary of the content and major findings, evaluation of the research design,

33
CHAPTER TWO CRITICAL REVIEW OF THE ARTICLES

and analysis of data collection methods. The same structure was used in the second section
that was assigned to Article B. Finally, the last section compared the two articles’
weaknesses and strengths in regards to validity, reliability, and the ethical considerations.

34
 General Conclusion

According to Mermelstein (2015) and Ouafi (2019), reading and writing are two of
the most important yet challenging skills in the EFL classroom. A belief about the correlation
between reading and writing has been held for many decades, most researchers aimed at
confirming this relationship; therefore, they conducted numerous studies which
demonstrated that ER in the classroom improves and enhances the students’ writing skill.

The first chapter of our current study provided an overview of the literature about
reading and writing skills and the components of an academic article. Reading is considered
as an important skill that helps the learners acquire knowledge. It has become a priority in
EFL classrooms; therefore, it is important to provide students with the type of reading that
help them enhance their writing skill. Extensive reading emphasizes the importance of
learners’ exposure to large and meaningful materials that are of their interests. Results from
Mermelstein’s (2015) and Ouafi’s (2019) studies showed that when students are engaged in
the ER within the EFL classrooms their writing competences are improved.

The second chapter aimed at reviewing and comparing two academic articles in the
fields of extensive reading and writing. Furthermore, it explored to which extent the two
articles are of a high validity and reliability. The core end of this research is to provide the
students with a clear overview of the academic research paper and its components. For that
purpose, we analyzed two different studies in terms of strength and weaknesses of their
research design, data collection methods in addition to their reliability and validity. The first
research administered by Mermelstein (2015) on Taiwanese EFL students, and the second
one conducted by Ouafi (2019) on Algerian EFL students.

The conclusion drawn from the critical review compared the validity and reliability
of the articles. Mermelstein (2015) followed a clear detailed framework in which he
explained all the steps of his research; this demonstrates that the researcher is familiar and
aware of the research principles, which makes his articles highly valid and to some extent
reliable. Ouafi (2019) on the other hand, although her article’s framework was academically
designed, her study lacks validity and reliability due to some ambiguities in her research.

Since most of Algerian EFL students deal with academic articles when they are given
assignments, this research aims at providing them with a clear understanding of an academic
article’s components and there content. Therefore, when choosing any article, they would

35
know if it is reliable and valid, what exactly it should consist of, and also how they will deduce
the exact information they are looking for without any difficulties. They should focus
attention on the academic framework of the article, analyze the literature review in order to
understand the basis of that research, and evaluate the extent of validity, reliability when
considering the triangulation of data collection procedures used by the researcher.

In terms of ER and writing, most studies conducted demonstrate the correlation

between them and support the claim that ER improves writing. Henceforth, ER should be
integrated in the Algerian EFL syllabus to motivate the students to read for pleasure. The
teachers’ role is to expose learners to reading and train them to choose the appropriate
materials.

36
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 ‫ملخص‬

‫هذه األطروحة عبارة عن مراجعة نقدية تحلل وتقارن ورقتين أكاديميتين أجريتا حول العالقة بين القراءة‬
‫المكثفة والكتابة‪ .‬تحاول الدراسة تقديم رؤية واضحة لمكونات مقال أكاديمي‪ .‬ينصب تركيز المراجعة‬
‫على مراجعة األدبيات وتصميم البحث وطرق جمع البيانات‪ .‬باإلضافة إلى ذلك ‪ ،‬فإنه يقارن مدى‬
‫الصالحية والموثوقية واآلثار األخالقية لكلتا الدراستين‪ .‬الغرض من عملنا هو تزويد الطالب ببعض‬
‫المساعدة في البحث الثانوي في المستقبل‪ .‬تم إجراء البحث الخاص بالمقال األول الذي كتبه ميرملشتاين‬
‫(‪ )2015‬على طالب اللغة اإلنجليزية كلغة أجنبية التايوانيين ؛ في حين استهدفت دراسة المقال الثاني‬
‫الذي كتبته وافي (‪ )2019‬طالب السنة األولى الجزائريين في اللغة اإلنجليزية كلغة أجنبية‪ .‬تظهر نتائج‬
‫الدراسة الحالية أنه بسبب عدم وجود بعض المعايير‪ ،‬فإن بحث وافي يفتقر إلى الصالحية والموثوقية‬
‫على عكس دراسة ميرملشتاين التي تعتبر صحيحة و موثوقة للغاية‪.‬‬

‫الكلمات المفتاحية‪ :‬القراءة المكثفة‪ ،‬الكتابة‪ ،‬سياق اإلنجليزية كلغة أجنبية‪ ،‬الموثوقية‪ ،‬الصالحية‪.‬‬

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