14.
To design and construct an Non- inverting OPAMP (or Positive Scaler) and
hence to study the frequency response characteristics for it.
The differential amplifier (DA) has been based on the assumption that the transistors are perfectly
matched i.e., they have exactly the same electrical characteristics. In practice, this cannot happen.
There will always be some difference between the characteristics of the two transistors. This leads us
to the following two parameters of DA (or OP– amp) :
1. Output offset voltage 2. Input offset current
1. Output Offset Voltage. Even though the transistors in the differential amplifier are very closely
matched, there are some differences in their electrical characteristics. One of these differences is found
in the values of VBE for the twso transistors. When VBE1 ≠ VBE2, an imbalance is created in the
differential amplifier. The DA (or OP-amp) may show some voltage at the output even when the
voltage applied between two input terminals is zero. This is called output offset voltage. This point is
illustrated in Fig. 25.22. Note that with the inputs of DA grounded, the output shows a measurable
voltage. This voltage is a result of the imbalance in the differential amplifier, which causes one of the
transistors to conduct harder than the other.
There are several methods that may be used to eliminate output offset voltage. One of these is to apply
an input offset voltage between the input terminals of DA (or OP- amp) so as to make output 0V as
shown in Fig. 25.23. The value of input offset voltage (Vi0) required to eliminate the output offset
voltage is given by:
Vo (offset )
Vio
A
A is voltage gain.
Non-inverting Amplifier:
There are times when we wish to have an output signal of the same polarity as the input signal. In this
case, the OP-amp is connected as non-inverting amplifier as shown in Fig. The input signal is applied
to the non-inverting input (+). The output is applied back to the input through the feedback circuit
formed by feedback resistor Rf and input resistance Ri. Note that resistors Rf and Ri form a voltage
divide at the inverting input (–). This produces negative feedback in the circuit. Note that Ri is
grounded. Since the input signal is applied to the non-inverting input (+), the output signal will be non-
inverted i.e., the output signal will be in phase with the input signal. Hence, the name non-inverting
amplifier.
Voltage gain.
If we assume that we are not at saturation, the potential at point A is the same as Vin. Since the input
impedance of OP-amp is very high, all of the current that flows through Rf also flows through Ri.
Keeping these things in mind, we have,
I in I f 0
or , I in I f
(Vin 0) (V0 Vin )
or ,
Ri Rf
Vin V0 Vin
or ,
Ri Rf
Rf V0 Vin
or,
Ri Vin
Rf V0 Vin
or ,
Ri Vin Vin
Rf V0
or , 1
Ri Vin
Rf V0
or , 1
Ri Vin
V0 Rf
Av 1
Vin Ri
Perform the following Experiments:
R1 V
1. Vary , compare the calculated and measured gain 0 . Take R1 100 k and
R2 Vi
R2 2 k, 3.3 k, 5 k . Set the frequency at 300 Hz.
2. Compare the phases of the input and output voltage using the dual trace oscilloscope.
3. Measure the frequency response characteristics for ACL =50.
4. Measure the gain-bandwidth product of the OP-amp.
GBWP ACL f 2 f unity
ACL closed - loop gain at frequency f 2
funity frequency at which the closed - loop gain is unity
f 2 Closed loop upper cut-off frequency.
Bandwidth of an OP-Amp:
All electronic devices work only over a limited range of frequencies. This range of frequencies is
called bandwidth. Every OP-amp has a bandwidth i.e., the range of frequencies over which it will
work properly. The bandwidth of an OP-amp depends upon the closed-loop gain of the OP-amp
circuit. One important parameter is gain-bandwidth product (GBW). It is defined as under :
GBWP ACL f 2 f unity
ACL closed - loop gain at frequency f 2
f unity frequency at which the closed - loop gain is unity
It can be proved that the gain-bandwidth product of an OP-amp is constant. Since an OP-amp is capable
of operating as a d.c. amplifier, its bandwidth is (f2 – 0). The gain-bandwidth product of
an OP-amp is an important parameter because it can be used to find :
(i) The maximum value of ACL at a given value of f2.
(ii) The value of f2 for a given value of ACL.
5. Measure the internal impedance of the signal generator (R Th).
6. Voltage Follower:
The voltage follower arrangement is a special case of non-inverting amplifier where all of the output
voltage is fed back to the inverting input as shown in Fig. Note that we remove R1 and Rf from the non-
inverting amplifier and short the output of the amplifier to the inverting input. The voltage gain for the
voltage follower is calculated as under:
Rf 0
or ACL 1 1 1
R1 R1
Thus the closed-loop voltage gain of the voltage follower is 1. The most important features of the
voltage follower configuration are its very high input impedance and its very low output impedance.
These features make it a nearly ideal buffer amplifier to be connected between high-impedance sources
and low-impedance loads.