1. Two bodies have a mass ratio of 3:4.

The force applied on the bigger mass produces an

acceleration of 12 m s-2. What could be the acceleration of the other body, if the same force
acts on it.
Given : 𝑚1 : 𝑚2 = 3: 4 ; F1 = F2 Let 𝑚2 be bigger, then 𝑎2 = 12 ms −2
Solution : F1 = F2
𝑚1 𝑎1 = 𝑚2 𝑎2 (∵ 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎)
𝑚2 4
𝑎1 = 𝑎2 = × 12 = 16 ms −2
𝑚1 3
∴ Acceleration, 𝑎1 is 𝟏𝟔 𝐦𝐬−𝟐
2. A ball of mass 1 kg moving with a speed of 10 m s-1 rebounds after a perfect elastic collision
with the floor. Calculate the change in linear momentum of the ball.
Given : m = 1 kg, 𝑢 = 10 m s-1,
Solution : It is perfect elastic collision, ball rebounds with same speed but in opposite direction
∴ 𝑣 = −10 m s-1
∆p = mv − mu = 1 × (−10) − 1 × (10)
= −10 − 10 = −20 kg m s −1
∴ Change in Linear momentum is 20𝒌𝒈𝒎𝒔−𝟏
3. A mechanic unscrew a nut by applying a force of 140 N with a spanner of length 40 cm. What
should be the length of the spanner if a force of 40 N is applied to unscrew the same nut?
Given : 𝐹1 = 140 𝑁, 𝑑1 = 40 𝑐𝑚;
𝐹2 = 40 𝑁, 𝑑2 = ?
Solution : Moment of couple is same,
𝐹1 𝑑1 = 𝐹2 𝑑2
𝐹1 𝑑1 40 ×140
𝑑2 = = = 140 𝑐𝑚
𝐹2 40
∴ Length should be 140 cm / 1.4 m.
4. The ratio of masses of two planets is 2:3 and the ratio of their radii is 4:7. Find the ratio of
their accelerations due to gravity.
Given : m1 : m2 = 2 ∶ 3; R1 : R2 = 4: 7; g1 : g2 = ?
𝐺𝑀1 𝐺𝑀2
Solution : 𝑔1 = ---- (1) 𝑔2 = ------ (2)
𝑅12 𝑅22
GM1
g1 R2
1 GM1 R2
2 M1 R2
2
Eqn (1) ÷ (2) ⇒ = GM2 = × = ×
g2 R2
1 GM2 M2 R2
1
R2
2
g1 2 72 2 49 49
= × = × =
g2 3 42 3 16 24
∴ g1 : g2 = 49 : 24
5. If a 5 N and a 15 N forces are acting opposite to one another. Find the resultant force and
the direction of action of the resultant force.
Given , 𝐹1 = 5𝑁 𝐹2 = 15 𝑁
𝐹𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐹2 − 𝐹1 = 15 − 5 = 10 𝑁.
∴ Magnitude is 10 N and direction is along 15 N force.
6. Two blocks of masses 8 kg and 2 kg respectively lie on a smooth horizontal surface in
contact with one other. They are pushed by a horizontally applied force of 15 N. Calculate
the force exerted on the 2 kg mass.
Given : m1 = 8 kg , m2 = 2 kg, Force, F = 15 N
Solution : F = ma = (m1 + m2 ) a
F 15 15
a= = = = 1.5 ms−2
m1 +m2 8+2 10
Force on 2 kg mass, m = 2 kg, a = 1.5 ms −2
F = ma = 2× 1.5 = 3N
∴ Force on 2kg mass is F = 3N
7. A heavy truck and bike are moving with the same kinetic energy. If the mass of the truck is four
times that of the bike, then calculate the ratio of their momenta. (Ratio of momenta = 2 : 1)
𝑚𝑇
Given : Let, Mass of bike = 𝑚𝐵 ; Mass of truck = 𝑚 𝑇 ; =4
𝑚𝐵
1 2
Solution : Kinetic Energy = 𝑚𝑣
2
K.E of truck = K.E of bike
1 1
mT vT 2 = mB vB 2
2 2
VB 2 𝑚𝑇
( ) = =4
VT 𝑚𝐵
VB VT 1
=2⇒ =
VT VB 2
pT 𝑚𝑇 𝑉𝑇 1
Ratio of their momentum is, = =4× =2
pB 𝑚𝐵 𝑉𝐵 2
∴ Ratio of their momentum is 𝟐 ∶ 𝟏.
Example Problems
1. Calculate the velocity of moving body of mass 5 kg whose linear momentum is 2.5 𝐤𝐠 𝐦 𝐬−𝟏 .
Given : Mass = 5 kg ; Linear momentum = 2.5 kg m s −1 [TB-12]
2.5 −1
Solution : Velocity = linear momentum / mass ⇒ V= = 0.5 m s
5
∴ Velocity of moving body is 0.5 𝒎𝒔−𝟏 .
2. A door is pushed, at a point whose distance from the hinges is 90 cm, with a force of 40N.
Calculate the moment of the force about the hinges. [TB-12]
Given : F=40 N ; d=90 cm = 0.9 m
Solution : The moment of a force M = F × d ⇒ M = 40 × 0.9 = 36 Nm
3. At what height from the centre of the Earth, the acceleration due to gravity will be 1/4 th of
its value as at the Earth. [TB-12] [PTA-6]
Given : Height from the centre of the earth, R′ = R + h
g
Acceleration due to gravity at that height, g ′ =
4
2
𝐺𝑀 𝐺𝑀 g R′
Solution: g= , g' = 2 ⇒ =( )
𝑅2 𝑅′ g′ R
𝑔 R+h 2 h 2
𝑔⁄ =( ) = (1 + )
4 R R
h 2
4 = (1 + ) (take square root on both sides)
R
h
2=1+ ⇒ h=R
R
R′ = R + R = 2R
∴ From the centre of the Earth, the object is placed at twice the radius of the earth.
 Additional Questions
8. A lift is moving downwards with an 10. A weight of a man is 686 N on the surface
acceleration of 1.8 𝐦 𝐬 −𝟐. What is of the earth. Calculate the weight of the
apparent weight realised by a man of same person on moon. (‘g’ value of a moon
mass 50 kg? [PTA-1] is 𝟏. 𝟔𝟐𝟓 𝐦 𝐬 −𝟐 ) [PTA-2]
-2
Given : a = 1.8 m s m = 50 kg Given : We = mge = 686 N; gm= 1.625 m s-2
Solution: Apparent weight, R = m(g–a) 𝑊 686
Solution : m = 𝑒 = = 70 kg
𝑔𝑒 9.8
= 50 (9.8 – 1.8)
Wm = mgm = 70 × 1.625
R = 50 × 8
Wm = 113.75 N
∴ Apparent weight is 400 N
∴ Weight on moon is 113.75 N
9. A force of 5 N applied on a body produces
11. Calculate the velocity of moving body of
and acceleration 5 cm 𝐬 −𝟐 . Calculate the
mass 5 kg whose linear momentum is
mass of the body. [PTA-5]
Given : F = 5 N, a = 5 cms-2 = 0.05 ms-2 2 𝐤𝐠 𝐦 𝐬−𝟏 . [MDL-19]
Solution : F = ma Given : m = 5 kg ; p = 2 kg m s −1
𝐹 5 Solution : p = mv
m= = 𝑝 2
𝑎 0.05 v = = = 0.4 m s −1
m = 100 kg 𝑚 5

∴ Mass = 100kg ∴ Velocity = 0.4 m s −1 .

2. OPTICS
1. An object is placed at a distance 20 cm from a convex lens of focal length 10 cm. Find the
image distance and nature of the image.
*Sign for f, u & v*
Given : f = 10 cm, u = − 20 cm, v = ?
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
For Concave lens,
Solution : = −
𝑓 𝑣 𝑢
⟹
𝑣
= +
𝑓 𝑢
= +
10 − 20
f, u, v → – (All are negative.)
2−1 1 For Convex lens,
= = f →+ u→–
20 20
v = 20 cm v → + (-ve only if object is
Image distance is 20 cm. between F&O)
Nature of image is Real and inverted image.
2. An object of height 3 cm is placed at 10 cm from a concave lens of focal length 15 cm. Find
the size of the image.
Given : f = −15 cm, u = − 10 cm, h = 3 cm, h' = ?
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 −2−3
Solution : = − ⇒ = + = + =
f v u v f u − 15 − 10 30
1 5 1
= − = −
v 30 6
v = − 6 cm
v −6
Magnification m = = = 0.6
u −10
h′ h′
Magnification m = = = 0.6
h 3
h′ = 0.6 × 3 = 1.8 cm
∴ Height of the image h' is 1.8 cm.
 Example Problems
3. Light rays travel from vacuum into a glass 5. A person with myopia can see objects
whose refractive index is 1.5. If the angle placed at a distance of 4 m. If he wants to
0
of incidence is 30 . Calculate the angle of see objects at a distance of 20 m. What
refraction inside the glass. [TB-28] should be the focal length and Power of
Given : 𝜇1 = 1, 𝜇2 = 1.5 𝑖 = 300 the concave lens he must wear?
Solution : Snell's law,
sin 𝑖
=
𝜇2 [TB-28] [MAY, AUG – 2022]
sin 𝑟 𝜇1 Given : x = 4 m, y = 20 m
𝜇1
× sin 𝑖 = sin 𝑟 Solution : Focal length of the required lens is
𝜇2
1 xy 4×20 80
sin 𝑟 = × sin 300 f= = = = −5 m
1.5 x−y 4−20 −16
1 1 1 1
sin r = × = = 0.333 Power of required lens, P =
f
1.5 2 3
1
𝑟 = sin−1 (0.333) P= = −0.2 D
−5
⟹ 𝑟 = 19.450 ∴ The person must wear concave lens of
4. A beam of light passing through a focal length 5 m and power 0.2 D.
diverging lens of focal length 0.3 m appear 6. For a person with Hypermetropia, the
to be focused at a distance 0.2 m behind the near point has moved to 1.5 m. Calculate
lens. Find the position of the object. the focal length of the correction lens in
[TB – 28] [SEP – 2020] order to make his eyes normal.
Given : The given lens is concave lens. [TB – 28]
f = −0.3 m, v = −0.2 m Given : d = 1.5 m ,
1 1 1
Solution : = − D (for normal vision) = 25 cm = 0.25 m
f v u
1 1 1
= − Solution : Focal length of the correction lens is,
u v f dD
1 1 F=
= − d−D
− 0.2 − 0.3 1.5 ×0.25
1 −0.3+0.2 −0.1 10 =
= = = − 1.5−0.25
u 0.06 0.06 6
6 0.375
u = − = −0.6 m =
10 1.25
∴ The object is placed in a distance of 0.6 m at 2 F. 𝑓 = 0.3 m
Additional Problems
7. The power of a lens is −2D. Find the focal length of a lens. [PTA – 4]
Given : P = −2D
1
Solution : Power (P) = = −2D
𝑓
1
𝑓= = −0.5 m
−2
∴ Focal length is 0.5 m
8. An object of height 3 cm is placed at 10 cm from a convex lens which produces an image at
20 cm from its optical centre. Calculate the magnification and height of the image produced.
Given : h = 3 cm ; u = 10 cm ; v = 20 cm [PTA – 5]
𝑣 20
Solution : Magnification, m = = = 2
𝑢 10
ℎ′
Magnification, m =
ℎ
ℎ′ = m × h = 2 × 3 = 6 cm
∴ Magnification is 2 and height is 6 cm.
1. Find the final temperature of a copper rod. Whose area of cross section changes from 10
m2 to 11 m2 due to heating. The copper rod is initially kept at 90 K. (Coefficient of
superficial expansion is 0.0021/ K)
Given : Aₒ = 10 m2 , A = 11m2 , ∆A = 11 − 10 = 1 m2
To = 90 K, T = ? ∆T = T − To = T − 90, αA = 0.0021 K-1
∆A ∆𝐴 1
Solution : = αA ∆T ⇒ ∆𝑇 = =
Aₒ 𝐴 ₒ 𝛼𝐴 10 × 0.0021
1
T − 90 = = 47.61
0.021
T = 47.61 + 90 = 137.6 K
∴ Final temperature is 137.6 K
2. Calculate the coefficient of cubical expansion of a zinc bar. Whose volume is increased from
0.25 m3 to 0.3 m3 due to the change in its temperature of 50 K.
Given : V = 0.3 m3 Vₒ = 0.25 m3 ∆T = 50 K
∆V V−Vₒ
Solution : αv = =
Vₒ∆T Vₒ∆T
0.3−0.25 0.05
𝛼𝑣 = = = 0.004 K−1
0.25×50 12.5
∴ The coefficient of cubical expansion is 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟒 𝐊−𝟏 .

Example Problems
3. A container whose capacity is 70 ml is filled with a liquid up to 50 ml. Then, the liquid in
the container is heated. Initially, the level of the liquid falls from 50 ml to 48.5 ml. Then we
heat more, the level of the liquid rises to 51.2 ml. Find the apparent and real expansion.
Given : Level of the liquid L1 = 50 ml [TB – 38, 39] [PTA – 6]
Level of the liquid L2 = 48.5 ml
Level of the liquid L3 = 51.2 ml
Solution: Apparent expansion = L3 − L1 = 51.2 ml – 50 ml = 1.2 ml
Real expansion = L3 – L2 = 51.2 ml – 48.5 ml = 2.7 ml
∴ Real expansion is 2.7 ml and apparent expansion is 1.2 ml.
4. Keeping the temperature as constant, a gas is compressed four times of its initial pressure. The
volume of gas in the container changing from 20 cc (V1 cc) to V2 cc. Find the final volume V2.
Given: Initial pressure (P1) = P Final Pressure (P2) = 4 P [TB – 39] [PTA – 3]
Initial volume (V1) = 20 cc = 20 cm3 (∵ cc refers to cubic centimeter i.e. cm3)
Final volume (V2) = ?
Solution : Using Boyle's Law, PV = constant
P1V1 = P2V2
P1 P
V2 = × V1 = × 20cm3 ⇒ 𝑉2 = 5 cm3 i.e. 5 cc
P2 4P

∴ Final volume V2 is 5 cc.

 Additional Problems
5. The length of an aluminium rod at the temperature 303 K is 50 m. What would be its
increase in length when it is heated to 323 K? (The linear co-efficient of Aluminium is
𝟐𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 𝐊 −𝟏) [PTA – 1]
Given : ∆L = Increase in length, ∆T = 323 K− 303 K = 20 K ; L0 = 50 m, 𝛼𝐿 = 23 × 10−6 𝐾 −1
∆L
Solution : = 𝛼𝐿 ∆T ⇒ ∆L = 𝛼𝐿 ∆T × L0
L0
∆L = (23 × 10−6 ) × 20 × 50 = 0.023
∴ Increase in length is 0.023 m
6. Convert 𝟖𝟎°F temperature into kelvin scale. [PTA – 6]
Given : Temperature = 80°F
5 5
Solution: Fahrenheit to Kelvin, K = (F + 460) × = (80 + 460) × = 𝟑𝟎𝟎 K
9 9

4. ELECTRICITY
1. An electric iron consumes energy at the rate of 420 W when heating is at the maximum rate
and 180 W when heating is at the minimum rate. The applied voltage is 220 V. What is the
current in each case?
Given : V = 220 V, Pmax = 420 W, Pmin = 180 W
Solution : P = VI
P
I=
V
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 420 21
Imax = = = = 1.909 A
V 220 11
P𝑚𝑖𝑛 180 9
Imin = = = = 0.818 A
V 220 11

2. A 100 watt electric bulb is used for 5 hours daily and four 60 watt bulbs are used for 5
hours daily. Calculate the energy consumed (in kWh) in the month of January.
Solution : No. of days in January month = 31 days
Energy consumed by one 100 W bulb = P × t × no. of days used × no. of bulbs
= 100 × 5 × 31× 1 = 15500
= 15.5 kWh.
Energy consumed by four 60 W bulb = P × t × no. of days used × no. of bulbs
= 60 × 5 × 31× 4 = 37.2 kWh
∴ Total energy consumed = 15.5 + 37.2 = 52.7 kWh
3. A torch bulb is rated at 3 V and 600 mA. Calculate it’s
a) power b) resistance c) energy consumed if it is used for 4 hour.
Given : V = 3 V; I = 600 mA = 0.6 A
Solution : a) Power : P = VI = 3 × 0.6 = 1.8 watt
V 3
b) Resistance : R = = =5Ω
I 0.6
c) Energy consumed if it used for 4 hour.
E = power × time = 1.8 × 4 = 7.2 watt hour
4. A piece of wire having a resistance R is cut into five equal parts.
a) How will the resistance of each part of the wire change compared with the original resistance?
b) If the five parts of the wire are placed in parallel, how will the resistance of the combination change?
c) What will be the ratio of the effective resistance in series connection to that of the parallel connection?
Solution :
L 𝜌L′ 𝜌L R
a) length of each part L′ = & Resistance of each part, R′ = = =
5 𝐴 5𝐴 5
∴ Resistance of each part is reduced to one-fifth of the original resistance.
b) If the five parts are placed in parallel
1 1 1 1 1 1
= + + + +
RP R1 R2 R3 R4 R5
1 5 5 5 5 5 25
= + + + + =
RP R R R R R R
R
⇒ RP =
25
∴ Resistance of each part is reduced to one-twenty-fifth of the original resistance.
c) If the five parts are connected in series, Resistance RS = R
RS R R×25 25
= R = =
RP R 1
25
∴ Ratio is Rs : Rp = 25 : 1
5. Two resistors when connected in parallel give the resultant resistance of 2 ohm; but when
connected in series the effective resistance becomes 9 ohm. Calculate the value of each resistance.
Given: RP = 2 Ω Rs = 9 Ω
Solution :
1 1 1 1 9 1
= + = ……… (1) =
RP R1 R2 2 R1 (9 − 𝑅1 ) 2
Rs = R1 + R2 = 9 Ω ……… (2) 18 = 9 R1 – R21
R2 = 9 – R1 ……… (3) R21 − 9 R1+18 = 0
Substitute (3) in (1) (R1 – 3) (R1– 6) = 0
1 1 1
+ = R1 = 3 Ω (or) R1 = 6 Ω
R1 9 − R1 2
9 − R1 + R1 1 R2 = 9 – 3 = 6 Ω (or) R2 = 9 – 6 = 3 Ω
= ∴ Resistance of the two resistors are 3 Ω and 6 Ω.
R1 (9 − 𝑅1) 2

6. How many electrons are passing per second in a circuit in which there is a current of 5 A?
Given : I = 5 A ; Time, t = 1 s ; e = 1.6 × 10 -19 C [MDL – 19]
Q ne
Solution : I= = [∵ Q = ne]
t t
It 5×1
n= = ⇒ n = 3.125 × 1019 electrons
e 1.6 × 10−19
∴ 3.125 × 1019 electrons are passing per second.
7. A piece of wire of resistance 10 ohm is drawn out so that its length is increased to three
times its original length. Calculate the new resistance.
Given : R = 10 Ω; Original length = L; Increased length = 3 L
Solution : If length is increased to 3 times the original length at constant volume,
A
area of cross section is decreased to 3 times the original area. ∴ A′ =
3
′ ρL′ ρ3L ρL
New Resistance, R = = A =9 = 9 R = 9 × 10 = 90 Ω
A′ A
3
∴ The new resistance is 90 Ω.
 Example Problems
8. A charge of 12 coulomb flows through a [Link] resistance of a wire of length 10 m
bulb in 5 seconds. What is the current is 2 ohm. If the area of cross section of
through the bulb? [TB– 43] the wire is 2 × 10 -7 m2, determine its
[JUN-23,SEP-21,MAY-22] (i) Resistivity (ii) Conductance
Given : Charge, Q = 12 C, Time, t = 5 s (iii) Conductivity. [TB – 47]
Q 12 Given : Length, L = 10 m
Solution : I= = = 2.4 A
t 5
∴ Current through the bulb I = 2.4 A Resistance, R = 2 Ω, Area, A = 2 × 10 -7 m2
Solution:
Similar Additional Problem : [MDL – 19]
RA 2×2×10−7
A charge of 10 coulomb flows through a bulb for (i) Resistivity ρ = =
L 10
5 seconds. What is the current through the bulb? −8
Q 10 ρ = 4 × 10 Ωm
Solution : I= = =2A
t 5 1 1
(ii) Conductance, G = = = 0.5 mho
2 R
9. The work done in moving a charge of 10 C 11
across two points in a circuit is 100 J. (iii) Conductivity, σ = =
ρ 4 ×10−8
What is the potential difference between σ = 0.25 × 108 mho m-1
the points? [TB – 44, 45]
Given: Charge Q = 10 C; Work done W = 100 J 12. Three resistors of resistance 5 ohm, 3 ohm
W 100 and 2 ohm are connected in series with 10 V
Solution : V = = = 10 V
Q 10 battery. Calculate their effective resistance
∴ Potential difference V is 10V and the current flowing through the circuit.
10. Calculate the resistance of a conductor Given : R1 = 5 Ω, R2 = 3 Ω [TB – 48]
through which a current of 2 A passes, R3 = 2 Ω, V = 10 V
when the potential difference between its Solution: Rs = R1 + R2 + R3
ends is 30 V. [TB – 46] [AUG - 2022] Rs = 5 + 3 + 2 = 10 Ω
Given : Current through the conductor, I = 2 A, V 10
I = = =1A
Potential difference, V = 30 V Rs 10
V 30
Solution : Ohm’s law, R = = = 15 Ω ∴ The current through the circuit is 1A.
I 2

13. An electric heater of resistance 5 Ω is 14. Calculate the current and the resistance of
connected to an electric source. If a a 100 W, 200 V, electric bulb in an electric
current of 6 A flows through the heater,
then find the amount of heat produced in circuit? [TB – 54]
5 minutes.[TB – 51] [PTA – 4, SEP - 2020] Given : Power (P) = 100 W,
Given: R = 5 Ω, I=6A
Time, t = 5 minutes = 5 × 60 = 300 s Voltage (V) = 200 V
Solution: Heat produced H = I2 Rt Solution: P = VI
H = 6 × 6 × 5 × 300 P 100
H = 54000 J = 54 kJ ∴I= = = 0.5 A
V 200
∴ The amount of heat produced in 5 minutes is V 200
54000 J (or) 54 kJ. Resistance R = = = 400 Ω
I 0.5
 15. Three resistors of resistances 1 Ω, 2 Ω and 17. In the circuit diagram given below, three
4 Ω are connected in parallel in a circuit. resistors R1, R2 and R3 of 5 Ω, 10 Ω and
If a 1 Ω resistor draws a current of 1A. 20 Ω respectively are connected as
Find the current through the other two shown. Calculate, [TB – 54, 55]
resistors. [TB – 55] a) Current through each resistor
Given: R1 = 1 Ω, R2 = 2 Ω, b) Total current in the circuit
R3 = 4 Ω, I1 = 1 A c) Total resistance in the circuit
Solution : a)
Potential difference across the 1 Ω resistor
V1 = I1R1 = 1× 1 = 1 V
For resistors in parallel, the potential
difference across all the resistors is same.
The current in the 2 Ω resistor is
V 1
I2 = = = 0.5 A
R2 2
Current through each resistor
The current in the 4 Ω resistor is
V 1 For resistors in parallel, the potential
I3 = = = 0.25 A difference across each resistor is same.
R3 4
∴ Current through 2 Ω resistor is 0.5 A and ⇒ V = 10 V
V 10
that in 4Ω resistor is 0.25 A. Current through R1 is I1 = = = 2 A
R1 5
16. Two bulbs are having the ratings as 60 W, V 10
Current through R2 is I2 = = = 1 A
220 V and 40 W, 220 V respectively. Which R2 10
V 10
one has a greater resistance? [TB – 54] Current through R3 is I3 = = = 0.5 A
R3 20
Solution: b) Total current in the circuit,
V2
Electric power P = I = I1 + I2 + I3
R
 For the same value of V, P is I = 2 + 1 + 0.5 = 3.5 A
inversely proportional to R. c) Total resistance in the circuit,
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
 Therefore, lesser the power, greater is = + + = + +
RP R1 R2 R3 5 10 20
the resistance. 1 4+2+1 7
 Hence, the bulb with 40 W, 220 V = =
RP 20 20
rating has a greater resistance. 20
Rp = = 2.857 Ω
7

Additional Problems
18. Calculate the effective resistance of given circuit across terminals AC. [PTA – 2]
Given : R1 = 5 Ω, R2= 5 Ω are connected in series which is parallel to R3 = 10 Ω.
Solution: Rs = R1 + R2 = 5 + 5 = 10 Ω
1 1 1 2 1
= + = = ⇒ Rp = 5 Ω
Rp 10 10 10 5
∴ Effective resistance across AC, Rp = 𝟓 Ω
19. A piece of wire having a resistance of 5 ohm cut into five equal parts. If the five parts of
the wire are connected in parallel, then find the effective resistance of the combination?
L
Given: R = 𝟓 Ω, Length of single part L’= [PTA – 3]
5
ρL′ ρL R 5 ρL
Solution: R’ = = = = =1Ω (∵ 𝑅 = )
A 5A 5 5 A
R’ 1
Effective resistance, Rp = = = 0.2 Ω
5 5
20. An electric lamp of resistance 20 ohm and a resistance of 4 ohm are connected in series to a 6 v
battery as shown in the figure. [PTA – 6]
a) Find the total resistance of the circuit.
b) Find the current flowing through the circuit.
c) Find the potential difference across the resistor.
Given : R1 = 20 Ω, R2 = 4 Ω V=6V
Solution:
a) Total Resistance Rs = R1 + R2 = 20 Ω + 4 Ω ⇒ Rs = 24 Ω
V 6
b) Current, I = = = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓 𝐀
R 24
c) Potential difference V=IR= 0.25×4 = 1 V
21. A charge of 10 coulomb flows through a bulb for 5 seconds. What is the current through
the bulb? [MDL – 19]
Given : Q = 10 C, t=5s
Q 10
Solution : I= = =2A ∴ The current through the bulb, I = 2 A
t 5

5. ACOUSTICS
1. A sound wave has a frequency of 200 Hz and a speed of 400 m s -1 in a medium. Find the
wavelength of the sound wave.
Given: n = 200 Hz, v = 400 m s-1, 𝜆 = ?
Solution :
Velocity, v = n λ
v 400
λ= =
n 200
λ=𝟐𝐦
2. The thunder of cloud is heard 9.8 seconds later than the flash of lightning. If the speed of
sound in air is 330 m s-1, what will be the height of the cloud?
Given : t = 9.8 s, v = 330 m s-1, d = ?
height
Solution : v=
Time
height = v × t = 330 × 9.8
height = 3234 m
3. A person who is sitting at a distance of 400 m from a source of sound is listening to a sound of
600 Hz. Find the time period between successive compressions from the source?
Given : n = 600 Hz, T =?
Solution : The time period The time
between successive = period of
thecompressions the wave(T).
1 1
T= = = 0.00166 s
𝑛 600
T = 1.7 × 10−3 seconds
4. An ultrasonic wave is sent from a ship towards the bottom of the sea. It is found that the time
interval between transmission and reception of the wave is 1.6 seconds. What is the depth of
the sea, if the velocity of sound in the seawater is 1400 m s-1?
Given : t = 1.6 s; v =1400 m s-1
Distance travelled = 2d; Sea Depth = ?
2𝑑
Solution : Velocity, V =
𝑡
𝑉𝑡 1400 × 1.6
d= = = 𝟏𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝒎
2 2

5. A man is standing between two vertical walls 680 m apart. He claps his hands and hears
two distinct echoes after 0.9 seconds and 1.1 second respectively. What is the speed of sound
in the air?
Given: t1 = 0.9s, t2 = 1.1s, d1+d2 = 680m
2𝑑 𝑉𝑡
Solution: V= ⟹ d=
𝑡 2
𝑉×𝑡1 𝑉×𝑡2 𝑉
d1 + d2 = + = (t1 + t2)
2 2 2
𝑉
(0.9 + 1.1) = 680 m
2
𝑉
× 2 = 680 m
2
V = 680 m s-1
6. Two observers are stationed in two boats 4.5 km apart. A sound signal sent by one, under
water, reaches the other after 3 seconds. What is the speed of sound in the water?
Given: d = 4.5 km = 4500 m; t = 3 s
𝑑 4500
Solution : V = = = 1500 m s-1
𝑡 3

7. A strong sound signal is sent from a ship towards the bottom of the sea. It is received back
after 1 s. What is the depth of sea given that the speed of sound in water 1450 m s -1?
Given : V = 1450 m s-1 ; t=1s
2 ×depth
Solution: Velocity =
time
Velocity × time 1450 × 1
Depth = =
2 2
Depth = 𝟕𝟐𝟓 𝐦
8. Air temperature in the Rajasthan desert can reach 46°𝑪. What is the velocity of sound in
air at that temperature? (V0 = 331 m s-1)
V0 = 331 m s-1 T = 46℃
VT = V0 + 0.61 T = 331 + 0.61 × 46 = 359.06 ms-1
9. What will be the frequency of sound having 0.20 m as its wavelength, when it travels with
a speed of 331 m s-1?
V 331 3310
n= = = = 1655 Hz
λ 0.20 2
 Example Problems
10. At what temperature will the velocity of sound in air be double the velocity of sound in air at 𝟎° 𝐂?
Given : Let, T → Required temperature in °C. [TB – 61, 62]
V1 and V2 → Velocity of sound at temperatures T1K and T2K respectively.
T1 = 273 K (0°C) and T2 = (273 + T) K V2 = 2V1
V2 T2 273+T
Solution : =√ =√ =2
V1 T1 273
T+273
= 4 ⇒ T = (4 × 273) – 273
273
T = 1092 – 273 = 819℃
∴ At 819℃, the velocity of sound in air will be double the velocity of sound in air at 0℃.
11. A source producing a sound of frequency 90 Hz is approaching a stationary listener with a
speed equal to (1/10) of the speed of sound. What will be the frequency heard by the
listener?
1
Given : Vs = v, n = 90 Hz [TB – 67] [PTA – 4]
10
Solution : When the source is moving towards the stationary listener, the expression for
V
apparent frequency, n′ = ( )n
V−Vs
V v 10
n′ = ( 1 ) n = ( (10−1)v ) n = ( ) n
V− v 9
10 10
10
n′ = ( ) × 90 = 100 Hz
9
∴ The frequency heard by the listener is 100 Hz.
12. A source producing a sound of frequency 500 Hz is moving towards a listener with a
velocity of 30 𝐦𝐬 −𝟏. The speed of the sound is 330 𝐦𝐬 −𝟏. What will be the frequency heard
by listener? [TB – 67, 68] [PTA – 2]
−1 −1
Given : V = 330 ms , Vs = 30 ms , n = 500 Hz
Solution : When the source is moving towards the stationary listener, the expression for
V 330
apparent frequency, n′ = ( )n = ( ) × 500
V−Vs 330−30
′ 330 11
n = ( ) × 500 = × 500 = 550 Hz
300 10
∴ The frequency heard by listener is 550 Hz.
13. A source of sound is moving with a velocity of 50 𝐦𝐬 −𝟏 towards a stationary listener. The
listener measures the frequency of the source as 1000 Hz. What will be the apparent
frequency of the source when it is moving away from the listener after crossing him?
(velocity of sound in the medium is 330 𝐦𝐬 −𝟏) [TB – 68] [MDL – 19]
−1 −1 ′
Given : V = 330 ms , Vs = 50 ms , n = 1000 Hz
Solution : When the source is moving towards the stationary listener, the expression for
V
apparent frequency n′ = ( )n
V−Vs
330 330 1000×280
1000 = ( ) n = ( ) n ⇒ n = 330 = 848.48 Hz
330−50 280
∴ The actual frequency of the sound is 848.48 Hz
When the source is moving away from the stationary listener, the expression for apparent frequency is,
V 330
n′ = ( )n = ( ) × 848.48 = 736.84 Hz
V+Vs 330+50
∴ The apparent frequency of the sound is 736.84 Hz
 14. At what speed should a source of sound 15. A source and listener are both moving
move away from a stationary observer so towards each other with a speed v/10
that observer finds the apparent where v is the speed of sound. If the
frequency equal to half of the original frequency of the note emitted by the
frequency? [TB – 68] [PTA – 5] source is f, what will be the frequency
Given : n′ =
n heard by the listener? [TB – 68]
2 v −1
Given : V𝑙 = ms
Solution: 10
v
When the source is moving away from the Vs = ms −1 , n = f
10
stationary listener, the expression for the Solution: When source and listener are
′ V
apparent frequency, n = ( )n both moving towards each other,
V+Vs V+V𝑙
n V The apparent frequency, n′ = ( )n
⇒ =( )n 𝑣
V−Vs
2 V+Vs 𝑉+
10 11v 10 11
Vs = V n= ( 𝑣)𝑛 = ( × )f = f = 1.22 f
𝑉− 10 9v 9
10

Additional Problems
16. From the given figure, calculate angle of reflection of sound. [PTA – 4]
Solution:
Angle of incident sound (i) = 90̊ – 50̊ = 40̊
Angle of Reflection (r) = angle of incident sound (i)
∴ r = 40̊
17. Calculate the frequency of visible light having wavelength 3000A° travelling in vacuum.
Given : λ = 3000 Å = 3000 × 10−10 m [PTA – 5]
8 -1
Solution : Velocity (𝑐) = 3 × 10 ms
C 3×108
Frequency(ν) = =
λ 3000×10−10
3×108
Frequency(ν) = 15
= 10 Hz
3×10−7
18. A strong ultrasonic sound signal is sent from a ship towards the bottom of the sea. It is received
by the receiver after 2 s. Calculate the depth of sea? The speed of sound in water 1450 m s-1?
Given : V = 1450 ms-1 ; t = 2 s [PTA – 5]
2 ×depth Velocity × time 1450 × 2
Solution : Velocity = ⇒ Depth = = = 𝟏𝟒𝟓𝟎 𝐦
time 2 2

6. NUCLEAR PHYSICS
1. 88Ra experiences three α- decay. Find the number of neutrons in the daughter element.
226

Three 𝛼 decay 226

88Ra → z-2Y
A-4
+ 3 2He4
Mass number of Parent element = Mass number of 3 α-particles + Mass number of daughter element
226 = 34 +A = 12 + A
A = 226 – 12 = 214
Atomic number of Parent element = Atomic number of 3 α-particles + Atomic number of daughter element
88 = 32 + Z = 6 + Z
Z = 88 – 6 = 82
Number of neutrons = A – Z = 214 – 82 = 132
2. A cobalt specimen emits induced radiation of 75.6 millicurie per second. Convert this
disintegration into becquerel (one curie = 3.7 × 1010Bq)
1 Curie = 3.7 ×1010Bq
75.6 millicurie = 75.6 ×10-3 × 3.7 ×1010 = 75.6 × 3.7 ×107
= 279.72 ×107= 0. 28 ×1010 Bq
3. Mass number of a radioactive element is 232 and its atomic number is 90. When this
element undergoes certain nuclear reactions, it transforms into an isotope of lead with a
mass number 208 and an atomic number 82. Determine the number of alpha and beta
decay that can occur.
Let a, b be the number of alpha and beta decay respectively.
232
90X → 82Pb208 + a 2He4 + b -1e0
Comparing mass number Comparing Atomic number
Mass number of ‘a’ alpha particle = 4a Atomic number of ‘a’ alpha particle = 2a
Mass number of ‘b’ beta particle = 0 Atomic number of ‘b’ beta particle = –b
232 = 208 + 4a + 0 ⇒ 4a = 232 – 208 90 = 82 + 2a – b ⇒ 90 – 82 = 2a – b
4a = 24 8 = 2 (6) – b
a=6 b = 12 – 8 = 4
∴ The number of alpha decay is 6 and number of beta decay is 4.

Example Problems
4. A radon specimen emits radiation of 3.7×103 GBq per second. Convert this disintegration
in terms of curie. (1 curie = 3.7 × 1010 disintegration per second) [Ex : 6.2, TB – 85]
Given : 1 Bq = one disintegration per second,
one curie = 3.7 × 1010 Bq
1
Solution : 1 Bq = curie
3.7×1010
1
∴ 3.7 × 10 GBq = 3.7 × 103 × 109 ×
3
= 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝐜𝐮𝐫𝐢𝐞
3.7×1010

5. 92U235 experiences one 𝜶 - decay and one 𝜷 - decay. Find number of neutrons in the final
daughter nucleus that is formed. [Ex : 6.3, TB – 85]
Let X & Y be the final daughter nucleus.
α decay
235
𝛂 – decay : 92U → 90X
231
+ 2He4
mass number (A) = 235 – 4 = 231
atomic number(Z) = 92 – 2 = 90
β decay
𝛃 – decay : 90X
231
→ 91Y
231
+ -1𝑒 0
mass number (A) = 231 (remains same)
atomic number(Z) = 90 + 1 = 91
No. of neutrons = Mass number – Atomic number
= 231 – 91 = 140
∴ Number of neutrons in the final daughter nucleus is 140.
 6. Identify A, B, C, and D from the following 7. Calculate the amount of energy released
nuclear reactions. [Ex : 6.1, TB – 85] when a radioactive substance undergoes
27 30
(i) 13Al + A→ 15P + B
fusion and results in a mass defect of 2 kg.
(ii) 12Mg24+ B → 11Na24+ C
(iii) 92U238+ B → 93Np239+ D Given : mass (m) = 2 kg; [Ex : 6.4, TB – 85]
Solution : Velocity of light (c) = 3 × 108ms-1
(i) 13Al27+ 2He4→ 30
15P + 0n
1
Solution : [APR – 2023]
(ii) 12Mg24+ 0n1→ 11 Na24
+ 1 H 1
Einstein’s equation, E = mc 2
238 1 239 0
(iii) 92U + 0n → 93Np + –1e
E = 2 × (3 × 108 )2
A ⟶ 𝛼 particle( 2He ) B ⟶ Neutron (0n )
4 1

C ⟶ Proton (1H1) D ⟶ Electron (–1e0) E = 1.8 × 1017 J / 18 × 1016J

Additional Problems
𝟐𝟑𝟖
8. 𝟗𝟐 𝑼 experiences 𝜶 decay. Find the 10. In the nuclear reaction given below, the
number of neutrons in the daughter nucleus X changes to nucleus Y by the
element. [SEP – 2021] reaction of alpha decay. Then what are the
atomic number and mass number of Y?
One 𝜶 decay 92U238→ ZYA+ 2He4 +energy [PTA – 5]
mass number (A) = 238 – 4 = 234 One 𝜶 decay 88X → ZY + 2He +energy
226 A 4

atomic number(Z) = 92 – 2 = 90 mass number (A) = 226 – 4 = 222

Number of neutrons = A – Z = 234 – 90 = 144 atomic number(Z) = 88 – 2 = 86
𝟐𝟑𝟓
9. 𝟗𝟐 𝑼 experiences one 𝜶 decay. Find the 11. Calculate the amount of energy released
number of neutrons in the final daughter when a radioactive substance undergoes
nucleus that is formed. [PTA – 1] fusion and results in a mass defect of 1 kg.
One 𝜶 decay 92U235→ ZYA+ 2He4 +energy Mass defect (m) = 1 kg [PTA – 5]
8 -1
Velocity (c) = 3 × 10 m s
mass number (A) = 235 – 4 = 231 By Einstein’s equation, E = mc2
atomic number(Z) = 92 – 2 = 90 E = 1× (3 × 108)2
Number of neutrons = A – Z = 231 – 90 = 141 = 9 × 1016 J (or) 0.9 × 1017 J
7. ATOMS AND MOLECULES
1. How many grams are there in the following? [PTA – 4]
i) 2 moles of hydrogen molecule, H2
Molecular mass of H2 = 1 × 2 = 2
Mass = No. of moles × Molecular mass = 2 × 2 = 4 g
ii) 3 moles of chlorine molecule, Cl2
Molecular mass of Cl2 = 35.5 × 2 = 71
Mass = No. of moles × Molecular mass = 3 × 71 = 213
iii) 5 moles of sulphur molecule, S8
Molecular mass of S8 = 32 × 8 = 256
Mass = No. of moles × Molecular mass = 5 × 256 = 1280 g
iv) 4 moles of phosphorous molecule, P4
Molecular mass of P4 = 30 × 4 = 120
Mass = No. of moles × Molecular mass = 4 × 120 = 480 g
Note : In Text Book solved problems (Pg. no. 100, [Link]. I-3), atomic mass of Phosphorus is given as 30. But,
correct approximate value is 31.
2. Calculate the (mass) % of each element in calcium carbonate. (Atomic mass: C -12, O -16, Ca - 40)
Molecular mass of CaCO3 = 40 + 12 + (16 × 3) = 100 g [JUN – 2023, PTA – 2]
Mass of Individual 𝐌𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐞𝐥𝐞𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭 Mass percentage of
Elements × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
element 𝐌𝐨𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐮𝐥𝐚𝐫 𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 each element
40
Ca 40 × 100 40%
100
12
C 12 × 100 12%
100
48
O 3×16 = 48 × 100 48%
100
3. Calculate the % of oxygen in Al2(SO4)3. (Atomic mass: Al -27, O -16, S - 32). [PTA – 2]
Molecular mass of Al2(SO4)3 = (2 × 27) + (3×(32 +(4 ×16))) = 342 g
3 ×4×16 192
% of O in Al2(SO4)3 = × 100 = × 100 = 56.14%
342 342

4. Calculate the % relative abundance of B -10 and B -11, if its average atomic mass is 10.804 amu.
Let 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 be the % abundance of B-10 and B-11 respectively. m1 = 10, m2 = 11
𝑎1 +𝑎2 = 100 ⇒ 𝑎1 = 100 − 𝑎2
a1 a2
Average Atomic Mass = m1 × + m2 ×
100 100
(100−𝑎2 ) a2
= 10 × + 11 ×
100 100
𝑎2 11a2
= 10 × (1 − )+
100 100
10𝑎2 11a
= 10 − + 2
100 100
a2
10.804 = 10 + (∵Average Atomic Mass of B = 10.804 amu)
100
a2
=10.804 – 10 = 0.804
100
𝑎2 = 0.804 × 100 = 80.4 %
𝑎1 = 100 − 80.4 = 19.6 %
∴ % abundance of B-10 = 19.6 % & % abundance of B-11 = 80.4%
5. Find the percentage of nitrogen in ammonia. [PTA – 1]
14
% of Nitrogen in NH3 = Mass of element
Molecular mass
× 100 =
17
× 100 = 82.35 %
6. Calculate the gram molecular mass of calcium carbonate involved in this reaction.
Gram Molecular Mass of CaCO3 = (40 × 1) + (12 × 1) + (16 × 3)
= 40 + 12 + 48 = 100 g
7. Calculate the number of water molecule present in one drop of water, which weighs 0.18 g.
Molecular mass of H2O= (1 × 2) + 16 = 18 g
Mass of water
Number of molecules = × Avogadro number
Molecular mass
0.18
= × 6.023 × 1023
18
∴ The No. of water molecules = 6.023× 1021
8. N2 + 3 H2 → 2 NH3 (The atomic mass of nitrogen is 14, and that of hydrogen is 1)
1 mole of nitrogen (__g) + 3 moles of hydrogen (__ g) → 2 moles of ammonia (__ g)
Mass = No. of moles × Molecular mass
Mass of N2 = 1 × (14 × 2) = 28
Mass of H2 = 3 × (1 × 2) = 6
Mass of NH3 = 2 × (14 + (3 × 1)) = 34
1 mole of nitrogen (28 g) + 3 moles of hydrogen (6 g) → 2 moles of ammonia (34 g)

9. Calculate the number of moles in i) 27g of Al ii) 1.51 × 1023 molecules of NH4Cl. [PTA – 5]
i) 27g of Al : ii) 1.51 × 1023 molecules of NH4Cl :
Mass of 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒 Number of Molecules
Number of moles = Number of moles =
Atomic mass of 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒 Avogadro number
27 1.51×1023
= =
27 6.023×1023
= 1 mole = 0.25 moles

Example Problems
Calculation of Average Atomic Mass
10. Oxygen is the most abundant element in both the Earth’s crust and the human body. It
exists as a mixture of three stable isotopes in nature as shown in below table. Calculate the
atomic mass of oxygen. [TB – 94]
Isotope Mass (amu) % abundance
16
8O 15.9949 99. 757
17
8O 16.9991 0.038
18
8O 17.9992 0.205

Atomic mass of oxygen = (15.9949 × 0.99757) + (16.9991 × 0.00038) + (17.9992 × 0.00205)

= 15.999 amu

11. Boron naturally occurs as a mixture of boron-10 (5 protons + 5 neutrons) and

boron-11(5 protons + 6 neutrons) isotopes. The percentage abundance of B-10 is 20 and
that of B-11 is 80. Calculate the atomic mass of boron. [TB – 94]
20 80
Atomic mass of boron = (10 × ) + (11 × )
100 100

= (10 × 0.20) + (11 × 0.80)

= 2 + 8.8 = 10.8 amu
 Calculation of Relative Molecular Mass
12. Sulphuric acid contains 2 atoms of hydrogen, 1 atom of sulphur and 4 atoms of oxygen.
Calculate the relative molecular mass of sulphuric acid (H2SO4). [TB – 96]
Relative Molecular Mass of H2SO4 =(2×mass of hydrogen)+(1×mass of sulphur)+(4×mass of oxygen)
= (2 × 1) + (1 × 32) + (4 × 16) = 98
1
∴ One molecule of H2SO4 is 98 times as heavy as of the mass of a carbon –12.
12th
13. A water molecule is made of 2 atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen. Calculate the
relative molecular mass of water (H2O). [TB – 96]
Relative Molecular Mass of water = (2 × mass of hydrogen) + (1 × mass of oxygen)
= (2 × 1) + (1 × 16) = 18
1
∴ One molecule of H2O is 18 times as heavy as of the mass of a carbon –12.
12th

Calculation of Mass percentage composition

14. Find the mass percentage composition of methane (CH4). [TB – 98]
Molar mass of CH4 = 12 + (1 × 4) = 16 g
12
Mass % of Carbon = × 100 = 75%
16
4
Mass % of Hydrogen = × 100 = 25%
16

Calculation of Molecular mass

15. Calculate the gram molecular mass of the following. i) H2O ii) CO2 iii) Ca3 (PO4)2
i) H2O [TB – 99, 100] ii) CO 2 [TB – 100] [SEP-2021] iii) Ca3 (PO4)2 [TB – 100]
Atomic mass of H =1,O=16 Atomic mass of C=12,O=16 Atomic mass of Ca = 40, P =30, O =16
Gram Molecular Mass of H O 2 Gram Molecular Mass of CO 2
Gram Molecular Mass of Ca3(PO4)2
= (1 × 2) + (16 × 1) = (12 × 1) + (16 × 2) = (40 × 3) + [30 + (16 × 4)] × 2

= 2 + 16 = 18 g = 12 + 32 = 44 g = 120 + (94 × 2) = 120 + 188= 308 g

Note : In Book example problem, atomic mass of Phosphorus is given as 30. But, correct approximation value is 31.

Calculation based on number of atoms / molecules

16. i) Calculate the number of moles in 46 g of sodium. [TB – 100] [MDL – 19]
Mass of the element 46
Number of moles of Sodium = = = 2 moles
Atomic mass of the element 23

ii) Calculate the number of moles in iii) Calculate the number of moles of a sample
5.6 litre of oxygen at S.T.P. [TB – 100] that contains 12.046 × 1023 atoms of iron.
Number of moles of Oxygen Number of moles of Iron [TB – 100]
Given volume of O2 at S.T.P Number of atoms of iron
= =
Molar volume at S.T.P Avogadro′ s number
5.6 12.046 × 1023
= = 0.25 mole = = 2 moles
22.4 6.023 × 1023
 Calculation of mass from mole
17. Calculate the mass of the following : [TB – 100, 101]
Mass of Compound Number of atoms Given volume at STP
No. of moles = = =
Molecular / atomic mass Avogadro′ s number Molar Volume

i) 0.3 mole of Aluminium (Atomic mass of Al = 27)

Mass = No. of moles × Atomic mass = 0.3 × 27 = 8.1 g
ii) 2.24 litre of SO2 gas at S.T.P
Molecular mass of SO2 = 32 + (16 × 2) = 32 + 32 = 64 g
2.24
Number of moles of SO2 = = 0.1 mole
22.4
Mass of SO2 = No. of moles × Molecular mass = 0.1 × 64 = 6.4 g
iii) 1.51 × 10 molecules of water [MDL – 19] iv) 5 × 1023molecules of glucose?
23

Molecular mass of H2O = 18 Molecular mass of C6H12O6(glucose)

1.51× 1023 1 = (12 × 6) + (1 × 12) + (16 × 6) =180
Number of moles = = = 0.25 mole
6.023 × 1023 4 Molecular mass×Number of particles
Mass Mass of glucose =
Number of moles = Avogadro′s number
Molecular mass
180×5× 1023
mass = = 149.43 = 149.43 g
0.25 = ⇒ Mass = 0.25×18 = 4.5g 6.023 × 1023
18
Calculation based on number of atoms / molecules
Mass of Compound Number of atoms given volume at STP
No. of moles = = =
Molecular / atomic mass Avogadro′ s number Molar Volume
\

18. i) Calculate the number of molecules in 11.2 litre of CO2 at S.T.P [TB – 101]
volume at S.T.P 11.2
Number of moles of CO2 = = = 0.5 mole
Molar volume 22.4
Number of molecules of CO2 = Number of moles of CO2 × Avogadro’s number
= 0.5 × 6.023 × 1023 = 3.011×1023 molecules
ii) Calculate the number of atoms present in iii)Calculate the number of molecules in 54 g
1 gram of gold (Atomic mass of Au = 198) of H2O.
Number of atoms of Au Number of molecules of water
Mass of Au ×Avogadro′ s number Avogadro number× Given mass
= = Gram molecular mass
Atomic mass of Au
1 6.023 ×1023 ×54
= × 6.023 × 1023 =
18
198
= 3.042 × 10 21 = 18.069 × 1023 molecules
iv) Calculate the number of atoms of oxygen and carbon in 5 moles of CO 2.
1 mole of CO2 contains 2 moles of oxygen ⇒ 5 moles of CO2 contain 10 moles of oxygen
Number of atoms of oxygen = Number of moles of oxygen × Avogadro’s number
= 10 × 6.023 ×1023
= 6.023×1024 atoms of oxygen
1 mole of CO2contains 1 mole of Carbon ⇒ 5 moles of CO2 contain 5 moles of Carbon
= 5 × 6.023 ×1023
= 3.011 ×1024 atoms of carbon
 Calculation based on molar volume
19. Calculate the volume occupied by : [TB – 101]
Mass of Compound Number of atoms Given volume at STP
No. of moles = = =
Molecular / atomic mass Avogadro′ s number Molar Volume

i) 2.5 mole of CO2 at S.T.P.

Volume of CO2 at S.T.P
2.5 mole of CO2 =
22.4
Volume of CO2 at S.T.P = 22.4 × 2.5 = 56 litres

ii) 12.046 × 1023 of ammonia gas molecules. iii) 14 g nitrogen gas.

Number of molecules 14
Number of moles = Number of moles =
Avogadro′ s number 28
12.046 × 1023 = 0.5 mole
=
6.023 × 1023
Volume occupied by N2 at S.T.P,
= 2 moles
Volume occupied by NH3 = number of moles × molar volume
= Number of moles × Molar volume = 0.5 × 22.4
= 2 × 22.4 = 44.8 litres at S.T.P = 11.2 litres

Calculation based on % composition

20. Calculate % of S in H2SO4. [TB – 102] [APR – 2023]
Molecular mass of H2SO4 = (1 × 2) + (32 × 1) + (16 × 4) = 2 + 32 + 64 = 98 g
Mass of Sulphur
% of S in H2SO4 = × 100
Molecular Mass of H2 SO4
32
= × 100 = 32.65%
98

Additional Problems
21. Calculate the number of molecules present in the 36 g water. [MDL – 19]
Given mass
Number of molecules of water = × Avogadro number
Gram Molecular Mass
36 23
= × 6.023 × 10
18

= 12.046 × 1023
22. The mass percentage of carbon is 27.28% and the mass percentage of oxygen is 72.73%.
Calculate the molecular mass of that compound. [PTA – 4]
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 % 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛 27.28
No. of moles of C = = = 2.27 ≅ 2
𝐴𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛 12
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 % 𝑜𝑓 𝑂𝑥𝑦𝑔𝑒𝑛 72.73
No. of moles of O = = = 4.54 ≅ 4
𝐴𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑂𝑥𝑦𝑔𝑒𝑛 16

Molecular formula : C2 O4 (or) 2 CO2

Molecular mass = (2 × 12) + (4 × 16) = 88g
23. In chemical industries, the following chemical reaction is used to produce ammonia in large
scale. 𝐍𝟐 + 𝟑𝐇𝟐 ⇌ 𝟐𝐍𝐇𝟑 [PTA – 3]
Based on mole concept, calculate the mass of nitrogen gas and hydrogen gas required in
kilogram to produce 1000kg of ammonia by using the above chemical equation.
Mass of NH3 = 1000 kg =106 g
Molecular mass of NH3 = 14 + (3 × 1) = 17 g
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑁𝐻3 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 106
No. of moles of NH3 = =
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓𝑁𝐻3 17
Required Mass of H2 = No. of moles of H2 × Molecular mass
106 3
= × × (2 × 1) = 176.47 kg of H2
17 2
Required Mass of N2 = No. of moles of N2 × Molecular mass
106 1
= 17
× 2 × (14 × 2) = 823.53 kg of N2
∴ Required mass of Nitrogen gas = 823.53 kg
Required mass of Hydrogen gas = 176.47 kg

1. A solution is prepared by dissolving 45 g of sugar in 180 g of water. Calculate the mass

percentage of solute.
Mass of solute 45 4500
Mass percentage of solute = × 100 = × 100 = = 𝟐𝟎%
Mass of solvent+ mass of solute 180+45 225

2. 3.5 litres of ethanol is present in 15 litres of aqueous solution of ethanol. Calculate volume
percent of ethanol solution. [PTA – 2]
Volume of solute 3.5
Volume percentage = × 100 = × 100 = 23. 33%
volume of solution 15

Example Problems
Example problems based on solubility
3. 1.5 g of solute is dissolved in 15 g of water to form a saturated solution at 298 K. Find out
the solubility of the solute at the temperature. [TB – 131, 132]
Given : Mass of the solute = 1.5 g ; Mass of the solvent = 15 g
Mass of the solute 1.5
Solution : Solubility of the solute = × 100 = × 100 =10 g
Mass of the solvent 15
∴ Solubility of the solute is 10 g.

4. Find the mass of potassium chloride would be needed to form a saturated solution in 60 g of
water at 303 K? Given that solubility of the KCl is 37/100 g at this temperature. [TB – 132]
Given : Mass of KCl in 100 g of water in saturated solution = 37 g
37
Solution : Mass of KCl in 60 g of Water in saturated solution = × 60 = 22.2 g
100
∴ Mass of potassium chloride is 22.2 g.
5. What is the mass of sodium chloride that would be needed to form a saturated solution in
50 g of water at 30°C. Solubility of sodium chloride is 36 g at 30°C? [TB – 132]
Given : At 30°C, 36 g of NaCl that would be need for dissolve in 100 g of water.
36 × 50
Solution : ∴ Mass of NaC𝑙 dissolved in 50 g of water = = 18 g
100
∴ Mass of sodium chloride is 18 g
6. The solubility of sodium nitrate at 50°C and 30°C is 114 g and 96 g respectively. Find the
amount of salt that will be thrown out when a saturated solution of sodium nitrate
containing 50 g of water is cooled from 50°C to 30°C? [TB – 132]
Given : Amount of sodium nitrate dissolved in100 g of water at 50°C is 114 g
114×50
Solution : ⇒At 50° C, amount of sodium nitrate dissolving in 50 g of water = = 57g
100
96×50
⇒At 30° C, amount of sodium nitrate dissolving in 50 g of water = = 48 g
100
∴ Amount of sodium nitrate thrown when 50 g of water is cooled from 50°C to 30°C,= 57 g – 48g = 𝟗𝐠
Example problems based on Mass percentage
7. A solution was prepared by dissolving 25 g of sugar in 100 g of water. Calculate the mass
percentage of solute. [TB – 132] [APR-2023, SEP – 2020]
Given : Mass of the solute = 25 g ; Mass of the solvent = 100 g
Solution : Mass of the solution = Mass of the solute + Mass of the solvent = 25 + 100 = 125
Mass of the solute 25
Mass percentage = × 100 = × 100 = 20%
Mass of the solution 25+100
∴ Mass percentage of solute is 20%
8. 16 grams of NaOH is dissolved in 100 grams of water at 25°C to form a saturated solution.
Find the mass percentage of solute and solvent. [TB – 132, 133]
Given : Mass of the solute = 16 g ; Mass of the solvent = 100 g
Solution: Mass of the solution = Mass of the solute + Mass of the solvent = 16 + 100 = 116
Mass of the solute 16
Mass percentage of solute = × 100 = × 100= 13.79%
Mass of the solution 116

Mass percentage of solvent = 100 – Mass percentage of the solute

= 100 – 13.79 = 86.21%
∴ Mass percentage of solute is 13.79% and solvent is 86.21%
9. Find the amount of urea which is to be dissolved in water to get 500 g of 10% 𝐰/𝐰 aqueous solution?
Given : Mass percentage = 10% ; Mass of the solution = 500 g [TB – 133]
Mass of the solute
Solution : Mass percentage (w/w) = × 100
Mass of the solution
Mass of the urea 10 ×500
10 = × 100 ⇒ = = 50 g
500 100
∴ Mass of urea is 50 g
 Example problems based on Volume percentage
10. A solution is made from 35 ml of methanol and 65 ml of water. Calculate the volume percentage.
Given : Volume of the solute (ethanol) = 35 ml ; Volume of the solvent (water) = 65 ml
Solution : Mass of the solution = Mass of the solute + Mass of the solvent = 35 + 65 = 100
Volume of the solute
Volume percentage = × 100
volume of the solution
35
= × 100 = 35 % [TB – 133]
100
∴ Volume percentage is 35%.
11. Calculate the volume of ethanol in 200 ml solution of 20% v/v aqueous solution of ethanol.
Given : Volume of solution = 200 ml ; Volume percentage = 20% [TB – 133]
Volume of solute
Solution : Volume percentage = × 100
volume of solution
Volume of ethanol 20 × 200
20 = × 100 = = 40 𝑚𝑙
200 100
∴ Volume of ethanol is 40 ml.
Additional Problems
12. Calculate the mass of water required in grams to dissolve 10 g of sucrose to produce the
mass percentage of 10% solution. [PTA – 3]
Let, Mass of water = x So, Mass of solution = x + 10
Mass of the solute
Mass % = × 100
Mass of the solution
10
10 = × 100
𝑥 + 10
x + 10 = 100 g
x = 100 g – 10 g = 𝟗𝟎 𝐠
13. Calculate the solubility of a solute at 300 K by dissolving 10 g of solute in 50 g of solvent.
Mass of the solute
Solubility = × 100
Mass of the solvent
10
= × 100 = 𝟐𝟎 𝐠 [PTA – 5]
50

10. TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS

1. Lemon juice has a pH 2, what is the 2. Calculate the pH of 1.0 ×10–4 molar
concentration of H+ ions? solution of HNO3. [PTA – 1]
Solution : Given : [H ] = 1.0 × 10 = 10−4
+ −4

Solution : pH = − log10 [H+ ]

pH = − log10 [H+ ] = 2
= −log10 [10−4 ]
+
Log10 [H ] = −2 = −(−4) log10 10
⇒ [H+ ] = 0.01 (or) 10−2 pH = 4(1) = 4 (∵ log10 10 = 1)
∴ Concentration is 1.0 × 10-2 mole litre-1 ∴ pH of HNO3 is 4.
3. What is the pH of 1.0 × 10-5 molar solution 4. The hydroxide ion concentration of a
of KOH? [PTA – 6] solution is 1 × 10–11 M. What is the pH of
the solution? [PTA – 5]
Given : [OH− ] = 1.0 × 10−5 = 10−5
Given : [OH ] = 1.0 × 10 = 10−11
− -11

Solution : Solution :
−
pOH = − log10 [OH ] pOH = − log10 [OH− ]
= −log10 [10−5 ] = − log10 [ 1 × 10−11 ]
= −(−5) log10 10 = −(−11) log10 10
(∵ log10 10 = 1)
(∵ log10 10 = 1)
pOH = 11(1) = 11
pOH = 5(1) = 5
∵ pH + pOH = 14
∵ pH + pOH = 14 pH = 14 −pOH
pH = 14 −pOH = 14 − 5 = 9 pH = 14 − 11 = 3
∴ pH of the solution is 9. ∴ pH of the solution of is 3.

Example Problems
5. Calculate the pH of 0.01 M HNO3. 6. The hydroxyl ion concentration of a
[TB – 150] [APR-23, MDL – 19] solution is 1 × 10-9 M. What is the pOH of
Given : [H+ ] = 0.01 the solution? [TB – 150]
Given : [OH− ] = 1 × 10−9 = 10−9
Solution :
Solution :
pH = − log10 [H+ ]
pOH = − log10 [OH− ]
= − log10 [0.01]
= − log10 [ 1 × 10−9]
= −log10 [10−2 ]
= −(−9) log10 10
= −(−2 log10 10)
(∵ log10 10 = 1)
pH = 2 (∵ log10 10 = 1)
pOH = 9(1) = 9
∴ pH of 0.01 molar solution of HNO3 is 2.
∴ pOH of the solution is 9.

7. A solution has a pOH of 11.76. What is 8. Calculate the pH of 0.001 molar solution
the pH of this solution? [TB – 150] of HCl. [TB – 150]
Given : Given :
pOH = 11.76 [H+ ] = 0.001 = 10−3
Solution : Solution :
pH + pOH = 14 pH = − log10 [H+ ]
pH = 14 – pOH = −log10 10−3
= −(−3) log10 10
⇒ pH = 14 – 11.76
pH = 3(1) = 3 (∵ log10 10 = 1)
pH = 2.24
9. What would be the pH of an aqueous solution of sulphuric acid which is 5 × 10-5 mol litre–1 in
concentration. [TB – 150]
Given : Dissociation of Sulphuric acid in water : H2SO4(aq) → 2H (aq) + SO4 (aq)
+ 2–

Solution : 1 mole of sulphuric acid contains → 2 mole of H+ ions in the solution.

1litre of H2SO4 contains → 5×10-5 moles of H2SO4
2 × 5 × 10−5 = 10 × 10−5 (or) 1 × 10−4
[H+ ] = 1.0 × 10−4 = 10−4
pH = − log10 [H+ ] = −log10 10−4 = −(−4) log10 10
pH = 4(1) = 4 (∵ log10 10 = 1)
10. Calculate the pH of 1 × 10-4 molar solution of NaOH. [TB – 150, 151]
–
Given : Dissociation of NaOH in its solution : NaOH(aq)→ Na (aq) + OH (aq)
+

Solution : 1 mole of NaOH would give 1 mole of OH– ions.

∴ [OH–] = 1 × 10–4 mol litre–1 = 10−4
pOH = − log10 [OH− ]
= − log10 [ 10−4 ]
= −(−4 )log10 10
pOH = 4(1) = 4 (∵ log10 10 = 1)
∴ pH + pOH = 14
pH = 14 – pOH
pH = 14 – 4 = 10
11. Calculate the pH of a solution in which 12. pH of a solution is 4.5, what is its pOH?
the concentration of the hydrogen ions is [TB – 151]
–8 –1
1.0 × 10 mol litre . [TB – 151] Given : pH + pOH = 14
Given : [H ] = 1.0 × 10 = 10−8
+ −8
Solution : pH + pOH = 14
Solution : pH = − log10 [H+ ]
4.5 + pOH = 14
= −log10 10−8
pOH = 14 – 4.5 = 9.5
= −(−8) log10 10
pH = 8(1) = 8 (∵ log10 10 = 1) ∴ pOH = 9.5

Additional Problems
13. From the value of ionic product of water at 𝟐𝟓°𝑪, find out the concentration of hydroxyl
ions. (At 𝟐𝟓°𝑪 concentration of hydrogen ions in water is 𝟏𝟎−𝟕 𝒎𝒐𝒍/𝒅𝒎𝟑 ) [PTA – 4]
Given : Kw = 1.00 × 10−14 [H+] = 1.00 × 10−7 [OH-] = ?
Solution : Kw = [H+] [OH-]
1.00 × 10−14 = [1.00 × 10−7 ] [OH-]
1.00 ×10−14
[OH− ] = = 1.00 × 10−7
1.00 ×10−7
∴ Conc. of hydroxyl ions in water = 1.00 × 10−7