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15
LINUX SYSTEM
Unit Structure

15.0 Objectives
15.1 Linux introduction and File System
15.2 Basic Features
15.3 Advantages
15.4 Basic Architecture of UNIX/Linux System
15.5 Summary
15.6 Model Question

15.0 OBJECTIVE

 To explore the history of the UNIX operating system from

which Linux is derived and the principles which Linux is
designed upon.
 To examine the Linux process model and illustrate how
Linux schedules processes and provides inter-process
communication.
 To explore how Linux implements file systems and manages
I/O devices.

15.1 LINUX INTRODUCTION AND FILE SYSTEM

Linux looks like UNIX system. Linux is developed by Linux

Torvalds. Linux development began in 1991. Linux source code is
available for free on the internet. The basic Linux system is
standard environment for applications and user programming.

15.1.1 Components of a Linux System

Any Linux system consists of three components.
1. Kernel
2. System libraries
3. System utilities
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Kernel:
The Kernel is responsible for maintaining all the important
abstraction of the operating system. It includes virtual memory and
processes. Kernel is most important component of the Linux
system.

System libraries:
It contains standard set of functions through which
application can interact with the Kernel. System library implements
much of the operating system functionality that does not need the
full privileges of Kernel code.

System utilities:
System utilities are programs that perform individual,
specialized management tasks.

 Fig.15.1 shows the components of the Linux system.

 All the Kernel code executes in the processors privileged
mode with full access to all the physical resources of the
computer. Linux refers to this privileged mode as Kernel
mode. In Linux, no user mode code is built into the Kernel.

System User User utility Compilers

Management Processes programs
programs
System shared libraries
Linux Kernel
Loadable Kernel modules

Fig. 15.1 Components of Linux system

 Any operating system support code that does not need to

urn in Kernel mode is placed into the system libraries
instead.
 The Kernel is created as a single, monolithic binary. All
Kernel code and data structures are kept in a single address
space, no context switches are necessary when a process
calls an operating system function. Core scheduling, virtual
memory code also occupied same address space.
 Linux Kernel provides all the functionality necessary to run
processes, and it provides system services to give arbitrated
and protected access to hardware resources
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 The Linux system includes a wide variety of user mode

programs both system utilities and user utilities.

15.2 KERNEL MODULES

 Kernel code executes in Kernel mode with full access to all

the physical resources of the computer. Sections of Kernel
code that can be compiled, loaded and unloaded
independent of the rest of the Kernel.
 A Kernel module may typically implement a device driver, a
file system, or a networking protocol. The module interface
allows third parties to write and distribute, on their own
teams, device drivers or file systems that could not be
distributed under the GPL.
 The loadable Kernel modules run in privileged Kernel mode.
Kernel modules allow a Linux system to be setup with a
standard, minimal Kernel, without any extra device drivers
built in. Kernel management allows modules to be
dynamically loaded into memory when needed.
 Linux Kernel modules has three component.
1. Module management
2. Driver registration
3. Conflict resolution mechanism

1. Module management
1. It support loading modules into memory and letting
them talk to the rest of the Kernel.
2. Linux maintains an internal symbol table in the Kernel.
3. Module loading is split into two separate sections:
a. Managing sections of module code in Kernel memory
b. Handling symbols that modules are allowed to
reference.
4. Symbol table does not contain the full set of symbol
defined in the Kernel during latter compilation
5. The module requestor manages loading requested,
but currently unloaded modules.
6. It also regularly queries the Kernel to see whether a
dynamically loaded module is still in use and will
unload it when it is no longer actively needed
7. Original service request will complete once the
module is loaded.
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2. Driver Registration.
1. Allows modules to tell the rest of the kernel that a new
driver has become available.
2. Kernel maintains dynamic tables of all known drivers.
3. Kernel also provides a set of routines to allow drivers
to be added or removed.
4. Registration table contains following:
a. Device drivers
b. File systems
c. Network protocols
d. Binary format.
5. Device drivers may be block or character devices.
6. Files system contains network file system, virtual file
system etc.
7. Network protocol includes IPX, packet filtering rules
for a network.

3. Conflict Resolution
1. A mechanisms that allows different device drivers to
reserve hardware resources and to protect those
resources from accidental use by another driver.
2. Linux provides a ventral conflict resolution
mechanism.
3. Conflict resolution module aims are
a. To prevent modules from clashing over
access to hardware resources.
b. Prevent auto probes from interfering with
existing device drivers.
c. Resolve conflicts among multiple drivers
trying to access the same hardware.
4. Kernel maintains lists of allocated hardware
resources.

15.3 BASIC FEATURES

UNIX has a number of features, mostly good and some bad,

but it is necessary to know at least some of them:

1. UNIX is Portable: Portability is the ability of the software that

operates on one machine to operate on another, different machine.
In UNIX there are two types of portability, that of the UNIX
operating system itself (i.e. the Kernel program) and of the
application program.
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Advantages of portability are:

a) Portable application program decrease the programming costs.
b) Retraining is avoided as the end user works on a similar system
with enhanced capabilities.

2. Open system: The system that more than one system can
access the same data at the same time. Several people involved in
a common project can conveniently access each other’s data. Apart
from data, other resources like memory (RAM), the CPU(the chip),
or the hard disk can be used by many users simultaneously.

3. Multi-user Capability: This means that more than one system

can access the same data at the same time. Several people
involved in a common project can conveniently access each other’s
data. Apart from data, other resources like memory(RAM), the
CPU(the chip), or the hard disk can be used by many users
simultaneously.

4. Multi-tasking Capability: Multi-tasking means that a user can

perform more than one tasks at the same time. A user can do this
by placing some tasks in the background while he works on a task
in the foreground. An ampersand(&) placed at the end of the
command line sends the process in background.

5. Hierarchical File System: Hierarchical structure offers

maximum flexibility for grouping information in a way that reflects in
natural structure. The programs and data can be organized
conveniently since files can be grouped according to usage.

6. The shell: User interaction with UNIX is controlled by the shell, a

powerful command interpreter. The shell has various capabilities
like redirecting the application input and output and also to progress
a group of files with a single command.

7. UNIX has built in networking: The UNIX has various built in

programs and utilities like UUCP, mail, write, etc. With these utilities
one can communicate with other user or one server to another.

8. Security: Computer system security means protecting hardware

and the information contained within the system. Security means to
avoid:
a) Unauthorized access to the computer system.
b) Unauthorized examination of output.
c) Unauthorized tapping of data.
d) Destruction of software data by mistake or on purpose.
e) Examination of sensitive data by unauthorized users and
alteration of sensitive data without detection.
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The UNIX provides the features like:

a) Password protection for system access.
b) Control access to individual files.
c) Encryption of data files.

9. Software Development Tools: UNIX offers an excellent variety

of tools for software development for all phases, from program
editing to maintenance of software.

15.4 BASIC ARCHITECTURE OF UNIX/LINUX SYSTEM

USER

Compilers
CC

Shell

Application
Programs Kernel [Link]

USER HARDWARE USER

date

wc
Id

vi
grep
ed

USER

Fig Architecture of UNIX System

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The figure shows the architecture of the UNIX system in the

form of various layers. The inner most layer i.e. core is the
hardware of the computer system. The kernel is a software which
directly comes in contact with the hardware and controls the
hardware. A layer above this is the shell. Above this the various
utilities like nroff, troff, vi, as, etc. and the various compilers and
other application program reside. Let us see these layers and their
functions in detail:

1. Hardware: The hardware at the centre of the structure provides

the operating system with basic services. The hardware constitutes
all the peripherals like memory (RAM, HDD, FDD, CD etc),
processor, mouse and other input devices, terminal (i.e. VDUs),
printers etc.

2. The Kernel: The operating system interacts directly with the

hardware, providing common services to programs and insulating
user program complexities of hardware. The operating system is
also called as Kernel. This kernel interacts directly with the
hardware. Because of this hardware isolation of user program, it is
easy to move the user programs easily between UNIX systems
running on different hardware.

3. Shell: Shell is actually the interface between the user and the
Kernel that isolates the user from knowledge of Kernel functions.
The shell accepts the commands keyed in by the users and checks
for their syntax and gives out error messages if something goes.
These command after getting interpreted by the shell are provided
to kernel for appropriate action. It also provides the features of pipe
( | ) and redirection ( i.e. <, >, >>, <<). The shell also has a
programming capability of its own. There are a number of shells
available in various UNIX flavours but common are-

a) Bourne Shell (sh)

b) C Shell ( csh )
c) Korn Shell (ksh)
The other shells are: bash, restricted Shell(rsh) and visual
Shell(vsh). The bourne Shell (sh) is also called a standard shell.

4. UNIX utilities: The UNIX system Kernel does only level jobs
necessary to schedule processes, keep track of files, and control
hardware devices.

All other operating system functions are done by utility

programs written as software tools.
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Following are some of the utilities that play a prominent role in the
operating of the UNIX system.

a) Init initializes the process creation mechanism.

For each terminal where a login is allowed, init creates a

process that prints the login: message.

b) Getty process “conditions” the connection to the terminal so

that the terminal can communicate with the computer and
then prints the login: message.

c) Login when an user responds to the login prompt the login

program replaces getty. If the user account has a password,
login prints the password : message and checks to see that
the password entered is correct.

If correct, program named in password file, usually

Bourne shell or C shell replaces login and the user is
successfully logged into the system.

d) stty changes a terminal characteristics.

e) mkfs builds a file system.

f) mknod builds a special file system.

g) mount unmount mounts and unmounts a file system.

h) syne writes a disk block images from memory to disk.

15.5 SUMMARY

Linux is a modern, free operating system based on UNIX

standards. It has designed to run efficiently and reliably on common
PC hardware; it also runs on a variety of other platforms. It provide
a programming interface and user interface compatible with
standard UNIX systems and can run a large number of UNIX
applications, including an increasing number of commercially
supported applications.

Linux has not evolved in a vacuum a completely Linux

system includes many components that were developed
independently of Linux. The core Linux operating system kernel is
entirely original, but allows much existing free UNIX software to run,
resulting in a entire UNIX compatible operating system free from
proprietary code.
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The Linux kernel is implemented as a traditional monolithic

kernel for performance reasons, but it is modular enough in design
to allow most drivers to be dynamically loaded and unloaded at run
time.

15.6 MODEL QUESTION

Q.1 List different components of a linux system?

Q.2 What are Kernel modules?
Q.3 Explain Basic architecture of UNIX/Linux system?
Q.4 Explain basic features of UNIX/Linux?
Q.5 Define and explain Shell?

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