Types of Variation

●​ Variation is defined as differences between individuals of the same species

●​ Phenotypic variation is the difference in features between individuals of the same
species
●​ Phenotypic variation can be caused in two main ways:
○​ It can be genetic - controlled entirely by genes
○​ Or it can be environmental - caused entirely by the environment in which
the organism lives
●​ Examples of genetic variation in humans include:
○​ Blood group
○​ Eye colour
○​ Ability to roll tongue
○​ Whether ear lobes are free or fixed
●​ Characteristics of all species can be affected by environmental factors such as
climate, diet, accidents, culture and lifestyle
●​ In this instance ‘environmental’ simply means ‘outside of the organism’ and so
can include factors like climate, diet, culture, lifestyle and accidents during
lifetime
●​ Examples include:
○​ An accident may lead to scarring on the body
○​ Eating too much and not leading an active lifestyle will cause weight gain
○​ Being raised in a certain country will cause you to speak a certain
language with a certain accent
○​ A plant in the shade of a big tree will grow taller to reach more light
●​ Phenotypic variation can be divided into two types depending on how you are
able to group the measurements:
○​ Continuous variation
○​ Discontinuous variation

Continuous Variation
●​ Continuous variation is when there are very many small degrees of difference for
a particular characteristic between individuals and they are arranged in order and
can usually be measured on a scale
●​ Examples include height, mass, finger length etc. where there can be many
intermediate groups
●​ Continuous features often vary because of a combination of genetic and
environmental causes, for example:
 ○​ Tall parents will pass genes to their children for height
○​ Their children have the genetic potential to also be tall
○​ However if their diet is poor then they will not grow very well
○​ Therefore their environment also has an impact on their height
●​ When graphs of this data is plotted, continuous variation gives smooth bell
curves (a result of all the small degrees of difference)

Continuous variation bell-shaped curve

Discontinuous Variation
●​ Discontinuous variation is when there are distinct differences for a characteristic
●​ For example, people are either blood group A, B, AB or O; are either male or
female; can either roll their tongue or not - there are no intermediary values
●​ Seed shape and seed colour in peas are also examples of discontinuous
variation
●​ Discontinuous variation is usually caused by genetic variation alone
●​ When graphs of these data are plotted it is presented on a bar chart
Bar chart of discontinuous variation

DNA Structure
●​ DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is the molecule that contains the instructions for
growth and development of all organisms
●​ It consists of two strands of DNA wound around each other in what is called a
double helix
Structure of DNA in the cell diagram

DNA, chromosomes and the nucleus

●​ The individual units of DNA are called nucleotides

Nucleotide structure diagram

 ●​ All nucleotides contain the same phosphate and deoxyribose sugar, but differ
from each other in the base attached
●​ There are four different bases, adenine* (A), cytosine* (C), thymine* (T) and
guanine* (G)
●​ The bases on each strand pair up with each other and form bonds between the
bases, holding the two strands of DNA in the double helix
●​ The bases always pair up in the same way:
○​ A always pairs with T
○​ C always pairs with G

DNA base pairing diagram

DNA base pairing. A always joins to T and C always joins to G.

 ●​ The phosphate and sugar section of the nucleotides form the ‘backbone’ of the
DNA strand (like the sides of a ladder) and the base pairs of each strand connect
to form the rungs of the ladder

Structure of the DNA helix diagram

The DNA helix is made from two strands of DNA held together by hydrogen bonds

●​ It is this sequence of bases that holds the code for the formation of proteins
Genes & Protein Production
●​ A gene is a short length of DNA found on a chromosome
●​ Each gene codes for a particular sequence of amino acids that make up a protein
○​ These proteins determine the characteristics of the person and the
activities of the cells
●​ There are many different types of proteins but some example of these could be:
○​ Structural proteins such as collagen found in skin cells
○​ Enzymes
○​ Hormones
●​ The sequence of bases in a gene determines the sequence of amino acids that
make a specific protein
●​ Different sequences of amino acids give different shapes and functions to protein
molecules

From gene to protein diagram

The sequence of nucleotide bases in the DNA codes for the sequence of amino acids in
the protein
Inheritance Definitions
●​ Inheritance is the transmission of genetic information from generation to
generation
●​ Alleles are variations of the same gene
●​ As we have two copies of each chromosome, we have two copies of each gene
and therefore two alleles for each gene
○​ One of the alleles is inherited from the mother and the other from the
father
○​ These two alleles could be the same or different, for example, an
individual has two copies of the gene for eye colour but one allele could
code for brown eyes and one allele could code for blue eyes
●​ The observable characteristics of an organism (seen just by looking - like eye
colour, or found – like blood type) is called the phenotype
●​ The combination of alleles that control each characteristic is called the genotype
●​ Alleles can be dominant or recessive
○​ A dominant allele only needs to be inherited from one parent in order for
the characteristic to show up in the phenotype
○​ A recessive allele needs to be inherited from both parents in order for the
characteristic to show up in the phenotype.
○​ If there is only one recessive allele, it will remain hidden and the dominant
characteristic will show
●​ If the two alleles of a gene are the same, we describe the individual as being
homozygous (homo = same)
○​ An individual could be homozygous dominant (having two copies of the
dominant allele), or homozygous recessive (having two copies of the
recessive allele)
●​ If the two alleles of a gene are different, we describe the individual as being
heterozygous (hetero = different)
Types of genotypes diagram

Alleles of a gene can carry the same instructions or different instructions. You can only
inherit two alleles for each gene, and they can be the same or different

●​ We cannot always tell the genotype of an individual for a particular characteristic

just by looking at the phenotype – a phenotype associated with a dominant allele
will be seen in both a dominant homozygous and a dominant heterozygous
genotype
●​ If two individuals who are both identically homozygous for a particular
characteristic are bred together, they will produce offspring with exactly the same
genotype and phenotype as the parents - we describe them as being ‘pure
breeding’ as they will always produce offspring with the same characteristics
Inheritance key terms summary table
Key term Definition

Gamete Gametes are sex cells (in animals; sperm and ovum; in plants pollen
nucleus and ovum)

Chromosome Chromosomes are thread-like structures of DNA, carrying genetic

information in the form of genes. They are located in the nucleus of
cells.

Gene Genes are short lengths of DNA found on chromosomes. They code
for specific proteins.

Allele Alleles are different versions of a particular gene.

Dominant A dominant allele is always expressed, even if only one copy is

present.

Recessive A recessive allele is only expressed if two copies are present

(therefore no dominant allele present).

Homozygous If the two alleles of a gene are the same, we describe the individual
as being homozygous (homo = same).

Heterozygous If the two alleles of a gene are different, we describe the individual as
being heterozygous (hetero = different).
 Genotype The combination of alleles that control each characteristic is called
the genotype.

Phenotype The observable characteristics of an organism (seen just by looking -

like eye colour, or found through testing - like blood type) is called the
phenotype.

Genetic Diagrams
●​ Monohybrid inheritance is the inheritance of characteristics controlled by a single
gene (mono = one)
●​ This can be determined using a genetic diagram known as a Punnett square
●​ A Punnett square diagram shows the possible combinations of alleles that could
be produced in the offspring
●​ From this, the ratio of these combinations can be worked out
●​ The dominant allele is shown using a capital letter and the recessive allele is
shown using the same letter but lower case

Codominance
●​ Inheritance of blood group is an example of codominance
●​ There are three alleles of the gene governing this instead of the usual two
●​ Alleles IA and IB are codominant, but both are dominant to IO
●​ I represents the gene and the superscript A, B and O represent the alleles
●​ IA results in the production of antigen A in the blood
●​ IB results in the production of antigen B in the blood
●​ IO results in no antigens being produced in the blood
●​ These three possible alleles can give us the following genotypes and
phenotypes:

Blood types phenotypes and genotypes table

Genotype Phenotype
 IAIA or IAIO A

IBIB or IBIO B

IAIB AB

IOIO O

●​ ​
We can use genetic diagrams to predict the outcome of crosses that involve
codominant alleles:

‘Show how a parent with blood group A and a parent with blood group B can produce
offspring with blood group O’

Blood group inheritance Punnett square

Punnett square showing the inheritance of blood group

●​ The parent with blood group A has the genotype IAIO

●​ The parent with the blood group B has the genotype IBIO
●​ We know these are their genotypes (as opposed to both being homozygous) as
they are able to produce a child with blood group O and so the child must have
inherited an allele for group O from each parent
●​ Parents with these blood types have a 25% chance of producing a child with
blood type O

Sex Determination
●​ Sex is determined by an entire chromosome pair (as opposed to most other
characteristics that are just determined by one or a number of genes)
●​ Females have the sex chromosomes XX
●​ Males have the sex chromosomes XY
●​ As only a father can pass on a Y chromosome, he is responsible for determining
the sex of the child
●​ He does this because:
○​ He produces (ejaculates) around 250 million sperm cells during sexual
intercourse
○​ Of those, half (125 million sperm) will be carrying his X chromosome
■​ If one of these sperm fertilises the egg, the fetus will be female
○​ The other 125 million of his sperm will be carrying his Y chromosome
■​ Which will result in a male fetus if one of these fertilises the egg
●​ The inheritance of sex can be shown using a genetic diagram (known as a
Punnett square), with the X and Y chromosomes taking the place of the alleles
usually written in the boxes
Sex determination Punnett square

Punnett square showing the inheritance of sex. There is always a 50% chance of a boy
child and a 50% of a girl child.
Mutation
●​ The term mutation can be defined as follows:

A random change in the DNA base sequence

●​ Most mutations have no effect on the phenotype of an organism, as the protein

for which a gene codes may work just as well as the protein from the
non-mutated gene
●​ Mutations can lead to harmful changes that can have dramatic effects on the
body, for example sickle cell anaemia in humans

Mutation example: sickle cell anaemia

●​ The mutation that causes sickle cell anaemia occurs in the gene that codes for
haemoglobin, and so affects the structure of the haemoglobin protein
●​ Individuals with this mutation have red blood cells that are stiff and sickle-shaped
●​ The sickled cells tend to get stuck in narrow blood vessels, blocking the flow of
blood
●​ As a result, those with sickle cell disease suffer painful “crises” in their joints and
bones when blood flow to these regions is insufficient
○​ They may suffer strokes, blindness, or damage to the lungs, kidneys, or
heart.
○​ They must often be hospitalised for blood transfusions
Chromosome mutations
●​ Chromosome mutations occur when there is a change in the number or structure
of chromosomes
○​ E.g. Down's syndrome is a genetic condition in which individuals have 47
chromosomes rather than 46; this occurs when the chromosomes do not
fully separate during meiosis
■​ Down's syndrome is sometimes referred to as Down syndrome, or
as Trisomy 21

Individuals with Down's syndrome have an extra copy of chromosome 21

Mutation as a source of genetic variation

●​ Mutation contributes to genetic variation in populations, as it can give rise to new
alleles which may be passed on to offspring
 ●​ Other sources of genetic variation are:
○​ Meiosis
■​ The cell division that gives rise to gametes produces daughter cells
which contain new combinations of alleles
○​ Random mating
■​ The selection of a mate within a population may occur at random,
and will result in offspring with a new combination of alleles
○​ Random fertilisation
■​ Only one male cell will fuse with a female cell during fertilisation,
determining the combination of alleles in the fertilised egg cell

Factors that affect mutation rate

●​ Mutations happen spontaneously, meaning that they do not need a specific
trigger event, but their frequency can be increased by exposure to:
○​ Ionising radiation, e.g. gamma rays, x-rays and ultraviolet rays
○​ Some chemicals, e.g. chemicals such as tar in tobacco
●​ Increased rates of mutation can increase the probability that cells may become
cancerous, which is why the factors above are linked to increased incidence of
cancer
Selection
Natural Selection
●​ The process of natural selection results in populations that are well adapted to
survive in their environments as follows:
1.​ Genetic variation exists between individuals in a population
○​ This occurs due to events such as mutation and meiosis
2.​ When organisms reproduce, they produce more offspring than the
environment is able to support
3.​ Because not every individual can survive, there is competition for food and
other resources
4.​ Individuals with characteristics that are advantageous in their environment
have a higher chance of survival and so are more likely to reproduce
5.​ The alleles that code for advantageous characteristics are passed on to
offspring
6.​ The allele that codes for the advantageous characteristics becomes more
common in each subsequent generation, and the inherited features of the
population evolve, or change, over time
●​ This theory of natural selection was first put forward by Charles Darwin and is
also known as ‘survival of the fittest’
Examples of natural selection
●​ Snail shell colour may evolve by natural selection as follows:
1.​ Within the population of snails there is variation in shell colour
○​ Snail shell colour may be black, grey, or white
○​ The white phenotype in this example is a new allele that has arisen
due to random mutation
2.​ More snails are present in the environment than are able to survive
3.​ There is competition and struggle for survival
4.​ Snails with advantageous features are more likely to survive and
reproduce; here the white shell phenotype appears to be advantageous,
so the white shelled individuals survive and reproduce
○​ E.g. the snails may live in an environment where the surrounding
ground is pale in colour, e.g. in a garden with white paving slabs, so
they are camouflaged and are less likely to be eaten by predators
5.​ The allele for white shells is passed on to offspring more frequently than
the alleles for black or grey shells
6.​ The allele for white shells becomes more common in the next generation,
and this continues to occur over many generations until the majority of
snails in the population have white shells
Natural selection example diagram

The inherited features of a population evolve over time due to natural selection

●​ The evolution of body colour in moths is another commonly given example of

natural selection
Natural selection peppered moth diagram

Another good example of natural selection is the evolution of the peppered moths

There are a few really important points to remember when it comes to natural selection:
 ●​ Natural selection only acts on inherited features, so populations can only evolve
over several generations, and never within the lifetime of an organism
●​ The genetic variation that leads to natural selection occurs by chance, and never
in response to factors in the environment
●​ It is advantageous alleles that get passed on, and not genes; remember to be
specific with your use of key words here
●​ It is very likely that you will be presented with an unfamiliar example of natural
selection in an exam, so make sure that you learn all of the stages as described
above so that you can apply them to new situations

Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria &

Selection
●​ While natural selection in most species occurs over many years, in species with
short generation times it can take place very quickly
●​ The development of antibiotic resistance in bacteria is an example of natural
selection that occurs over easily observable time frames
1.​ E.g. methicillin-resistant staphylococcus aureus, or MRSA, are resistant to
the antibiotic methicillin
●​ The development of antibiotic resistance can be explained as follows:
1.​ Variation exists in a bacterial population; some have an allele that
provides resistance to an antibiotic while others do not
○​ This allele will have arisen due to random mutation
2.​ Bacteria reproduce, resulting in many individuals, not all of which will
survive
3.​ The bacteria compete for survival
4.​ The bacteria with alleles for antibiotic resistance are more likely to survive
when exposed to the antibiotic, and these surviving individuals are more
likely to reproduce
5.​ The reproducing bacteria pass on the allele for antibiotic resistance to
their offspring
6.​ Over many generations, the number of antibiotic resistant bacteria in the
population increases
○​ This may only take a few hours if the bacteria are reproducing
quickly
Antibiotic resistance diagram

The development of antibiotic resistance is an example of natural selection

Artificial Selection
●​ Artificial selection, also known as selective breeding, has been carried out by
humans for thousands of years; this process uses the principles of natural
selection to develop animal and plant varieties with desirable characteristics
○​ In natural selection, advantageous features are effectively 'selected' by the
environment due to their impact on survival rates, while in artificial
selection, humans select features that are desirable
●​ The process of selective breeding involves:
○​ Selecting individuals with desired characteristics
○​ Cross breeding the selected individuals together
○​ Selecting offspring that show the desired characteristics
 ○​ Breeding the selected offspring together
○​ Repetition of this process over many generations until all offspring show
the desired characteristics
●​ Selective breeding has resulted in many of the economically important varieties
of plants and animals that we see every day, e.g.
○​ Dog breeders select which dogs that have desirable personalities and
physical features; this has given rise to the many recognisable dog breeds
of today

Plant breeders can choose which plant individuals to breed from, producing valuable
crop varieties and garden plants

Selective breeding in animals and plants diagram

Many familiar varieties of animals and plants have been developed by selective
breeding
BIOTECHNOLOGY
Everyday Products Made with
Biotechnology
Biofuels
●​ Yeast is a single-celled fungus that uses sugar as its food source
●​ When it respires, ethanol and carbon dioxide are produced (and energy is
released)

Fermentation of Glucose
 The alcohol produced by fermentation of glucose can be used as biofuel

●​ The ethanol produced in this reaction is increasingly being used as a biofuel (a

fuel made from living organisms rather than a fossil fuel like oil, coal or gas)
●​ In countries such as Brazil, biofuel is partly replacing petrol as the fuel for cars
and other vehicles
●​ Plant material is used as the substrate for producing ethanol (as a source of
glucose) - it is chopped up into small pieces and mixed with yeast which respires
anaerobically and produces ethanol
●​ The liquid is separated from the remaining solids and any water is removed,
leaving a concentrated solution of ethanol
●​ Sometimes the waste parts of crop plants, such as the stalks or outer leaves, are
used, but in other places, crops are grown specifically to be harvested for making
ethanol
●​ In some places, this is causing concern that there is less land available for local
people to grow food crops needed for survival

Bread
●​ Yeast will respire anaerobically if it has access to plenty of sugar, even if oxygen
is available
●​ This is taken advantage of in bread making, where the yeast is mixed with flour
and water and respires anaerobically, producing carbon dioxide:

Yeast and Making Bread

The carbon dioxide produced by fermentation (anaerobic respiration) of glucose is what
makes bread dough rise

●​ The carbon dioxide produced by the yeast during respiration is caught in the
dough, causing the bread to rise

Fruit Juice Production

●​ Fruit juice is produced by squeezing the fruits to remove the juice
●​ Chopping the fruit up before squeezing helps to release a lot more juice, but this
does not break open all the cells so a lot of juice is lost
●​ By adding an enzyme called pectinase to the chopped up fruit, more juice is
released
 ●​ Pectinase works by breaking down a chemical called pectin that is found inside
plant cell walls
●​ Once pectin is broken down, the cell walls break more easily and more juice can
be squeezed out of the fruit
●​ Adding pectinase to fruits also helps to produce a clearer juice as larger
polysaccharides like pectin can make the juice seem cloudy - once they are
broken down into smaller molecules, the juice becomes clearer

Biological Washing Powders

●​ Many stains on clothes are organic molecules – oil from skin, protein from blood,
fat and protein from food
●​ Detergents that only contain soap can remove some of these stains when mixed
with hot water, but it can take a lot of time and effort and very high temperatures
to remove the stains entirely
●​ Biological washing powders contain enzymes similar to the digestive enzymes
produced in the alimentary canal that help to break down large food molecules
●​ Using biological washing powders has several advantages, including:
○​ Quickly breaking down large, insoluble molecules such as fats and
proteins into smaller, soluble ones that will dissolve in washing water
○​ They are effective at lower temperatures, meaning less energy (and
money) has to be used in order to wash clothes to get them clean as
washing water does not need to be heated to higher temperatures
○​ They can be used to clean delicate fabrics that would not be suitable for
washing at high temperatures

Lactose-free milk
●​ Lactose is the sugar found in milk
●​ Human babies are born with the ability to produce lactase, the enzyme that
breaks down lactose
●​ In certain areas of the world, many people lose the ability to produce lactase as
they get older
●​ This means that they can become lactose intolerant and react badly to the
lactose in milk and products made from milk (cheese, yoghurt etc)
●​ Symptoms of lactose intolerance include nausea, flatulence and diarrhoea as
their digestive system is upset by the lactose
●​ Milk can be made lactose free by adding the enzyme lactase to it and leaving it to
stand for a while to allow the enzyme to break down the lactose
Using Lactase to Produce Lactose-free Milk

Lactose-free milk is a product made by adding the enzyme lactase to dairy milk to break
down the sugars in it.
Use of Bacteria
●​ Microorganisms can be used by humans to produce foods and other useful
substances
●​ The most common type of microorganisms used in biotechnology are bacteria
●​ They are useful because they are capable of producing complex molecules (eg.
certain bacteria added to milk produce enzymes that turn the milk into yoghurt)
●​ They are also useful because they reproduce rapidly, meaning the amount of
chemicals they can produce can also rapidly increase
●​ In addition to the benefits of rapid reproduction and the ability to make complex
molecules, bacteria have other benefits in biotechnology
○​ There are few ethical considerations to growing them in large numbers in
the laboratory
○​ They possess plasmids
■​ Plasmids are small, circular loops of DNA which can be an ideal
way of transferring DNA from one cell to another during genetic
manipulation
Fermenters
Penicillin Production
●​ Penicillin was the first antibiotic, discovered in 1928 by Alexander Fleming
●​ He noticed that some bacteria he had left in a Petri dish had been killed by the
naturally occurring Penicillium mould
●​ The penicillium mould produces a chemical to prevent it from being infected by
certain types of bacteria

The Action of Penicillin

Penicillin produced by the fungus Penicillium inhibits bacterial growth

●​ The chemical was isolated and named penicillin

●​ Since the discovery of penicillin, methods have been developed to produce it on
a large scale, using an industrial fermenter
A Fermenter

A diagram of an industrial fermenter used to produce large quantities of

microorganisms.

●​ Fermenters are containers used to grow (‘culture’) microorganisms like bacteria

and fungi in large amounts
●​ These can then be used for many biotechnological processes like producing
genetically modified bacteria and the penicillium mould that produces penicillin
●​ The advantage of using a fermenter is that conditions can be carefully controlled
to produce large quantities of exactly the right type of microorganism
Conditions in a Fermenter Table
Condition Why and how it is controlled

Aseptic Fermenter is cleaned by steam to kill microorganisms and prevent

precautions chemical contamination, which ensures only the desired
microorganisms can grow

Nutrients Nutrients are needed for use in respiration to release energy for
growth and reproduction of the microorganisms

Optimum Temperature is monitored using probes and maintained using a water

temperature jacket. This ensures an optimum environment for enzymes to
increase enzyme activity and prevent denaturation

Optimum pH pH is monitored using a probe to check it is at the optimum value for

the microorganism being grown. The pH can be adjusted using acids
and alkalis

Oxygenation Oxygen is required for aerobic respiration to take place

Agitation Stirring paddles are used to ensure temperature, pH, nutrients, and
oxygen are all distributed evenly throughout the fermenter

Waste The contents are filtered to remove waste created by the

microorganisms
Mycoprotein – the process of creating food
from a fungus
●​ The fungus Fusarium is cultured (grown) on an industrial scale in fermenters
●​ These fermenters are large vats that can be kept at the optimum pH and
temperature for Fusarium to grow
●​ The fungus is grown in aerobic conditions (it is provided with oxygen) and
provided with glucose syrup as a food source (to allow the fungus to respire)
●​ The fungus grows and multiplies within the fermenter
●​ The fungal biomass is then harvested and purified to produce mycoprotein
●​ Mycoprotein is a protein-rich food suitable for vegetarians eg. it is used in
QuornTM products

Production of Insulin
●​ Genetic modification is changing the genetic material of an organism by
removing or altering genes within that organism, or by inserting genes from
another organism
●​ The organism receiving the genetic material is said to be ‘genetically modified’, or
is described as a ‘transgenic organism’
●​ The DNA of the organism that now contains DNA from another organism as well
is known as ‘recombinant DNA’
●​ The gene for human insulin has been inserted into bacteria which then produce
human insulin which can be collected and purified for medical use to treat people
with diabetes

Genetic Modification: Definition

●​ Genetic modification is changing the genetic material of an organism by
removing, changing or inserting individual genes from another organism
●​ The organism receiving the genetic material is said to be ‘genetically modified’, or
is described as a ‘transgenic organism’
●​ The DNA of the organism that now contains DNA from another organism is
known as ‘recombinant DNA’
Genetic Modification: Examples
●​ There are many examples of genetically modified organisms, including:​

○​ Crop plants, such as wheat and maize, have been genetically modified to
contain a gene from a bacterium that produces a poison that kills insects,
making them resistant to insect pests such as caterpillars
○​ Crop plants have also been genetically modified to make them resistant to
certain herbicides (chemicals that kill plants), meaning that when the
herbicide is sprayed on the crop it only kills weeds and does not affect the
crop plant
○​ Some crops have been genetically modified to produce additional
vitamins, eg ‘golden rice’ contains genes from another plant and a
bacterium which make the rice grains produce a chemical that is turned
into vitamin A in the human body, which could help prevent deficiency
diseases in certain areas of the world
○​ The gene for human insulin has been inserted into bacteria which then
produce human insulin which can be collected and purified for medical use
for diabetics

Genetic modification using bacterial

production of a human protein
●​ The gene that is to be inserted is located in the original organism (for example,
this could be the gene for human insulin)
●​ Restriction enzymes are used to isolate the required gene, leaving it with ‘sticky
ends’ (a short section of unpaired bases)
●​ A bacterial plasmid is cut by the same restriction enzyme leaving it with
corresponding sticky ends (plasmids are circles of DNA found inside bacterial
cells)
Restriction Enzymes Cutting DNA

Restriction enzymes cut DNA strands at specific sequences to form ‘sticky ends’
 ●​ The plasmid and the isolated gene are joined together by DNA ligase enzyme
●​ If two pieces of DNA have matching sticky ends (because they have been cut by
the same restriction enzyme), DNA ligase will link them to form a single,
unbroken molecule of DNA

DNA Ligase and Plasmids

DNA ligase is used to join two separate pieces of DNA together

●​ The genetically engineered plasmid is inserted into a bacterial cell
●​ When the bacteria reproduce the plasmids are copied as well and so a
recombinant plasmid can quickly be spread as the bacteria multiply and they will
then all express the gene and make the human protein
●​ The genetically engineered bacteria can be placed in a fermenter to reproduce
quickly in controlled conditions and make large quantities of the human protein
●​ Bacteria are extremely useful for genetic engineering purposes because:
○​ They contain the same genetic code as the organisms we are taking the
genes from, meaning they can easily ‘read’ it and produce the same
proteins
○​ There are no ethical concerns over their manipulation and growth (unlike if
animals were used, as they can feel pain and distress)
○​ The presence of plasmids in bacteria, separate from the main bacterial
chromosome, makes them easy to remove and manipulate to insert genes
into them and then place back inside the bacterial cells
Advantages & Risks of Genetic
Modification
Advantages & Risks of Genetic Modification Table

Advantages Risks

Reduced use of chemicals such as Increased costs of seeds

herbicides and pesticides is: better
for the environment, cheaper and Companies that make GM Seeds charge more
less time-consuming for farmers. for them to cover the cost of developing them.
This can mean smaller, poorer farmers cannot
compete with larger farms.

Increased yields from the crops as Increased dependency on certain chemicals,

they are not competing with weeds such as the herbicides that crops are resistant
for resources or suffering from pest to. These are often made by the same
damage. companies that produce the seed and are more
expensive to buy.

Bacteria have a rapid reproduction Risk of inserted genes being transferred to wild
rate and so can produce large plants by pollination. This could reduce the
quantities of product in a short usefulness of the GM Crop (e.g. if weeds also
space of time. gain the gene that makes them resistant to
herbicide).

There is a lack of ethical concerns Reduced biodiversity as there are fewer plant
over the manipulation and growth of species when herbicides have been used. This
bacteria. can impact insects and insect-eating birds.
The genetic code in bacteria is Some research has shown that plants that have
shared with all other organisms. had genes inserted into them do not grow as
well as non-GM plants.

Bacteria could pass human genes they carry to

other bacteria, resulting in unknown
consequences.
Relationship of Organisms with one another and
with each other.
Transfer of Energy
Transfer of Energy
●​ The Sun is the principal source of energy input to biological systems
●​ All energy transfers on Earth can be traced back to the Sun
●​ Solar energy powers photosynthesis
○​ So all life depends, directly or indirectly, on photosynthesis

Flow of Energy from the Sun to Earth Diagram

Around half of the Sun's energy that enters the atmosphere reaches the surface. Some
of this energy powers photosynthesis which all life depends upon.
●​ Energy flows through living organisms
○​ Including light energy from the Sun and chemical energy in organisms
○​ Energy is eventually transferred to the environment eg. as heat
Trophic Levels
●​ Trophic levels describe the position of an organism in a food chain, web or
pyramid
●​ Animals (known as consumers) can be at different trophic levels within the same
food web as they may eat both primary, secondary and/or tertiary consumers
●​ Energy flows from the Sun to the first trophic level (producers) in the form of light
●​ Producers convert light energy into chemical energy and it flows in this form from
one consumer to the next
●​ Eventually, all energy is transferred to the environment – energy is passed on
from one level to the next with some being used and lost at each stage
●​ Energy flow is a non-cyclical process – once the energy gets to the top of the
food chain or web, it is not recycled but ‘lost’ to the environment
●​ This is in direct contrast to the chemical elements that organisms are made out
of, which are repeatedly recycled

Trophic Levels Table

Trophic level Reason

Producers They produce their organic nutrients usually using energy

from the Sun

Primary consumers Herbivores - they feed on producers (plants)

Secondary Predators that feed on primary consumers

consumers

Tertiary consumers Predators that feed on secondary consumers

 Quaternary Predators that feed on tertiary consumers
consumers

Transfer of Energy
●​ In order for the energy to be passed on, it has to be consumed (eaten)
●​ However, not all of the energy grass plants receive goes into making new cells
that can be eaten
●​ The same goes for the energy the vole gets from the grass and the energy the
barn owl gets from the vole
●​ Only the energy that is made into new cells remains with the organism to be
passed on
●​ Even then, some of this energy does not get consumed - for example, few
organisms eat an entire organism, including roots of plants or bones of animals -
but energy is still stored in these parts so it does not get passed on
●​ The majority of the energy an organism receives gets ‘lost’ (or ‘used’) through:
○​ making waste products eg (urine) that get removed from the organism
○​ as movement
○​ as heat (in mammals and birds that maintain a constant body
temperature)
○​ as undigested waste (faeces) that is removed from the body and provides
food for decomposers
●​ This inefficient loss of energy at each trophic level explains why food chains are
rarely more than 5 organisms long
●​ In the example above, something that preyed regularly on the barn owl would
only get 0.1J of energy from each barn owl it ate

In order to survive, it would have to:

●​ Eat a huge number of barn owls every day to get the amount of energy it needed
to survive
●​ There would not be that many barn owls close together to support such a feeding
requirement
●​ Not expend much energy itself hunting them - highly unlikely
 ●​ Therefore, it is more energy efficient for human consumers to eat crop plants
than to eat livestock that have been​
fed on crop plants

Inefficiency of Energy Transfer at Trophic Levels

Diagram

Energy is lost at each trophic level for several reasons

Examiner Tips and Tricks

This is a complicated concept but by learning the main ways in which energy is lost
between trophic levels, you will be able to answer most questions on this topic.

Make sure you read the question carefully and tailor your answer to the specific
organism you are being asked about – eg plants do not produce urine or faeces so you
could not give this as one of the ways in which they use energy that cannot be passed
on!
Efficiency of Energy Transfer
●​ Humans are omnivores, obtaining energy from both plants and animals, and this
gives us a choice of what we eat
●​ These choices, however, have an impact on what we grow and how we use
ecosystems
●​ Think of the following food chains both involving humans:

wheat → cow → human

wheat → human

●​ Given what we know about energy transfer in food chains, it is clear that if
humans eat wheat there is much more energy available to them than if they eat
the cows that eat the wheat
●​ This is because energy is lost from the cows, so there is less available to pass on
to humans
●​ Therefore, it is more energy efficient within a crop food chain for humans to be
the herbivores rather than the carnivores
●​ In reality, we often feed animals on plants that we cannot eat (eg grass) or that
are too widely distributed for us to collect (eg algae in the ocean which form the
food of fish we eat)
Pyramids of Numbers
●​ A pyramid of numbers shows how many organisms we are talking about at each
level of a food chain.
●​ The width of the box indicates the number of organisms at that trophic level
●​ For example, consider the following food chain:

A food chain shows the transfer of energy

●​ Ask yourself the following questions:

○​ Is it likely that there would be more voles in an area than grass plants?
 ○​ How many voles might one barn owl need to eat per day? If it’s more than
one, is it likely that there are more barn owls in an area than voles?
●​ So, a pyramid of numbers for this food chain would look like this:

A pyramid of numbers

●​ Despite the name (and the example above), a pyramid of numbers doesn’t
always have to be pyramid-shaped, for example:
 Pyramids of numbers are not always pyramid-shaped

●​ This is because the size of the organism is also important - one large organism,
like the oak tree in the pyramid above, contains enough energy to support many
smaller organisms (the insects)

Rules to remember when drawing a pyramid of numbers:

 ●​ You cannot change the trophic level of the organisms - they must stay in the
same order as in the food chain with producers on the bottom, followed by
primary consumers, then secondary consumers, then tertiary consumers
●​ Generally, the larger an individual organism is, the fewer of them there are

Pyramids of Biomass
●​ A pyramid of biomass shows how much mass the creatures at each level would
have without including all the water that is in the organisms (their ‘dry mass’)
●​ Pyramids of biomass are ALWAYS pyramid-shaped, regardless of what the
pyramid of numbers for that food chain looks like
●​ This is because the mass of organisms has to decrease as you go up a food
chain – if we take our first food chain as an example, it’s impossible to have 10kg
of grass feeding 50kg of voles feeding 100kg of barn owls
 A pyramid of biomass

●​ Pyramids of biomass provide a much better idea of the quantity of the plant or
animal material at each level of a food chain and therefore are a better way of
representing interdependence within the food chain
Examiner Tips and Tricks

Remember that pyramids of biomass are ALWAYS pyramid-shaped, so they are simple
to draw, but pyramids of number can be any shape – so make sure you learn the rules
for drawing a pyramid of numbers.
Pyramids of Energy
Pyramid of Energy Diagram

A pyramid of energy shows how much energy is passed on at each trophic level

Examiner Tips and Tricks

This is a complicated concept but by learning the main ways in which energy is lost
between trophic levels, you will be able to answer most questions on this topic.

Make sure you read the question carefully and tailor your answer to the specific
organism you are being asked about – eg. plants do not produce urine or faeces so you
could not give this as one of the ways in which they use energy that cannot be passed
on!
The carbon cycle
The Carbon Cycle
●​ Nutrients such as carbon and nitrogen are not endless resources
●​ There is a finite amount of each element on the planet and as such, they need to
be recycled to allow new organisms to be made and grow
●​ Carbon is taken out of the atmosphere in the form of carbon dioxide by plants to
be used for photosynthesis
●​ It is passed on to animals (and microorganisms) by feeding
●​ It is returned to the atmosphere in the form of carbon dioxide by plants, animals
and microorganisms as a result of respiration
●​ If animals and plants die in conditions where decomposing microorganisms are
not present the carbon in their bodies can be converted, over millions of years
and significant pressure, into fossil fuels
●​ When fossil fuels are burned (the process is known as combustion), the carbon
combines with oxygen and carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere
●​ Increased use of fossil fuels is contributing to an increase in the carbon dioxide
content of the atmosphere
●​ In addition, mass deforestation is reducing the number of producers available to
take carbon dioxide out of the atmosphere by photosynthesis
●​ This problem is exacerbated by the fact that in many areas of the world,
deforestation is taking place for land rather than for the trees themselves, and as
such they are burnt down, releasing yet more carbon dioxide into the atmosphere
The Carbon Cycle Diagram

The Carbon Cycle

Examiner Tips and Tricks

The carbon cycle is simple:

●​ Carbon is taken out of the atmosphere by photosynthesis

●​ It is passed on to animals and decomposers by feeding
●​ It is returned by respiration; by plants, animals and decomposing microorganisms​
In addition, it is returned (in increasing amounts) by combustion of fossil fuels

You should be able to identify what each arrow represents in any diagram of the carbon
cycle.
The Nitrogen Cycle
●​ Nitrogen as an element is required to make proteins
●​ Neither plants nor animals can absorb it from the air as N2 gas is very stable
○​ The bonds holding the nitrogen atoms together would need massive
amounts of energy to break (the two nitrogen atoms in a nitrogen molecule
are held together by a triple covalent bond)
●​ However, there are two ways it can be taken out of the air and converted into
something easier to absorb:
○​ Nitrogen-fixing bacteria found ‘free-living’ in soil and also in the root
nodules of certain plants (peas, beans, clover – called leguminous plants)
take N2 gas and change it into nitrates in the soil
○​ Lightning can ‘fix’ N2 gas, splitting the bond between the two atoms and
turning them into nitrous oxides like N2O and NO2 that dissolve in
rainwater and ‘leach’ into the soil
●​ Plants absorb the nitrates they find in the soil and use the nitrogen in them to
make proteins
●​ Animals eat the plants (or other animals) and get the nitrogen they need from the
proteins in the plant or animal
●​ Waste (urine and faeces) from animals sends nitrogen back into the soil as
ammonium compounds (the urea in urine contains nitrogen)
●​ When the animals and plants die, they decay and all the proteins inside them are
broken down into ammonium compounds and put back into the soil by
decomposers
●​ The plants can’t absorb ammonium compounds though, so a second type of soil
bacteria, nitrifying bacteria, convert the ammonium compounds to nitrites and
then to nitrates, which can then be absorbed by plants – and so the cycle goes
on
●​ Finally, there is a third, unhelpful type of (anaerobic) bacteria called denitrifying
bacteria found in poorly aerated soil (ie not much oxygen)
●​ These bacteria take the nitrates out of the soil and convert them back into N2 gas
●​ Farmers can help reduce the amount of these unhelpful bacteria by ploughing
and turning over soil
Nitrogen Cycle Diagram

The Nitrogen Cycle

Populations, Communities &
Ecosystems
●​ There are several key terms that we use when referring to the different
components of an ecosystem and their levels of organisation:
○​ A population is defined as a group of organisms of the same species living
in the same place at the same time
○​ A community includes all of the populations living in the same area at the
same time
■​ Within a community, each species depends on other species for
food, shelter, pollination, seed dispersal etc
■​ If one species is removed it can affect the whole community
■​ This is called interdependence
○​ A habitat is the place where an organism lives
■​ E.g. badgers, deer, oak trees and ants are all species that would
live in a woodland habitat
○​ An ecosystem is defined as a unit containing the community of organisms
and their environment, interacting together
○​ This means,all the biotic factors and all the abiotic factors that interact
within an area at one time
■​ The term 'biotic factors' includes all the living components such as
plants and animals
■​ The term 'abiotic factors' includes all the non-living components
such as light intensity, mineral ions, water availability
■​ Ecosystems can vary greatly in size and scale
●​ A small ecosystem might be a garden pond
●​ A large ecosystem might be the whole of Antarctica
Ecology Definitions Diagram

Levels of organisation in an ecosystem

Population Growth
●​ All living organisms compete with each other for food, water and living space
●​ Those who are the best adapted to their environments generally increase their
populations at the expense of those less well-adapted
●​ Population growth in most organisms is controlled by the following four factors:
○​ Food supply
○​ Competition
○​ Predation
○​ Disease

Human Pressures on Other Species

Biodiversity
●​ Is defined as the number of different species that live in a particular area
●​ Human activities have tended to force biodiversity downwards, whereas, high
biodiversity is needed for stable ecosystems
●​ Habitat destruction by humans is a major downward pressure on biodiversity

Reasons for Habitat Destruction

●​ The increasing human population on Earth is destroying many habitats from
rainforests to woodland to marine
●​ Many habitats are destroyed by humans to make space for other economic
activities, or by pollution from these activities, and this reduces the biodiversity of
these areas
●​ This interrupts food chains and webs, meaning that more species may die
because their prey is gone
●​ The main reasons for habitat destruction include:
Habitat Destruction Table
Reason Explanation

Clearing land for Crops, livestock, and homes take up a lot of space
farming and
housing As the population grows and the demand for food increases, the
amount of land available for these things must be increased by
clearing habitats such as forests (deforestation)

Extraction of Natural resources such as wood, stone, and metals must be

natural resources collected to make different products

Therefore, many trees are cut down, destroying forest habitats. In

addition, some resource extraction takes up a large amount of
space

For example, mining, which means that the land must be cleared
first

Marine pollution Human activities lead to the pollution of marine habitats

In many places, oil spills and other waste pollute the oceans,
killing sea life

In addition, eutrophication can occur when fertilisers from

intensively farmed fields enter waterways

This causes a huge decrease in biodiversity in these areas, as

most aquatic species living in these waterways die from lack of
oxygen
Deforestation
Deforestation
●​ Deforestation is the clearing of trees (usually on a large scale)
●​ If trees are replaced by replanting it can be a sustainable practice
●​ Generally, the trees are being cleared for the land to be used in a different way
(for building, grazing for cattle, planting of monocultures such as palm oil
plantations etc) and therefore it is not sustainable
●​ As the amount of the Earth’s surface covered by trees decreases, it causes
increasingly negative effects on the environment and is a particularly severe
example of habitat destruction
●​ Undesirable effects of deforestation include:
○​ Extinction of species
○​ Loss of soil
○​ Flooding
○​ Increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
An example of an area of deforestation caused by deliberate burning of the forest for
agriculture
Consequences of Deforestation Table
Effect Consequence

Extinction/loss of Forest habitats, especially tropical rainforests, have a huge

biodiversity range of biodiversity and as habitat is destroyed it causes the
loss of large numbers of plant and animal species

Many of these species are only found in these areas and

therefore will become extinct

Soil erosion Tree roots help to stabilise the soil, preventing it from being
eroded by rain

Trees will usually take up nutrients and minerals from the soil
through their roots

Without trees, nutrients and minerals will remain unused in the

soil so will be washed away into rivers and lakes by rain
(leaching)

This loss of soil nutrients is permanent and makes it very difficult

for forest trees to regrow, even if the land is not cultivated with
crop plants or grass for cattle

Flooding Without trees the topsoil will be loose and unstable so will be
easily washed away by rain, increasing the risk of flash flooding
and landslides
Increased carbon Trees carry out photosynthesis during which they take in carbon
dioxide in the dioxide and release oxygen
atmosphere
The removal of significant numbers of trees means less carbon
dioxide is being removed from the atmosphere (and less oxygen
released)

When areas of land in forests are cleared for land use, the trees
are often burned as opposed to being cut down. This releases
carbon dioxide (it is an example of combustion), further
increasing carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere and
contributing to global warming

Consequences of Over-harvesting
●​ A result of increased demand for food and other natural resources is the
tendency to over-harvest animals and plants
●​ Animals can be over-harvested in the following ways:
○​ Hunting of wild animals for sport, food or fur to the point of near extinction
or complete extinction
○​ The exploitation of animal populations for their body parts eg. ivory from
elephants' tusks
○​ Over-fishing
●​ Crops can be over-harvested which can reduce the mineral content of the soil to
critical levels
○​ This usually arises from over-intensive farming practices
●​ All kinds of over-harvesting can increase pollution and reduce biodiversity
●​ Making food production more intensive means producing food more efficiently
with a finite amount of land and other resources
●​ Modern technology has increased food supply substantially in the following ways:
○​ Agricultural machinery has replaced humans and improved efficiency due
to the ability to farm much larger areas of land
○​ Chemical fertilisers improve yields - fertilisers increase the amount of
nutrients in the soil for plants, meaning that they can grow larger and
produce more fruit
○​ Insecticides and herbicides - these chemicals kill off unwanted insects and
weed species, meaning that there is less damage done to plants and fruit
 lost to insects (insecticides), as well as reducing competition from other
plant species (herbicides)
○​ Selective breeding - animals and crop plants which produce a large yield
are selectively bred to produce breeds that reliably produce high yields
Examples of Intensive Farming Diagram

Modern agricultural processes allow for cultivation of much larger areas of land for crop
plants

●​ Monoculture farming means that on a given area of agricultural land only one
type of crop is grown (eg trees for palm oil grown in Indonesian rainforest)
●​ This large scale growth of a single variety of plant does not happen naturally in
ecosystems, where there are usually many different species of plants growing
which, in turn, support many species of animals (high biodiversity)
●​ In monocultures, biodiversity is much lower
●​ Another issue with monocultures is the increase in pest populations – if a
particular pest feeds on a crop, farming it in large areas repeatedly means there
is an ample supply of food for the pest, causing the population to increase
●​ Often farmers will spray insecticides onto crops in order to control the pests. This
leads to:
○​ harmless insects being killed as well
○​ pollution by pesticides (which are often persistent chemicals which
accumulate in food chains)
○​ in many instances where they are used repeatedly for specific pests, the
pests may eventually become resistant to them, reducing their
effectiveness
 Palm oil production has increased rapidly over the last 30 years

Introducing Non-native Species

●​ A species that has moved into an ecosystem where it was previously unknown is
an invasive species
●​ An invasive species can occur naturally as a result of a species migrating or
expanding their habitat but most recorded incidents of invasive species have
been caused by humans
●​ In the past humans have:
○​ Knowingly collected and traded species between countries via ships
○​ Unknowingly provided transport for non-native species to a new
ecosystem
○​ Introduced non-native species deliberately as a biological control for pests
●​ Several natural population controls exist for Japanese knotweed in its natural
habitat in Japan
●​ The irregular climate and the deposits of volcanic ash over the ground limit its
growth
●​ A German botanist brought the plant to the UK in the 19th century because he
admired its beauty
●​ Because the UK does not possess the same environmental factors the plant was
able to grow unchecked
●​ Since the 1800s it has spread across the UK and become a major problem
●​ It grows at a rapid rate, with its strong roots breaking up tarmac and blocking out
all sunlight for the native plant speciesJapanese knotweed (Reynoutria japonica)
is the UK’s most invasive non-native plant species

Problems with invasive non-native species

●​ The biological process of evolution often brings balance to an ecosystem
●​ Through evolution, the environment a species lives in strongly influences the
adaptations that the species evolve to live in that environment
●​ A non-native invasive species will have evolved adaptations for survival in
different environmental conditions so when they are introduced into the new
ecosystem this can upset the balance
●​ In a new ecosystem invasive species will have few or none of the natural
population controls that existed in their previous ecosystem:
○​ They will have no natural predators or competitors
●​ As a result, they can increase in number at a rapid rate
●​ This can affect the processes within an ecosystem
○​ Competition may occur between invasive species and native species that
occupy a similar niche with the native species getting displaced or pushed
to extinction. It could be competition for things such as prey, soil nutrients,
light and space
○​ Many invasive species can be over-successful predators causing a
massive decline in their prey species
○​ Invasive species can introduce new diseases, to which the native species
have no natural immunity
○​ The biodiversity of an ecosystem is impacted which reduces its
productivity
●​ Humans can also feel the knock-on effects of an invasive species taking over an
ecosystem
○​ The spread of novel diseases and irritants of the skin/breathing system
directly affects human health
○​ The economy of a country can be severely impacted by the costs of trying
to control invasive species and their negative effects
○​ In the past travel has been brought to a standstill by invasive species, with
some plant species prone to blocking up waterways

The Cane Toad in Australia

●​ In the early 1900s, there was a major problem with the sugarcane crop in
Australia
●​ An insect pest was destroying the crop and causing major economic losses for
many farmers
●​ It was decided that the non-native cane toad (Bufo marinus, from Hawaii) should
be introduced so that it could act as a biological control
●​ After a short time, the numbers of cane toads increased rapidly due to a lack of
natural predators and they spread into other habitats outside of the sugarcane
plantations
○​ This had a knock-on effect on other species:
○​ The cane toad is toxic when eaten
○​ The northern quoll, which is an endangered marsupial carnivore, declined
steeply in numbers as they preyed on the cane toad
○​ Other amphibian species face increased competition for food and
resources
○​ The eggs of ground-nesting birds are often eaten by cane toads
Untreated Sewage & Excess
Fertiliser
●​ Human activities have led to the pollution of land, water and air
●​ Pollution comes from a variety of sources, including industry and manufacturing
processes, waste and discarded rubbish, chemicals from farming practices,
nuclear fall-out, and untreated sewage

Effects of Pollution Table

Pollutant Source/cause Effect

Untreated Lack of sewage treatment Provides a good source of food for

sewage plants in inhabited areas bacteria which increase rapidly, depleting
(due to poor the oxygen dissolved in the water (as they
infrastructure/lack of respire aerobically) and causing the death
money) means sewage of aquatic organisms such as fish; this is
runs/is pumped into known as eutrophication.
streams or rivers

Chemical Chemicals such as heavy Many heavy metals and other chemicals
waste metals like mercury can be are persistent - they do not break down
released from factories into and so can build up in food chains (known
rivers and oceans or leach as bioaccumulation), poisoning the top
into land surrounding the carnivores.
factories.
Discarded Much rubbish consists of Much rubbish, such as that made from
rubbish plastic that is either plastic, is non-biodegradable and remains
(trash) discarded or buried in in the environment for hundreds of years
landfills
Animals also eat the plastic as it breaks
into smaller pieces (especially in the
ocean) and it can get into food chains this
way

Fertilisers Runoff from agricultural Causes algal blooms which then die and
land if applied in too high a provide a good source of food for
concentration decomposing bacteria which increase
rapidly, depleting the oxygen dissolved in
the water (as they respire aerobically) and
causing the death of aquatic organisms
such as fish; this is eutrophication.

Nuclear Radioactive particles get Some radioactive particles have long

fallout into the environment from half-lives and can remain in the
accidental leakage from environment for many years
nuclear power plants or the
explosion of a nuclear They can cause increased risks of cancer
bomb and smaller particles can be carried by
winds hundreds of miles from the original
site of exposure

Methane Cattle farming, rice fields, Methane is a powerful greenhouse gas

landfills which contributes to the enhanced
greenhouse effect that is causing climate
change
Carbon Produced when fossil fuels Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas which
dioxide are burnt, and also released contributes to the enhanced greenhouse
when trees are burnt to effect that is causing climate change.
clear land for human use.
Eutrophication
●​ Runoff of fertiliser (containing nitrates and other mineral ions) from farmland
enters the water and causes increased growth of algae and water plants
●​ The resulting ‘algal bloom’ blocks sunlight so water plants on the bottom start to
die, as does the algae when competition for nutrients becomes too intense
●​ As water plants and algae die in greater numbers, decomposing bacteria
increase in number and use up the dissolved oxygen whilst respiring aerobically
●​ As a result, there is less oxygen dissolved in water, so aquatic organisms such
as fish and insects may be unable to breathe and may die

Eutrophication Diagram

The sequence of events causing eutrophication in lakes and rivers

Air Pollution
Methane and Carbon Dioxide

●​ Both gases insulate the Earth and act as a 'blanket' around the atmosphere
●​ Higher levels of both have led to global warming and climate change
●​ Human activity has increased levels of both gases in the atmosphere
○​ Burning fossil fuels increases carbon dioxide
○​ Keeping livestock generates methane gas
○​ Global warming melts the permafrost in sub-polar regions, which results in
even more trapped methane being released into the atmosphere
○​ Other effects include more frequent extreme weather events (floods,
hurricanes, droughts) that cause damage to habitats, including human
habitats

The enhanced man-made greenhouse effect

 Insecticide & Herbicide Pollution
Insecticide and Herbicide Pollution
●​ Pesticides in runoff from land can get into rivers and oceans
●​ Even though they are in small concentrations, the effect can be magnified along
each trophic level
●​ This is called biomagnification and is worst for the top predator of the food chain

Biomagnification and bioaccumulation of a pesticide in an aquatic ecosystem

 Plastic Pollution
●​ Plastics are non-biodegradable, so can have a negative impact on marine and
terrestrial habitats
●​ In marine habitats:
○​ Animals often try to eat plastic or become caught in it, leading to injuries
and death
○​ As the plastic breaks down it can release toxins that affect marine
organisms
○​ Once it has broken down into very small pieces, known as microplastics, it
is commonly ingested by animals and enters the food chain

Microplastics found in the ocean pose a danger of ingestion by aquatic organisms

●​ On land:
○​ Plastic is generally disposed of by burying it in landfills
○​ As it breaks down, it releases toxins into the surrounding soil and as such
the land is no good for growing crops or grazing animals and can only be
used for building, several decades after burial

Reasons for Conservation

●​ There are numerous reasons why conservation programmes are important
○​ Maintaining or increasing biodiversity
■​ Which allows ecosystems to remain stable
○​ Reducing extinction
■​ Helps to retain iconic species and maintain biodiversity
○​ Protecting vulnerable ecosystems which would have been quickly lost to
human activity
○​ Maintaining ecosystem functions
■​ Nutrient cycling eg. carbon cycling to hold back climate change
■​ Resource provision, such as
●​ Food - making sure we have enough for the population
●​ Drugs - having access to plants for plant-based remedies
●​ Fuel - for important activities such as cooking
●​ Genes - so the gene pool remains wide and variety exists in
all species
Sustainable Use of Resources
●​ We use many resources from the Earth; some, such as food, water and wood,
are sustainable resources
●​ A sustainable resource is produced as rapidly as it is removed from the
environment so that it does not run out
●​ Some resources, such as fossil fuels (coal, oil and natural gas), are
non-renewable because what we use cannot be replaced
●​ These resources, once used, cannot be produced any more and so they need to
be conserved by reducing the amount we use and finding other, sustainable
resources to replace them
●​ Fossil fuels are being used as an energy source in increasing amounts
●​ In addition, they are the raw materials for many other products we make - eg
almost all manufactured plastics start with oil as a raw material
●​ Some products, especially those made from paper, plastic, glass or metal, can be
reused and recycled - this reduces waste in the environment and reduces the
amounts of raw materials and energy needed to make new products
●​ Some resources, such as forests and fish stocks, can be maintained - enabling
us to harvest them sustainably so that they will not run out in the future

Sustainable Production Examples

●​ Sustainable development is defined as development providing for the needs of
an increasing human population without harming the environment
●​ When developing how we use resources to manage them sustainably, we have
to balance conflicting demands - eg:
○​ the need for local people to be able to utilise the resources they have in
their immediate environment with the needs of large companies to make
money from resources such as forests and fish
○​ the need for balancing the needs of humans for resources with the needs
of the animals and plants that live in the areas the resources are taken
from (preventing loss of habitat and extinction)
○​ the need to balance what current populations need with what future
populations might need - for example, if we harvest all the fish we need to
feed people now, this might lead to overfishing which would deplete stocks
for future generations
 ●​ For development to occur sustainably, people need to cooperate at local, national
and international levels in the planning and management of resources

Sustaining Forests
●​ Forests are needed to produce paper products and provide wood for timber
●​ Much of the world’s paper is now produced from forests which replant similar
trees when mature trees are cut, ensuring that there will be adequate supply in
the future
●​ Tropical hardwoods such as teak and mahogany take many years to regrow but
are highly desirable for furniture
●​ Using these types of wood has now been made more sustainable due to the
introduction of several schemes designed to monitor logging companies and
track the wood produced (eg the Forestry Stewardship Council)
●​ Education helps to ensure logging companies are aware of sustainable practices
and consumers are aware of the importance of buying products made from
sustainable sources
Sustainable Forestry Diagram

More efforts are being made to manage forests sustainably so consumers know they
are not causing damage to forests
Sustaining Fish Stocks
Managing fish stocks sustainably includes:

●​ Controlling the number of fish caught each year (quotas)

●​ Controlling the size of fish caught (to ensure there are enough fish of a suitable
age for breeding remaining)
●​ Controlling the time of year that certain fish can be caught (to prevent large-scale
depletion of stocks when fish come together in large numbers in certain areas to
breed)
●​ Restocking (breeding and keeping offspring until they are large enough to survive
in their natural habitat then releasing)
●​ Educating fishermen as to local and international laws and consumers so they
are aware of types of fish which are not produced sustainably and can avoid
them when buying fish
Sustaining Fish Stocks Diagram

Ways of controlling fishing to make it more sustainable