LESSON 6 – INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY

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Overview:
Information processing is a cognitive theoretical framework that focuses on how knowledge
enters and is stored in and is retrieved from our memory. It is one of the most significant cognitive
theories in the last century and it has strong implications on the teaching-learning process.

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Objectives:
Upon successful completion of this module, students should have the opportunity to:
1. Explain the major features of the information processing theory.
2. Cite teaching implications derived from the theory.
3. Identify teaching strategies that facilitate the storing and retrieving of information.
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Discussion:

Information Processing Theory

Relating how the mind and the computer work is a powerful analogy.
The terms used in the information processing theory (IPT) extend this
analogy. In fact, those who program and design computers aim to make
computers solve problems through processes similar to that of the human
mind.

Cognitive psychologists believe that cognitive processes influence the nature of what is
learned. They consider learning as largely an internal process, not an external behavior change
(as behaviorist theorists thought). They look into how we receive, perceive, store and retrieve
information. They believe that how a person thinks about and interprets what s/he receives
shape what he/she will learn. All these notions comprise what is called the information
processing theory.

IPT describes how the learner receives information (stimuli) from the environment
through the senses and what takes place in between determines whether the information will
continue to pass through the sensory register, then the short-term memory and the long-term
memory. Certain factors would also determine whether the information will be retrieved or
"remembered" when the learner needs it. Let us go into the details.

We first consider the types of knowledge that the learner may receive.

TYPES OF KNOWLEDGE
 • General vs. Specific
This involves whether the knowledge is useful in many tasks, or only in one.
• Declarative
This refers to factual knowledge. They relate to the nature of how things are. They
may be in the form of a word or an image. Examples are your name, address, a
nursery rhyme, the definition of IPT, or even the face of your crush.
• Procedural
This includes knowledge on how to do things. Examples include making a lesson
plan, baking a cake, or getting the least common denominator.
• Episodic
This includes memories of life events, like your high school graduation
• Conditional
This is about "knowing when and why” to apply declarative or procedural
strategies.

Stages in the Information Processing Theory

The stages of IPT involve the functioning of the senses, sensory register, short-term memory and
the long-term memory. Basically, IPT asserts three primary stages in the progression of external
information becoming incorporated into the internal cognitive structure of choice (schema,
concept, script, frame, mental model, etc.).

These three primary stages in IPT are:

Encoding - Information is sensed, perceived and attended to.
Storage - The information is stored for either a brief or extended period of time,
depending upon the processes following encoding.
Retrieval - The information is brought back at the appropriate time and reactivated
for use on a current task, the true measure of effective memory.

What made IPT plausible is the notion that cognitive processes could be described in a
stage-like model. The stages to processing follow a trail along which information is taken into the
memory system, and brought back (recalled) when needed. Most theories of information
processing revolve around the three main stages in the memory process, namely: Sensory
memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.
 The Information Processing Model (lifted from [Link]

Sensory memory is the state in which the stimuli sensed (heard, seen,
touched, smelled, tasted) are temporarily held in mere seconds for the
information to be processed further. As a person is presented a lot of stimuli
at a given time, the sensory memory serves as a filter on what to focus on.
When viewing a basketball game, you can see one person focused on the one
in possession of the ball, while another one's attention is centered on the guard's action.
Selective attention is the individual's ability to choose and process information while disregarding
the other stimuli or information. Schunk (2012) cited several factors that influence attention:

1. The meaning is given by the individual to the task or information.

2. The similarity between competing tasks or source of information.

3. The difficulty or complexity of the task as influenced by prior knowledge.

4. The ability to control and sustain attention.

As the information held in the sensory memory is for about three seconds only, unattended
stimuli are forgotten. The information the person gave attention to is transferred to the short-
term memory.

Short-term memory serves as a temporary memory while the information

is given further processing before it is transferred to long-term memory,
Information in this stage is 15 20 seconds only and can hold from 5 to 9 bits of
information only at a given time. Before the information is transferred to long-
term memory, there are two strategies involved: rehearsal and encoding or
elaboration

Maintenance rehearsal involves repetition of the information to sustain its maintenance in

the short-term memory. The use of ABC songs and number songs serve as rehearsal strategies
among children Meanwhile, elaborative rehearsal is the process of relating the new information
to what is already known and stored in the long-term memory to make the new information
more significant. One scheme is organization, the process of classifying and grouping bits of
information into organized chunks. For instance, memorizing the mobile number involves
grouping the 11 numbers into sets of numbers, like XXXX. - YYY-ZZZZ. Arranging information into
hierarchies is another scheme. For instance, flora and fauna are grouped into phyla/divisions,
classes, orders, families, genera, and species.

The use of mnemonic devices is also helpful. Mnemonic devices elaborate information in
different ways. For instance, learners are taught the acronym "ROYGBIV” to recall that red,
orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet are the rainbow colors. To differentiate stalactite
and stalagmite found in caves, learners are taught that the “g" in stalagmite tells that the calcium
carbonate deposit is located on the floor (ground), whereas the letter “c” in stalactite gives away
its location (ceiling).

Imagery is a strategy that involves the memory taking what

is to be learned and creating meaningful visual, auditory, or
kinesthetic images of the information (Schunk, 2012). For
instance, it is easy to locate Apayao in the Philippine map
because it looks like the bust of a former president of the
country. An example of kinesthetic imagery is associating that
the left hand on the waist illustrates a less than value; the right
hand on the waist indicates a greater than value.

Information that is not rehearsed and maintained in the short-term memory is forgotten. It also
involves the relationship between the new information and what is already known.

The long-term memory is the storehouse of information transferred

from short-term memory. It has unlimited space. Varied contents of
information are stored, namely:

1. Semantic memory is the memory for ideas, words, facts, and concepts
that are not part of the person's own experiences. Individuals with good semantic memory
include those who know the capital of countries in the world, many words and their meanings,
the order of planets, and other facts.

2. Episodic memory includes the memory of events that happened in a person's life, connected
to a specific time and place. An example is a student who can explain the details of his or her
most embarrassing moment (who were involved, when, where, why, and how it happened).

3. Procedural memory accounts for the knowledge about how to do things. A student teacher
who recalls the step-by-step process of presenting the lesson to the class has procedural
memory.
4. Imagery refers to mental images of what is known. For instance, beginning readers use
configuration clues, shape, and appearance of words to help in word recognition. Associating a
familiar image to the name of a newly introduced person, like giraffe, guides one to recall the
name of Gigi, a long-necked beautiful lady.

Retrieving Information from the Long-term Memory

Retrieving information from long-term memory involves locating the
information and transferring it to the short-term memory to be used for a
purpose. Studies (e.g., Bransford & Johnson, 1972) have shown that a
person remembers a lot less of the information stored in long-term
memory. The quality of how the information was stored influences its access and retrieval.

Retrieval of information from the long-term memory entails bringing to mind the previously
acquired information to understand some new input or to make a response. Schunk (2012)
mentioned two ways of information retrieval. One is recalling, which is either free recall or cued
recall. In free recall, the person has to rely on the information previously learned purely by
memory. In contrast, the cued recall involves the provision of cues and clues to the person to
help in the recall of the information. It is observed that whatever hints the person used to encode
the information, the same would likewise facilitate its retrieval. Elementary learners can recall
the letter in the alphabet if its image is accompanied by a picture of an object whose name begins
with that letter.

Recognition is another way to retrieve information. It involves providing the learner's with stimuli
as choices to make a decision or judgment. In a multiple-choice test item, the difficulty of
retrieving the correct answer is reduced because the examinees have options to choose from.
Guided by their long-term memory, they would eliminate those options that are not plausible, to
eventually arrive at the correct answer.

Based on the primacy and recency effect principle, the information presented close to the start
of the experience, and those that are close to the end are most remembered by learners.

Forgetting

Forgetting is the loss of information, either in the sensory memory, short-term

memory, or long-term memory. Interference is the process that occurs when
remembering certain information hampered by the presence of other information
(Woolfolk, 2016). At the sensory memory, there are other stimuli that bombard
the person. As one stimulus is just the focus at a time, others are forgotten. In the
short-term memory, as rehearsal and maintenance activities are made, incoming
new information interferes. The same phenomenon happens in long-term
memory. When new information interferes with recalling the previous information, it is called
retroactive interference. If the old information interferes with recalling the new information, it is
referred to as proactive interference.

In addition to interference, time decay is another factor for the loss of stored information from
long-term memory. Unused information decays and is forgotten. However, some theorists argue
that stored information in the long-term memory is never lost. To illustrate, a learner who had a
traumatic experience in learning a Mathematics skill may deliberately want to forget the previous
learning concepts. After several years, when those skills are required to learn another subject,
those concepts surface again if there is conscious effort to review them.

This situation is also related to the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon. It involves the failure to
retrieve the information, but the person is sure the information is known. The person feels that
retrieval is imminent, but there is difficulty to directly it at the moment.

TEACHING IMPLICATIONS OF THE IPT

Following the concepts and principles associated with the IPL, Woolfolk (2016), Slavin
(2018), and Schunk (2012) recommend the following to be used in helping learners
to understand and recall what they have learned:

1. Make sure you have the students’ attention. Develop a signal that tells students to stop what
they are doing and focus on you. Make sure that students respond to the signal. Practice using
the signal.

2. Move around the room, use gestures, and avoid speaking in a monotone.

3. Begin a lesson by asking a question that stimulates interest in the topic.

4. Regain the attention of individual students by walking closer to them, using their names, or
asking them a question.

5. Help students to separate essential from nonessential details and focus on the most important
information. Summarize instructional objectives to indicate what students should be learning.
Relate the material you are presenting to the objectives as you teach.

6. When you make an important point, pause, repeat, ask a student to paraphrase, note the
information on the board in colored chalk, or tell students to highlight the point in their notes or
readings. The use of mnemonic devices could assist learners’ retention of the information
learned.

7. Help students to make connections between new information and what they already know.
Review prerequisites to help students bring to mind the information they will need to understand
new material.
8. Provide for repetition and review of information. Using graphic organizers for rehearsals can
help.

9. Present material in a clear and organized way. Make the purpose of the lesson very clear.
Advance organizers can help.

10. Focus on meaning, not on memorization. For instance, in teaching new words, help students
to associate the new word to a related word they already understand.
LESSON 7 – PROBLEM SOLVING AND CREATIVITY
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Overview:

Problem solving and creativity to hand in hand. You need to be creative in order to solve a
problem. It is unfortunate that these are adequately taught in the classroom.

A necessary element of a problem is the presence of an obstacle or block toward the attainment
of that goal. For this reason, problem-solving happens when an individual strives to eliminate the
obstacle that hinders the attainment of the desired goal.

“If no obstacle hinders progress toward a goal, attaining the goal is no problem”

- Reese, 1994

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Objectives:
Upon successful completion of this module, students should have the opportunity to:

1. Describe problem solving and creativity.

2. Explain the stages/processes of problem solving and creativity
3. Differentiate common problem-solving strategies
4. Determine the role of transfer of learning in problem solving and creativity
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Discussion:

Before we dive in to our lesson, try to solve this match puzzle.

Instruction: Remove 8 matches to leave just two squares, which should not touch.

1. How did you find the activities?

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2. What did you do to be able to solve the puzzle?

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What you went through is an exercise on creative thinking and problem solving. What are the
aspects of creative thinking and problem solving? The notes below will provide more details.

Block/Obstacle

Desired Goal
Current State

Problem solving refers to cognitive processing directed at achieving a goal for which the
problem solver does not initially know a solution method. This definition consists of four major
elements, namely:

1. Cognitive - problem solving occurs within the problem solver’s cognitive system and can
only be inferred indirectly from the problem solver’s behavior (including biological changes,
introspections, and actions during problem solving.

2. Process - problem solving involves mental computations in which an operation is applied to

a mental representation, sometime resulting in the creation of new mental representation.

3. Directed - problem solving is aimed at achieving a goal.

4. Personal - problem solving depends on the existing knowledge of the problem solver so that
what is a problem for one problem solver may not be a problem for someone who already knows
a solution method.

Types of Problems
Problems can be classified in many ways. For one, it could either be well-defined or ill-defined
problem. Robertson (2015) described a well-defined problem as one that “provides all the
information required to solve it.” Jonassen (1997) considered it as a problem requiring the
application of a definite number of concepts, rules, and principles being studied to a constrained
problem situation. The problem tells you everything you need to know to solve it or whether you
need to work out for yourself what you are supposed to do. Likewise, it tells you whether or not
there is only one answer or solution or there are many solutions.

For example, in the problem 4 + 3 = 7, you are certain that you are to add the two numbers and
there is only one correct answer. You also know that you are 100% right or wrong. Nevertheless,
there are instances that you have everything to know to solve the problem, but you cannot still
arrive at the answer, In Mathematics, for instance, you know the MDAS (multiplication, division,
addition, and subtraction) rule, but applying them may not be clear to you.

An ill-defined problem, meanwhile, is one where the initial state of the problem is given but what
the goal state looks like is not provided (Robertson, 2015). It is typically situated in and emergent
from a specific context, where an aspect or aspects of the problem scenario are not well
specified, the problem descriptions are not definite, or the information needed to solve it is not
expressed in the problem statement (Chi & Glaser, 1985). Because of this situation, there may be
many correct answers as the learners have divergent circumstances and experiences related to
the emergent context. An example of an ill-defined problem is, "You notice that the population
of your town is tremendously increasing and you are alarmed of the consequences. What could
you do?" This problem is ill-defined as it is a complex problem. The solution to the problem is
multifaceted as there is an interplay of social, political, religious, and psychological issues to
consider in arriving at the solution. The solution is one town varies to another town as their
circumstances are different. Thus, there is the possibility of getting many correct responses.

Approaches to Problem Solving

Several approaches have been advanced to explain the problem-

solving abilities of individuals (Anderson, 1996). One is the behaviorist
approach, reproducing a previous behavior to solve a problem. A
person faced with a problem situation is likely to use the same solution
previously used and was effective in the past. To prepare the garden
before planting, pick mattock is traditionally used because the Crop Science teacher told it so.

In contrast to the reproductive approach advocated by behaviorists, the Gestaltist approach to

problem solving is a productive process. Kohler's experiments with apes underscored the role of
insight in the restructuring of a person's representation of the problem. As the individual ponders
upon how to solve a problem, a flash of an idea comes to mind, which eventually provides the
best solution to the problem. This situation illustrates the Eureka moment, the moment a person
realizes or solves something." A Science student saw a rural folk using akapulko extract (Cassia
alata Linn.), locally known as andadasi (lloko), as an antifungal treatment. The extract was used
on his face to treat tinea flava. After three days of treatment, the extract did not only treat the
main problem, but it also peeled off dead cells in the face. The student concluded that the plant
extract also has exfoliating effect.

Problem-Solving Cycle
Problem solving is a complex process. It is not a single skill, but rather an overlapping of some
thinking skills, as logical thinking, lateral thinking. synthesis, analysis, evaluation, sequencing,
decision-making, research, and prediction are likely to be involved (Teare, 2006). Metacognitive
thinking. Creativity, and transfer of learning interplay in the process. These cognitive and
metacognitive skills are expressed in the several models proposed to undertake problem solving.
The IDEAL model is adopted to explain the process of problem solving.
Step 1: Identify the problem and opportunities.
Problem solving initially identifies the problem or potential problems.
Determining the causes of the problem is necessary to pinpoint the major
cause to prioritize in resolving the problem. Considering problems with a
positive outlook serves as opportunities to do something creative. When
problems are treated as opportunities, the result is often an unexpected
solution or invention. It can be beneficial to actively attempt to identify
problems that have gone unnoticed. People who identify important problems and treat them as
opportunities are often among the most successful in their fields.

For instance, your parents have informed you that in the next semester you will stop for the
meantime as they are financially incapable to send you to college. It is just one semester more;
just the Practice Teaching that you need to fulfill to finish your degree. The problem is how would
you financially support your last semester in school. This dilemma is the current state of the
situation.

Step 2: Define goals.

The second aspect of the model requires you to carefully define
your goals in the problem situation. This is different from
identifying the problem. For a problem situation, a group of
people could identify the existence of a general problem and
agree that it represents an opportunity but still disagree about
what their goals should be. Different goals often reflect differences in how people understand a
problem. For the problem situation above, the goal is to continue with your college education
because it is just one semester before graduation. Another student with the same problematic
situation may have a different goal. Different goals can lead people to explore very different
strategies for solving a problem.

Step 3: Explore possible strategies.

This step involves looking back at your goals and finding possible strategies
to solve the problem. It entails the recall of procedural knowledge from
long-term memory. As you think of alternative ways to solve the problem,
ascertain that the chosen alternative fits the goal set. Bransford and Stein
(1993) argued that even when people explicitly try to solve problems, they
often fail to use appropriate strategies. Some strategies in problem solving are very general and
apply to almost any problem, whereas there are strategies that are very specific and applicable
only to a few or limited cases.

Many strategies are suggested to make problem solving easier; however, the two main strategies
used are heuristic and algorithm. Heuristic is a "rule of thumb, a mental shortcut that works for
solving a problem," especially those about decision-making tasks. Although there is no 100%
certainty that the strategy is successful or adequate to solve the problem, it is most of the time
effective and efficient in solving the problem. Because of its efficiency, heuristic can lessen the
time to solve and can reduce cognitive load. A student who is always late to class may use the
alarm clock in the cellphone to signal it is time to wake up. It may work effectively at times, but
if one is in deep slumber, the person may not be awakened by the alarm. In another example, a
Mathematics student may know the application of the mnemonics FOIL (First Outside Inside Last)
and can solve problems involving simple numbers, but may not be able to answer correctly
because he or she does not know the multiplication rules of signed numbers.

Besides, Newell and Simon (1972) suggested three general problem-solving heuristics for moving
from a given state to a goal state: random trial and error, hill climbing, and means-ends analysis.
Random trial and error involves randomly selecting a legal move and applying it to create a new
problem state and repeating that process until the goal state is reached. Random trial and error
may work for simple is not efficient for complex ones. Hill climbing involves selecting the legal
move that moves the problem solver closer to the goal state. Hill climbing will not work for
problems in which the problem solver must take a move that temporarily moves away from the
goal as is required in many problems. The means-ends analysis involves creating goals and
seeking moves that can accomplish the goal. If a goal cannot be directly accomplished, a sub-goal
is created to remove one or more obstacles.

The second major strategy is an algorithm, the use of a series of steps to solve a problem. The
elements of an algorithm include clarity of what is to be done, defined inputs, outputs, results,
and preconditions. Computer programming is a classic example using an algorithm. The use of
"If..., then..." propositions tells the precondition for the next step to progress. If the next step
does not satisfy the condition, it will not result in the expected goal. Doing the standard
algorithms for the fundamental operations in Mathematics requires doing the same steps
repeatedly with each place value column in a given problem. For instance,

3012

+ 1224

4236

In teaching origami (the art of paper folding), steps presented should be followed one at a time
to arrive at the correct art piece. When withdrawing money using the ATM card, one needs to
follow the electronic cues to succeed.

Step 4: Anticipate Outcomes and Act.

Once a strategy is selected, the person must anticipate what outcomes will likely be. The
expectation is the solution to the problem. When assured that the goal will be solved, the person
acts or implements the planned strategy. For example, a learner anticipates that the answer to
the problem 23 x 21 should be more than 400 but not 500. It should not be less than 400 because
20 x 20 is already 400. This assurance gives the person the confidence to implement the planned
strategy. When a person withdraws money through the ATM, the anticipation is that money will
be churned out by the machine. That motivates the person to follow the steps as cued by the
machine.

Step 5: Look Back and Learn.

What transpired after the planned strategy to solve the problem is proof of its effectiveness. In
metacognition, this step is the evaluation of the actions or solutions implemented. If the results
give the correct answer, then the strategy used is good and effective. If the answer is wrong, then
metacognitively ask. "What went wrong?" The answers could be in the details missed during the
analysis of the problem, the inappropriateness of the heuristic or algorithm strategy, or in the
miscalculations. Realizing the errors committed along the way will make the person understand
the mistakes committed. Learning from the experience will make the person more careful next
time a similar task is given.

Barriers to Problem Solving

In the search for alternative strategies to solve the problem, the individual finds difficulty in
coming up with a potential solution because of varied reasons. Anderson (1996) listed some of
these and they are as follows.

1. Mental Set
The situation when the person becomes fixated on the use of a strategy that previously produced
the right solution, but in the new situation it is not the application. In metacognitive thinking, this
is conditional knowledge.

Example: An English learner may be fixated on the rule that the past tense of the verb is usually
formed by adding -d, -ed to the base form. Thus, given an irregular verb like GO, the answer given
could be “goed”

2. Functional Fixedness
This is a phenomenon when individuals fail to recognize that objects can have other purposes,
aside from the traditional use they were made for. A learner may think that a spoon is only used
for eating. However, in instances when no bottle opener is available, a spoon is usually used to
open a bottle of soda drink.

3. Failure to distinguish Relevant and Irrelevant Information.

This happens when a situation arises during the analysis of a problem when an individual cannot
discern the relevant information needed in planning the strategy to solve a problem. When the
irrelevant information is given more emphasis in the process, it will lead to a wrong solution to
the problem.

An example is a problem of what to include in a bulletin announcement to help someone who lost
a bunch of keys. Children were asked which details to include were relevant, like where and when
it was lost, how many keys were there in the keyholder, which keys were these, who owned it,
where the key holder was bought, when it was bought. Some children may not be able to identify
the relevant from the irrelevant ones.

Creativity in Problem Solving

As pointed out in the earlier discussion, mental set and functional fixedness are stumbling blocks
in problem solving. These obstacles hamper the consideration of new alternative ways to solve a
problem. They illustrate the lack of creativity on the part of the person. Theorists agree that
creative problem solving must be taught and encouraged among learners.

What is creativity? Plucker et al. (2004) defined creativity as "the interaction among aptitude,
process, and the environment by which an individual or group produces a perceptible product
that is both novel and useful as defined within a social context.” The definition underscores the
role of aptitude, process, product, novelty, and use. According to Plucker et al. (2004), aptitude
represents a dynamic set of characteristics (e.g., openness, tolerance for ambiguity, flexibility in
thinking, perseverance, motivation for creativity, need for self-expression), as well as abilities
pertaining to the creative process, that can be shaped by experience, learning, and training
(Grohman & Szmidt, 2013). Others call aptitude as creative attitude.

Varied theories explain how creativity is developed (Kozbelt et al., 2010). One is the
developmental theory, which advocates that creativity develops over time (from potential to
achievement). It is mediated by an interaction of person and environment. It emphasizes the
influence of the place and family structures—the role of play and support during the transitions.

Meanwhile, the cognitive theory of creativity states that ideational thought processes are
foundational to creative persons and accomplishment. Individuals who discern remote
association, and are good at divergent/convergent thinking and conceptual combination and
metacognitive processes are likely to be more creative. The stage and componential process of
creativity point out that creative expression proceeds through a series of stages or components.
The process can have linear and recursive elements. It highlights the importance of preparation,
incubation and insight, and verification and evaluation in creative thinking.

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Framework for Creative Thinking
A common framework for creative thinking processes is described by Torrance (1979). Each
aspect is defined below, along with ways to facilitate the respective aspect by using key words
and application activities.

Fluency refers to the production of a great number of ideas or alternate solutions to a problem.
Fluency implies understanding, not just remembering information that is learned.

Key words: compare, convert, count, define, describe, explain, identify, label, list, match,
name, outline, paraphrase, predict, summarize.

Application activities:
Trace a picture and label the parts.
Outline an article you find on your topic.
How many uses can you think of for a clothes hanger?
List 15 things that are commonly red or contain red.

Example: Apple, blood, brick, caboose, cherry, Christmas stocking, exit sign, fire alarm,
flag, heart, red nose reindeer, rose, tomatoes, wagon.

Flexibility refers to the production of ideas that show a variety of possibilities or realms of
thought. It involves the ability to see things from different points of view, to use many different
approaches or strategies.

Key words: change, demonstrate, distinguish, employ, extrapolate, interpolate, interpret,

predict.

Application ideas
What would happen if ... there were no automobiles?
How would a ... dog look to a flea?
How is _______ like ________?
How would you feel if ... you were invisible for a day?
How would you group the ideas about "red" into categories?

Example: Fruit, safety features, vehicles.

Once categories are identified, fluency may be further demonstrated by generating
more ideas about the idea red within categories. Even a modest attempt could
result in the following lists, recognizing that the creative thinking process may shift
the mind in a spiral way between all four aspects of creativity.

Red fruit Red safety features Red vehicles

apple exit sign caboose
cherry fire alarm fire truck
 raspberry stop sign tricycle
tomatoes tail lights wagon

Elaboration is the process of enhancing ideas by providing more detail. Additional detail and
clarity improve interest in, and understanding of, the topic.

Key words: appraise, critique, determine, evaluate, grade, judge, measure, select, test.

Application ideas
Tell your neighbor about your last family trip using as many details as possible.
What can you add to_______ to improve its quality or performance?
Describe all the possible characteristics of the red quality in a wagon.

Example: Shade, finish, texture, uniformity.

Originality involves the production of ideas that are unique or unusual. It involves synthesis or
putting information about a topic back together in a new way.

Key words: compose, create, design, generate, integrate, modify, rearrange, reconstruct,
reorganize, revise.

Application ideas
Find an original use for_________.
What would be the strangest way to get out of bed?
Design a new___________ that is better than the one you have.
Write an unusual title for the ideas about red.

Example: Revolutionary "Red" Representation.

Preparation is the initial stage of the creative process. It involves becoming passionate about
an idea, which motivates you to gather materials (read, observe, compare). The information
gathered seeps subconsciousness, eventually remaining there momentarily. The next step is
incubation, the period where you unconsciously continues to work on the idea, but there is no
active attempt to solve the problem. The mind just wanders until an idea takes form. In the next
step, illumination, a sudden idea your mind. The subconscious thoughts find the connection with
the consciousness, resulting in the AHA and Eureka moments. Once the idea is concretized, it
needs to be verified. Verification, the final stage of the creative process, involves working with
the idea into a form that can be tested and, once proven, it could be communicated to others.

A research conducted by Calubaquib (2013) illustrates the creative problem solving. One time,
she heard from a fellow teacher about the parents' personal experience about the potency of
cat's whiskers or balbas pusa (Orthosiphon aristatus Linn.) as antihypertension treatment. As it
sounded interesting to her, she read more about the plant and the use of its extract. She
wondered about what other studies could be made out of the plant extract. At this stage, she
was in the preparation stage.

While thinking of a novel use for the balbas pusa extract, she was informed by the fellow teacher
after two weeks that not only did her blood pressure stabilize, but she also observed that there
were intestinal worms in her stool. This phase was the incubation stage.

As Calubaquib was intrigued, a bright idea came to her mind. Balbas pusa cannot only act as
antihypertension but also be an antihelminthic. This is the illumination stage as she realized
about the possibility of using the plant extract to expel internal parasites. Following that idea,
she planned using swine as experimental animals to prove the antihelminthic potency and
efficacy of the plant extract, a study for her master's degree in chemistry. This is the verification
stage of the creative problem-solving process.

Transfer of Learning in Problem Solving and Creativity

Problem solving is made easier if the learner can retrieve declarative knowledge, procedural
knowledge, and conditional knowledge from the long-term memory. If the problem-solving task
requires convergent answers, problem solving can be quite easy if the learner has mastered
algorithm techniques. Nevertheless, even if the problem-solving tasks require divergent thinking,
if there have been experiences in the past that enabled the learner to answer such task, solving
them could be successfully done.

The phenomenon that past experiences in solving problems are carried over or used in solving
new problems is referred to as the transfer of learning. Transfers of learning are categorized into
the following:

1. Near transfer and far transfer. When learners apply their knowledge and skills in
situations and contexts that are very close to those in which the learning occurred, it is near
transfer. When learners perform a skill in a context very much different from the context it was
learned, it is far transfer (Johnson, 1995). Learners find it easier to add three-digit numbers after
they have learned the lesson (near transfer). However, they find difficulty employing the same
skill when the task is transformed into a word problem solving (far transfer).

2. Positive and negative transfer. When learners can use their prior knowledge or
experience in solving a new problem situation, it is a positive transfer. When the previous
learning or skill obstructs the acquisition of a new skill or the solving of a problem, it is negative
transfer. Using a new model of the same brand of Android mobile phone is easy as the features
are most likely the same (positive transfer). However, when a new phone using IOS technology
is bought, there will be difficulty in using it the first time (negative transfer).

3. Vertical transfer and lateral transfer. When learners use their learning at a lower
level to perform a higher level of cognitive task, vertical transfer occurs. It is the goal of the spiral
progression in the K to 12 curriculum. When learners use the same skill to solve a related but
different problem of the comparable level of difficulty after learning it, lateral transfer happens

For example, Ruben finds it easy to add five-digit numbers as he has mastered adding numbers
such skill can be transferred to a similar situation. Meanwhile, the theory of configuration,
anchored on Gestalt psychology, emphasizes the important role of perception in the transfer of
learning. It argues with or without carrying over in the previous grade (vertical transfer). Likewise,
Ruben relies on his knowledge of finding ratios in Mathematics in acquiring the skill of finding the
sea germination rate in a Science laboratory task (lateral transfer).

4. Neutral or zero transfer. This happens when past learning or prior experience does not
enhance or hinder the acquisition of a new skill or in the solution of a problem.

In the transfer of learning, Glass and Holyoak (1986) stated that the problem-solving process
involves several aspects from which three major facets tend to emerge: the solver's
representation of the problem, the solver's background experiences, and the solver's
understanding of the problem." They explained that the learner begins the problem-solving
process as soon as enough information about the problem space is generated to gain an
understanding of the problem. The process involves associating concepts from previous
experiences to solve a similar problem. The learner is prompted by the potential answer when
he or she recognizes similarities between the previous experience and the new task.
 Several theories explain how learning is transferred from
one situation to another (Woolfolk. 2017). The theory of
identical elements by Thorndike maintains that the quality
of transfer depends on the identical elements that are
common in both past and new situations. If the content,
method, goal, and attitude in the two situations are similar,
the transfer is facilitated. The theory of generalization,
developed by Judd, states that skills learned are transferrable to other situations. It argues that
if the learner has fully understood the lesson and mastered the competency, there is a greater
likelihood that such skill can be transferred to a similar situation. Meanwhile, the theory of
configuration, anchored on Gestalt psychology, emphasizes the important role of perception in
the transfer of learning. It argues that what is learned in one situation can be shifted directly to
another situation only when similarity in content, method, or attitude of the two situations is
perceived by the learner.

Classroom Applications of Cognitive Learning Theories

Teachers can benefit from the teaching principles associated with cognitive learning theories.
Along with problem solving, Woolfolk (2017) recommended the following:

1. Ask students if they understand the problem. Let them separate relevant from irrelevant
information. Test their awareness of the assumptions. Encourage them to visualize the problem
by diagramming or drawing it. Ask them to explain the problem to someone else.

2. Encourage attempts to see the problem from different angles. Suggest several different
possibilities yourself, and then ask students to offer some. Give students practice in taking and
defending different points of view on an issue.

3. Let students think; do not just hand them solutions. Offer individual problems as well as group
problems, so that each student has the chance to practice. Give partial credit if students have
good reasons for “wrong” solutions to problems. If students are stuck, resist the temptation to
give too many clues. Let them think about the issue overnight.

4. Help students to develop systematic ways of considering alternatives. Tell them to think out
loud as they solve problems. Ask: “What would happen if?” Keep a list of suggestions.

5. Teach heuristics. Encourage them to use analogies to solve problems.

In teaching creativity, Woolfolk (2017) also recommended the following strategies in teaching
learners:
1. Accept and encourage divergent thinking. Reinforce attempts at unusual solutions to problems,
even if the final product is not perfect. Offer choices in topics for projects or modes of presentation
(written, oral, visual or graphic, using technology).

2. Tolerate dissent. Ask students to support dissenting opinions, make sure that nonconforming
students receive an equal share of classroom privileges and rewards.

3. Encourage students to trust their judgement. When students ask questions that you think they
can answer, rephrase or clarify the questions and direct them back to the students. Give ungraded
assignments from time to time.

4. Emphasize that everyone is capable of creativity is some form. Avoid describing the feats of
great artists or inventors as if they were superhuman accomplishments. Recognize creative efforts
in each student’s work. Have a separate grade for originality on some assignments.

5. Provide time, space, and materials to support creative projects. Here are some examples:
collect “found” materials for collages and creations – buttons, stones, shells, paper, fabric, beads,
seeds, drawing tools, clay – and try flea markets and friends for donations. Have mirrors and
pictures for drawing faces. Make a well-lighted space available where children can work on
projects, leave them, and come back to finish them. Follow up on memorable occasions (field
trips, new events, holidays) with opportunities to draw, write, or make music.

6. Be a stimulus for creative thinking. Use class brainstorming sessions whenever possible. Model
creative problem solving by suggesting unusual solutions for class problems. Encourage students
to delay judging a particular suggestion for solving a problem until all the possibilities have been
considered.

7. Capitalize on new technology, ask the students to use free apps to create visual maps of ideas
and share their ideas with others.

To promote the transfer of learning, the following teaching-learning strategies are helpful
(Woolfolk, 2017):

1. Keep families informed about their child’s curriculum so they can support their learning. At the
beginning of units or major projects, send a letter summarizing the key goals, a few of the major
assignments, and some common problems that students have in learning the materials for that
unit. Ask parents for suggestions about how their child’s interests could be connected to the
curriculum topics.
2. Give families ideas on how they might encourage their children to practice, extend, or apply
what they learn from school. This strategy promotes a near transfer of learning. Ask family
members to include their children in some projects that require school learning.

3. Show connections between learning in school and life outside of school. Ask families to talk
about and show how they use the skills their children are learning in their jobs, hobbies, or
community involvement projects.

4. Partner with families in practicing learning strategies. Focus on one learning strategy at a time.
Ask families to simply remind their children to use a particular strategy for a homework that week.

_____________________________________________________________________________________
LESSON 8 – PAVLOV’S CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Overview:

In the parlance of psychology, behaviorism is concerned with the behavioral changes and the role
of the environment in these changes. Behaviorists claim that nurture is crucial in the process of
acquiring knowledge (Dastpak et al., 2017). One known behaviorist is John B. Watson (1982), who
writes that the ultimate goal of behaviorism is to derive laws to explain the relationships existing
among antecedent conditions (stimuli), behavior (responses), and following
conditions (rewards, punishments, or neutral effects). The theory of
behaviorism may be dichotomized into associationism and reinforcement.

In this lesson, you will meet Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist, is well know his
work in classical condition or stimulus substitution. Pavlov’s most renowned
experiment involved meat, a dog and a bell. Initially, Pavlov was measuring the
dog’s salivation in order to study digestion. This is when he stumbled upon classical conditioning.

__________________________________________________________________________________
Objectives:

Upon successful completion of this module, students should have the opportunity to:

1. Explain how behaviors are learned according to the Pavlovian and Watsonian theories
2. Determine the salient processes and phenomena of the Pavlovian and Watsonian
theories
3. Cite classroom implications of the association theory.
__________________________________________________________________________________
Discussion:

Before we dive in to our lesson, I want you to think of a teacher that is most unforgettable to you
in elementary or high school. What kinds of rewards and punishments did he/she apply in your
class? For what behaviors were the rewards and punishments for? Write your answer on the
table below:

Student Behavior Reward/Punishment

1.

2.

3.
What makes this teacher unforgettable for you?

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

Were the rewards and punishments given effective? Please elaborate.

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

How I wish that I could instantly read your answers and share it to your classmates. In line with
our lesson, what you have experienced is an example of classical conditioning.

The theory of Pavlovian conditioning involves a set of multilayered procedures. Initially, the food
is called the unconditioned stimulus (UCS). In psychology, any environmental event that affects
the organism is called stimulus. The food is an unconditioned stimulus because it leads to an
unconditioned response (UCR) without any learning taking place. The immediate salivation of the
dog is referred to as the UCR, The UCS and UCR are considered unlearned stimulus-response units
termed as reflexes.

Conditioning the dog requires recurrent presentation of a neutral

stimulus paired with the UCS. For instance, the buzzer was sounded
repeatedly but caused no dog's salivation at all. However, when the
buzzer came with the food, the dog salivated. Later, by just hearing the buzzer, the dog salivated.
The buzzer is now called a conditioned stimulus (CS) that elicited the salivation of the dog, now
termed as a conditioned response (CR).
When applied in the classroom, the use of the pointer or stick to whip unruly learners in class
may affect other pupils. They may associate the stick with whipping, thus triggering fear. Later,
merely hearing or seeing a stick in class may elicit fear among them. This is why expert educators
in the country suggest that classroom teachers should avoid using the stick as pointers. Instead,
they are advised to use their open palm to pointing words on the chalkboard

Other Phenomena in Classical Conditioning

According to Buoton and Moody (2004), when the CS is

repeatedly unreinforced, that is, without the UCS, the CR will
eventually diminish in intensity and effect. This phenomenon is
called extinction. When the extinction of learning passes
through time, the CR may still be restored (Robins, 1990). This
recovery-after-extinction phenomenon is termed as spontaneous recovery. This means that
extinction does not completely involve unlearning of the pairings (Redish et al., 2018).

Generalization is another phenomenon in Pavlovian's

classical conditioning. When the dog salivates by just
merely hearing the buzzer, it is likely to elicit similar CS
when it hears a faster or a slower beat of the buzzer or
any device with quite a similar sound. Harris (2006),
however, pointed out that the more different the new
stimulus to the CS, the lesser generalization surfaces.

When the dog recognizes that the sound of the buzzer is

different from other stimuli (i.e., the sound of a bell), thus
salivating only upon hearing the buzzer, discrimination
occurs. This is a phenomenon when the subject reacts
differently to other stimuli. This means that it can decipher
the CS very strongly.

Watsonian Conditioning

During the dawn of the 20th century, a psychologist, greatly influenced by Pavlov, rose and aimed
to revolutionize the status of American psychology. He was John Broadus Watson (1878-1958).
According to Watson, if Pavlov is successful in proving associationism between stimulus and
response, people can also have such ability to associating certain feelings, behaviors, instances,
and even symbols. He theorized that unlearning and relearning can occur. He also posited that
humans are born with emotional responses such as love, fear, and hate.

Perhaps the most popular conditioning experiment he did was “Little Albert.” Here, Watson tried
to prove that emotions can be learned. Initially, Albert played with the white rat, thus not eliciting
any fear upon seeing the rat. After some time, Watson and his partner, Rosalie Rayner,
accompanied the appearance of the white rat with a banging sound, so Albert was conditioned
to fear the rat. Later, Watson and Rayner accompanied the presentation of the rat with other
objects. They found out that Albert also feared the occurrence of the objects even without the
rat's presence. This experiment became the anchor of Watson's belief that learning happens by
association.

Association
Stimulus Behavioristic
Learning
Response Repetition
LESSON 9 – THORNDIKE’S CONNECTIONISM
__________________________________________________________________________________

Overview:

Within the first half of the 21st Century in the United States,
Edward L. Thorndike (1874–1949) was prominent because of
his laws of learning, primarily under the umbrella of
associationism or connectionism (Mayer, 2003). It is mainly
concerned with the connection between the stimulus and response (S-R). According to Karadut
(2012), Thorndike is one of the few psychologists who focused on education. In proving his
findings, Thorndike used an experimental approach in measuring a student's academic
achievement. Thorndike believed that forming associations or connections between sensory
experiences and neural impulses results in the prime type of learning. The neural impulses, called
responses, are behaviorally manifested. He believed that learning often occurs by trial and error
(selecting and connecting).

___________________________________________________________________________

Objectives:

Upon successful completion of this module, students should have the opportunity to:

1. Identify the primary laws of learning postulated by Edward Thorndike

2. Describe how behaviors are learned according to Thorndike’s laws of learning
3. Provide teaching implications of Thorndike’s laws of learning
__________________________________________________________________________________

Discussion:

Thorndike's basic ideas rest in the laws of exercise and effect. Firstly, the Law of Exercise is
divided into two parts: the law of use and the law of disuse. The law of use means that the
frequent recurring of the response to a stimulus strengthens their connection. Meanwhile, the
law of disuse means that when a response is not made to a stimulus, the connection's strength
is weakened or even forgotten.

Drills are vital to acquire and sustain learning. In the very words of Thorndike (1913), bonds
between stimuli and responses are strengthened through being exercised frequently, recently,
and "vigorously." Learners usually learn faster when they often apply a certain skill (e.g., spelling
new terms) and tend to forget when such a response does not recur over some time (Karadut,
2012). This explains why pianists, for example, repeatedly practice their pieces before their
performances. By practicing (law of use), they ensure that they will play correctly. If they do not
exercise playing their pieces (law of disuse), they may encounter difficulty in smoothly
accomplishing their performances.

Thorndike later revised the Law of Exercise. He confessed that by merely practicing, one does
not bring improvement in learning. Practicing, according to Thorndike, is not sufficient. Hence,
the constant practice must be followed by some reward or satisfaction to the learner. In short,
the pupil must be motivated to learn.

The Law of Effect, meanwhile, emphasizes that if a response is followed by a “satisfying” state of
affairs, the S-R connection is strengthened; if a response is followed by an "annoying state of
affairs, the S-R connection is weakened. Thus, Thorndike posited that satisfiers and annoyers are
critical to learning. This explains why teachers give favorable comments to students who show
pleasant behavior in class, when such ego-boosting comments satisfy the learners, the higher the
chance that they will repeat such behavior.

The third law of learning also has something to do with boosting human motivation. The law of
readiness states that if one is prepared to act, to do so is rewarding, and not to do so is punishing.
In short, before learning commences, one must be physically, emotionally, mentally, and
psychologically prepared. This law is illustrated when a learner knows the answer to a particular
question, thus raising his or her hand. Calling him or her to recite is rewarding. However, when
the teacher calls on a student who does not know the answer may be annoying on his or her part,
thus weakening the bond of stimulus and response. The law of readiness is also used in
sequencing topics. When students are ready to learn a particular action (in terms of
developmental level or prior skill acquisition), then behaviors that foster this learning will be
rewarding. Meanwhile, when students are not ready to learn or do not possess prerequisite skills,
then attempting to learn is punishing and even becomes a waste of time.

Other Laws of Learning

Thorndike also observed that the first thing learned has the strongest S-R bond and is almost
inerasable. He calls this as the Law of Primacy. It implies that learning a concept or skill again is
more difficult than the first time one has learned it. This explains why teachers correct students
who have misconceptions in a new lesson. The application part in a lesson plan or daily lesson
log is strategically situated before generalizing a concept so that teachers can detect the
misunderstandings of the students in a certain lesson. When the misconception is not corrected
for the first time, that may lead to habit formation. In English Language Teaching, a recurring
mistake among learners is called fossilization (Demirezen & Topal, 2015). Relearning the correct
concept later will be confusing to the students or even time-consuming. Hence, the first (prime)
learning experience should be as functional, as precise, and as positive as possible so that it paves
the way to the more comfortable learning experiences to follow.
As much as possible, teachers provide activities that come
with extreme relevance to the learners. This teaching
principle is primarily rooted in Thorndike's Law of
Intensity. Thorndike believed that exciting, immediate, or
even dramatic learning within the real context of the
students would tremendously facilitate learning. Hence,
the Law of Intensity implies that exposing the students in
real- world applications of the skills and concepts makes
them most likely to remember the experience. The current
K to 12 curriculum of the country immerses senior high school students to a short-time real-world
application called "on-the-job training” or OJT. They receive a foretaste of how the skills and
concepts they learn in class are applied in the real workplace. In that sense, the learning
experience becomes more intense and will most likely be remembered.

The concepts or skills most recently learned are least forgotten. This is the gist of the Law of
Recency. Thus, when learners are isolated in time from learning a new concept, the more difficult
it is for them to remember. For instance, in a foreign language class (e.g., French), it is easier to
recall and recite those which are learned minutes ago than those which were taught the other
month. This implies that teachers should facilitate learning by providing the learners with a clear
connection between the previous and the current learning experience. Letting the students
mention or apply the formerly learned skill or concept in the new learning experience may refresh
their memory, thus the higher the probability of forgetting

Thorndike also mentioned that humans tend to show an almost similar response to an entirely
different stimulus if, on recurring instances, that stimulus has slight changes compared to the
previously known one. Thorndike coins this as the Principle of Associative Shifting. For example,
to teach pupils to add a three-digit number, teachers let them master the adding of a one-digit
number first. As they solve increasing numbers, pupils will tend to associate the response to the
previously paired S-R.

The transfer occurs when the contexts of learning have identical

elements and call for similar responses. Thorndike called is as
generalization. This implies that not only skills should be taught in
one isolated topic, but also that other related subjects or topics
should provide opportunities for the students to apply them. In a
Social Studies class, it is not enough to teach the students to read
maps, but it is better if they are also taught to calculate miles from
inches. Later, that skill is reinforced when they will create their maps and map problems to solve.
LESSON 10 – SKINNER’S OPERANT CONDITIONING
__________________________________________________________________________________
Overview:

One of the most popular behavioral theorists of all time is B.F. (Burrhus Frederic)
Skinner (1904–1990). He postulated the operant conditioning. Classical
conditioning refers to the association of stimuli whereas operant conditioning
actively involves the subject's participation. The subject in operant conditioning
has a choice to respond. In other words, operant conditioning is the type of
learning whereby learning occurs as a consequence of the learner's behavior.

B.F. Skinner made this conclusion after

experimenting on animals through his
Skinner's box, a device that modified the
animal's behavior. In his experiment, he put
a rat in a box with a lever, a bowl, and a
closed chamber. If the lever was pushed, the
chamber opened and dispensed food.
Unconscious about this mechanism, the rat
accidentally pushed the lever, and the food
was dispensed. The rat learned that continuously pushing the lever could open the food
dispenser to the bowl. Skinner termed the food in such an experiment as the reward.

__________________________________________________________________________________
Objectives:

Upon successful completion of this module, students should have the opportunity to:

1. Describe reinforcement and punishment in the context of operant conditioning.

2. Differentiate the characteristics of the theories of classical and operant conditioning.
3. Analyze a research article about operant conditioning.
__________________________________________________________________________________

Discussion: Reinforcement
Skinner's operant condition is dichotomized into a
reinforcement and punishment. Each category is also
divided into positive or negative. Reinforcement is
defined as something that strengthens the behavior or
is sometimes called as the response strengthener
(Schultz, 2006). Positive reinforcement is defined as
the addition of a pleasant stimulus. This is exactly what is illustrated in the Skinner's box. The
dispensed food became a positive reinforcement that caused the rat to continually push the lever
(behavior).

Positive reinforcement has many classroom applications. Preschool teachers stamp three big
stars on the hands of their pupils who may have behaved throughout the class, achieved the
highest score, or become friendly within the academic time. To maximize the use of the positive
reinforcement, however, teachers should make it clear to their students why they are stamping
them three stars and what the three big stars mean. In that way, the pupils will be motivated to
repeat their pleasant behavior and can eventually gain the reward the stamp.

By building operant conditioning techniques into lesson plans, it is easily possible to teach
children useful skills as well as good behaviors. By using symbols like smiley faces, “Good Work”
stamps, stickers, and even simple ticks when a child does
something correctly, you are encouraging them to repeat
such satisfying work further down the line.

Meanwhile, negative reinforcement is taking something

away from a situation that subsequently increases the
occurrence of the response. In other words, it is taking away
an unpleasant consequence to cause the behavior to
happen again. Some stimuli that often function as negative
reinforcers are loud noises, criticisms, annoying people, and
low grades, because actions that remove them tend to be
reinforcing. For instance, Teacher X wants her Grade 3 class
to master the multiplication table, so she gives the pupils a problem set on multiplication. After
a set is solved, they would recite the multiplication table from multiples of 5 to 10. If they master
the multiplication table, the problem set is withdrawn, thus strengthening the behavior-perfectly
reciting the multiplication table.

Schedule of Reinforcements
According to Skinner (1938), as mentioned by Zeiler (1977), schedules refer to when
reinforcement is applied (Skinner, 1938; Zeiler, 1977). The table below summarizes the
reinforcement schedules according to Skinner.

Reinforcement
Description Classroom Application
Schedule
Reinforcement is given every Students receive feedback
time the animal gives the after each response
Continuous Schedule
desired response. concerning the accuracy of
their work.
 Reinforcement is given Students are not called on
irregularly as the animal gives every time they raise their
the desired response. hands, not praised after
Intermittent Schedule
working each problem, and
not always told they are
behaving appropriately.
The time interval is constant Appreciating a student’s
from one reinforcement to the answer is done for the first
Fixed Interval
next. response made after 5
minutes.
The time interval varies from The first correct response
occasion around some average after 5 minutes is reinforced,
Variable Interval
value. but the time interval varies.
(e.g., 2, 3, 7, or 8 minutes).
Reinforcement is given Teacher gives praises to a
depending on the number of student after reciting the fifth
Ratio Schedule
correct responses or the rate of correct answer.
responding
Every nth correct response is Every 10th correct response
Fixed Ration
reinforced, where n is constant. receives reinforcement.
Every nth correct response is A teacher may give free time
reinforced, but the value varies periodically around an
Variable Ration
around an average number n. average of five completed
assignments.

Punishment
Operant conditioning also includes punishment, whose
main aim is to weaken the response. However,
punishment does not necessarily eliminate the behavior;
when the threat of punishment is removed, the punished
response may recur (Merrett & Wheldall, 1984). Skinner
believed that positive punishment is an addition of an
unpleasant stimulus to decrease the behavior. For
instance, Max, a Grade 6 pupil, had been neglecting his
Math assignments. He completely hated washing the
dishes. To decrease such behavior of neglecting his assignments, her parents assigned him to
wash the dishes after dinner. After some time, Max eventually became more diligent to complete
his assignments in Math. The addition (positive) of the work Max hates (punishment) decreases
the likelihood for the behavior (neglect of doing the assignments) to occur.

Negative punishment, meanwhile, is the removal of rewarding stimulus to decrease the behavior.
For example, Jennie, a Grade 3 pupil, is always noisy in a group activity. Her teacher calls her
attention and warns her that she could not participate in the subsequent fun activity if she
continues to behave noisily. Joining in a fun activity is a pleasant stimulus. Withdrawing it
(negative) is believed to reduce noisy behavior (punishment).

Relationship of reinforcement and punishment

Reinforcement Punishment
(increasing the behavior) (decreasing the behavior)
Positive Adding something to increase the Adding something to decrease the
(adding) behavior behavior
Negative Subtracting something to increase the Subtracting something to decrease the
(subtracting) behavior behavior

Alternatives to Punishment
Punishment is often applied in schools to address disruptions. Maag (2001) enumerated some
common punishments like loss of privileges, removals from the classroom, in- and out-of-school.
Suspensions, and expulsions. Nonetheless, there are several alternatives to punishment (see
Figure 18). The primary advantage of this alternative over punishment is that it shows the student
how to behave adaptively.

Allow the
Change the Extinguish the Condition and
unwanted
discriminative unwanted incompatible
behavior to
stimuli behavior behavior
continue
* Reinforce learning
* Move misbehaving * Have student who * Ignore minor
progress, which
student away from stands when he or misbehavior so that
occurs only when a
other misbehaving she should be sitting is not reinforced by
student is not
students continue to stand teacher attention.
misbehaving.

__________________________________________________________________________________
Evaluation:
Research Digest. Make a summary of the of the following research article attached to this module
by filling in the repertory grid below.

Title, Author, Research Research Methodology Key Results & Conclusion and
Date of Problem / Questions Implications Recommendation/s
Publication Objective for Teaching
Design:
Tool:
Analysis:
Participants:
LESSON 11 – NEO-BEHAVIORISM
______________________________________________________________________________

Overview:

The theory of behaviorism focuses on the study of observable

and measurable behavior. It emphasizes that behavior is mostly
learned through conditioning and reinforcement (rewards and
punishment). It does not give much attention to the mind and
the possibility of thought processes occurring in the mind.

As behaviorism developed, one more sub-branch came out to fill in the gap between behaviorism
and cognitive learning beliefs. It is called neo-behaviorism . Notable psychologists that
contributed much in the development of neo-behaviorism included Edward Tolman and Albert
Bandura. The neo-behaviorists were more self-consciously trying to formalize the laws of
behavior. They believed that some mediating variables into the established stimulus-response
theory contribute much to learning

__________________________________________________________________________________
Objectives:

Upon successful completion of this module, students should have the opportunity to:

1. Distinguish behaviorism by Pavlov, Watson, Thorndike, and Skinner to Neo-Behaviorism

by Tolman and Bandura
2. Relate the salient features of Tolman’s purposive behaviorism and Bandura’s social-
cognitive theory to actual teaching.
__________________________________________________________________________________
Discussion:

Tolman's Purposive Behaviorism

Purposive learning encapsulates Edward Tolman's theory. He insisted that all behavior is directed
because of a purpose. Hence, all behaviors are focused on achieving some goals by cognition-an
intervening variable. For Tolman, a behavior is never merely the result of mindless S-R
connections. He further believed that "mental processes are to be identified in terms of the
behaviors to which they lead." In other words, his intervening variables are tied to observable
behaviors.
 In his experiment, two groups of rats were put in mazes
for 17 days. The first group of rats was fed (rewarded)
every time they found their way out. The second group of
rats was non-reinforced. The rats did not receive any food
from days 1 to 10 even if they have seen the end point.
Later, it was observed that in the first 10 days, the rats
developed a cognitive map. Hence, from day 11 onward,
they were motivated to perform and look for the end point faster than the first group to find
food because they were hungry.

From this experiment, Tolman concluded that an organism performs a behavior because it has a
purpose or a goal. It has also led to the birth of latent learning a form of learning that occurs
without any visible reinforcement of the behavior or associations that are learned. In addition,
latent learning occurs every time an organism sees a reason to perform or show it. For instance,
a 4-year-old boy observed his father in using the TV remote control. When he would be left alone
and had the opportunity to turn on the TV using the remote control, he could easily demonstrate
the learning.

Another distinctive feature of the purposive behaviorism is the coining of the term "cognitive
map." According to Tolman, it is a mental illustration of the layout of the environment. It is
believed that everything in our cognitive map influences our interaction with the environment.
Hence, making our cognitive map more detailed and comprehensive helps facilitate our learning

Tolman's Other Salient Principles

1. Behavior is always purposive.

By this, he meant that all behavior is ignited to accomplish a specific goal. In its purest sense, a
demonstration of learning is the outcome of possessing a purpose to show it.

2. Behavior is cognitive.

The expectations that underlie and guide behavior are cognitions. This means that an organism
is mindful of the connections between specific actions and certain outcomes (cognitive map).
Such mental map is developed by expanding the experiences, coupled with the stimuli and
rewards. Notably, Tolman considered a cognition as an abstraction or a theoretical invention. He
believed that cognitions should only be inferred from behavior, not through introspection.

3. Reinforcement establishes and confirms expectancies.

Tolman also underscored the role of reinforcement in learning. As previously stated, learning,
according to Tolman, deals with connections between stimuli and expectancies or perceptions,
representations, needs, and other intervening variables. Because expectancies develop in
situations in which reinforcement is possible, the role of reinforcement is primarily one of
confirming expectancies. The more often an expectancy is established, the more likely it is that
the stimuli (signs) associated with it will become linked with the relevant significate (expectancy).

Bandura's Social Learning Theory

Under the social learning theory, learning occurs

within the social context and by observing and
copying others' behavior or imitation (Akers &
Jensen, 2006,). Albert Bandura is the proponent of
this theory, where modeling is a crucial component.
Modeling refers to a change in one's behavior by
observing models (Rosenthal & Bandura, 1978).
Historically, modeling was equated with imitation, but modeling is a more inclusive concept
(Mussen, 1983).

Bandura's theory is also called the social-cognitive theory because of the influence of cognition
in his theory. He is one among few behaviorists who believed that humans process information
through cognition. The term self-efficacy has bridged social learning theory and cognitive
psychology. Self-efficacy is defined as one's evaluation of his or her own ability to accomplish or
perform an action in a particular context. Those with high self-efficacy see themselves as capable,
or useful, in dealing with the world and with other people.

Fundamental Principles of Social Learning Theory:

1. One may learn without changing his or her behavior.
- this is in contrast to what other behaviorists; for them, a change in behavior is always an
indication of learning.
2. Learning takes place by imitating a model.
- that model possesses characteristics (i.e., intelligence, physical aura, popularity, or
talent) that a learner finds attractive and desirable. Admiration plays an essential role in
imitating a particular behavior of the model. This explains why speech teacher recite a
crucial sound first, then guide the learners until they can recite the sound correctly by
themselves.
3. An observing person will always react to the one being imitated depending on whether the
model is rewarded or punished.
 - If the model receives rewards, the imitator copies the behavior; and if the former is
punished, the latter will most likely avoid copying the behavior.
4. Acquiring and performing behavior are different.
- Bandura made a demarcation line between performing and acquiring a behavior. One
can acquire the behavior by observing someone but may opt not to perform it until the
context requires so.
5. Interaction is vital for successful social learning.
- Social learning may occurs successfully when learners interact with their co-leaners and
models (Mourlam, 2013). Leaning in isolation may dampen self-efficacy. This means that
copying behavior involves the guiding of one person’s behavior by another person, such
as when an art instructor gives guidance and corrective feedback to an art student who is
attempting to draw a picture. With copying behavior, the final “copied” response is
reinforced and thereby strengthened.
6. Learning is self-regulated.
- Bandura noted that self-regulation occurs when individuals observe, assess, and judge
their behavior against their standards, and subsequently reward and punish them.
7. Learning may be acquired vicariously.
- Vicarious learning is acquired from observing the consequences of others’ behavior. For
instance, when a model is given praises and rewards, the observer may likely repeat the
copied behavior because he or she feels the same satisfaction, too.
8. Learning may be reinforced by the model or by others.
- Compliments coming from the model may strengthen the occurrence of the behavior.
Similarly, when a person is praise by his or hew peers because of a change in behavior, he
or she may show an increase in that behavior.
Components of Successful Modeling
1. Attention. To meaningfully perceive relevant behaviors, one should pay attention. At any given
moment, one can attend to many activities. The characteristics of the model and the observer
influence one's attention to models. This explains why teachers make use of bright colors or large
fonts in their instructional aids for modeling to snatch the attention of the learners.

2. Retention. Paying attention to something should result in retention that requires cognitively
organizing, rehearsing, coding, and transforming modeled information for storage in memory.
Rehearsal also serves a vital role in the retention of knowledge. This is a mental review of
information. Sometimes, the observer retains the information through association and cognitive
pattern. In a dance class, for instance, an observer counts 1-2-3-4 and 5 with corresponding steps
to store the dance steps in his or her memory. Rehearsal without coding and coding without
rehearsal are less effective.
3. Production. To strengthen learning through observation, one needs to translate the visual and
symbolic conceptions into observable behavior. Subsequent production of this behavior indicates
an increase in learning. Bandura noted that observers refine their skills with practice, corrective
feedback, and reteaching. Sometimes, problems in producing modeled behaviors arise not only
because information is inadequately coded but also because learners experience difficulty
translating coded information in memory into overt action. For example, a child may have a basic
understanding of how to tie shoelaces but not be able to translate that knowledge into behavior.
Teachers who suspect that students are having trouble demonstrating what they have learned
may need to test students in different ways.

4. Motivation. Influencing observational learning is motivation. Individuals perform actions they

believe will result in rewarding outcomes and avoid acting in ways they think will be responded
to negatively (Schunk, 1987). Persons also act based on their values, performing activities they
value and avoiding those they find unsatisfying, regardless of the consequences to themselves or
others. Motivation is a critical process of observational learning that teachers promote in various
ways, including making learning interesting, relating material to student interests, having
students set goals and monitor goal progress, providing feedback indicating increasing
competence, and stressing the value of learning.