CHAPTER-4

COMBUSTION AND FLAME

Section A: Combustion
A chemical process in which substance reacts with oxygen to give off heat is called combustion. It can either be seen
as a flame or as a glow.

 In the sun heat and light are produced by nuclear reactions.

Types of Combustion-
(i) Rapid combustion- A combustion in which a material burns rapidly and produces heat and light.
(ii) Spontaneous combustion- The combustion in which a material suddenly bursts into flames, without the
application of any apparent cause.
(iii) Explosion- When a sudden reaction takes place with the evolution of heat, light and sound. A large
amount of gas formed in the reaction is liberate, is called combustion. It can also take place when
pressure is applied.

Requirements for Combustion-

(i) Fuel
(ii) Air (to provide oxygen)
(iii) Heat (to reach its ignition temperature)

Define-
Combustible substances- Substances that undergoes combustion. They are also known as fuel.

 Food is a fuel of our body as it is broken down by reaction with oxygen and heat produced. It provides
energy to our body.

Inflammable substances- The substances which have very low ignition temperature and can easily catch fire with a
flame. Examples- Petrol, Alcohol, Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) etc.

Ignition temperature- The lowest temperature at which a substance catches fire is called its ignition temperature.

Matchstick-
(i) Head of match-antimony trisulphide and potassium chlorate.
(ii) Rubbing surface-powdered glass and red phosphorus.
(iii) Red phosphorus gets converted into white phosphorus when rubbed.
(iv) It reacts with potassium chlorate, which produces enough heat to ignite antimony sulphate.
(v) Hence, starts combustion.

Paper cup-
 The heat supplied to the paper cup is transferred to water by conduction. So, the presence of water is not
allowing the paper cup to reach its ignition temperature. Hence, it does not burn.
Extinguishing fires-
 By removing one of its requirements.
 Water-
(i) It cools down the combustible substance so that its temperature is brought below its ignition
temperature. This prevents the fire from spreading. Water vapours also surround the
combustible material helping in cutting off the supply of air. So, the fire is extinguished.
(ii) If electrical equipment is on fire, water may conduct electricity and harm those trying to douse
the fire.
(iii) Water is also not suitable for fires involving oil and petrol. Because water is heavier than oil. So,
it sinks below the oil, and it keeps burning on the top.

 Carbon dioxide-
(i) CO₂ is the best extinguisher. CO₂ being heavier than oxygen, covers the fire like a blanket. So, the
contact between oxygen and fuel is cut off, so the fire is controlled.
(ii) The added advantage of CO₂ is that is most cases it does not harm the electrical equipment.
(iii) It can be stored at high pressure as a liquid in cylinders.
(iv) When it is released, it expands enormously in volume and cools down.
(v) Hence, it also brings down the temperature of the fire.
(vi) Another way to get CO₂ is to release a lot of dry powder of chemicals like sodium bicarbonate
(baking soda) and potassium bicarbonate. Near the fire, these chemicals give off CO₂.

Section B: Flame
The visible gaseous part of fire is called flame.

Structure of a Flame-
Non luminous zone- It is the outermost layer of the flame and bluish in colour as it is the hottest part of the flame
because complete combustion takes place here. Goldsmiths use this layer to melt gold and silver.

Luminous zone- It is the middle layer of the flame and yellow in colour as it is moderately hot because partial
combustion takes place here. There is deposition of unburnt carbon particles in this layer.

It is the innermost layer of the flame and black in colour as it is least hot because no combustion
takes place here. This is the layer of unburnt wax vapours.

Section C: Fuel
A good fuel-
 Readily available.
 Cheap.
 Burns easily in air at a moderate rate.
 It produces large amount of heat.
 It does not leave behind any undesirable substance.
Fuel Efficiency-
The amount of heat energy produced in complete combustion of 1 kg of a fuel is called its calorific value. It is
expressed in a unit called kilojoule per kg (kJ/kg).

Harm from the burning of Fuels-

(i) Carbon- Carbon fuels release unburnt carbon particles. These are dangerous pollutants causing
respiratory diseases, such as asthma.
(ii) Carbon monoxide- Incomplete combustion gives carbon monoxide gas. It is poisonous. It can kill persons
sleeping in the room.
(iii) Global warming- It releases carbon dioxide. Increased concentration of it can lead to global warming,
which results in the melting of glaciers, which leads to rise in the sea level, causing floods in coastal
areas.
(iv) Acid rain- Burning coal diesel releases sulphur dioxide gas. It is extremely corrosive. Petrol engines give
off gaseous oxides of nitrogen. Oxides of sulphur and nitrogen dissolve in rain water and form acids,
which results in acid rain.
 CHAPTER-11
CHEMICAL EFFECTS OF ELECTRIC CURRENT
Section A: Combustion
 CHAPTER-7
REACHING THE AGE OF ADOLESCENCE
Section A: Introduction to Adolescence and Puberty

The period of life, when the body undergoes changes, leading to reproductive maturity, is called adolescence.

Age: 11 - 18/19 yrs.

Special name: Teenagers

Girls & Boys: Beginning in girls is 1-2 yrs earlier than in boys.

Indication: Start- The human body undergoes several changes/Developments. Capable of reproduction.

Stop- When adolescent reaches reproductive maturity.