Indira Gandhi Delhi Technical University for Women

(Established by Govt. of Delhi vide Act 09 of 2012)

(Formerly Indira Gandhi Institute of Technology)

Kashmere Gate, Delhi – 110006

LABORATORY FILE
FOR
OPERATING SYSTEMS

Submitted to : Submitted by :
Ms. Nidhi Arora Manasvi Arora
IT Department
IGDTUW, Delhi MCA(IT) – 1st Sem
 INDEX
S. NO. LAB TITLE DATE TEACHER’S
SIGNATURE
 LAB ASSIGNMENT – 1
[Link] operating system(OS) and write functions of operating
system and need of operating system.
Introduction :
An operating system acts as an intermediary between the user of a
computer and the computer hardware. An operating system is
software that manages the computer hardware. The hardware must
provide appropriate mechanisms to ensure the correct operation of
the computer system and to prevent user programs from interfering
with the proper operation of the system. It is responsible for handling
all the activities, coordinating tasks, and sharing computer resources
among different running applications. The OS performs essential
functions such as processor management, memory management, file
management, and device management. Common examples of
operating systems include Linux, Unix, Windows 11, MS-DOS,
Android, macOS, and iOS.
Functions of Operating System :
1. Process Management – The OS handles creation, scheduling,
and termination of processes, ensuring smooth execution of
multiple programs at the same time.
2. Memory Management – It allocates and deallocates memory
space to different programs and ensures efficient utilization of
RAM.
3. File Management – The OS manages files on storage devices,
including creation, reading, writing, and organization of data.
4. Device Management – It controls and coordinates input/output
devices through their respective drivers.
 5. Security and Protection – The OS provides mechanisms to
protect data, user accounts, and system resources from
unauthorized access.
6. User Interface – It offers an interface (CLI or GUI) that allows
users to interact with the computer system.
7. Resource Allocation – The OS distributes hardware and
software resources among different users and applications for
efficient working.
8. Error Detection and Handling – It constantly monitors the
system for errors and takes appropriate actions to ensure
reliability.
Need of Operating System:
➢ Efficient Resource Utilization – An OS ensures proper use of
CPU, memory, and I/O devices without letting them remain idle.
➢ Simplifies User Interaction – It provides an easy interface
(CLI/GUI) for users to interact with the computer without
knowing complex hardware details.
➢ Multitasking Support – The OS allows multiple applications to
run simultaneously without interference.
➢ System Security – It protects system data and resources from
unauthorized access and misuse.
➢ Error Handling – The OS manages errors smoothly to prevent
system crashes and ensures stability.
➢ Coordination Between Hardware and Software – It acts as a
bridge between hardware and applications, ensuring smooth
communication.
[Link] types of operating systems in tabular form.
Sr. Name of Versions / Vendor Target Marketplace
No. OS Flavours /
Distributions

1 Windows Windows 7, Microsoft Personal Computers,

Windows 10, Laptops, Business
Windows 11 Systems

2 Linux Ubuntu, Fedora, Open Source Servers, Developers,

Debian, Red Hat, Community / Red Security, Personal Use
Kali Linux Hat / Canonical

3 macOS macOS Ventura, Apple Inc. Apple Laptops &

Monterey, Big Sur, Desktops (MacBook,
Catalina iMac)

4 Android Android 11, 12, 13, Google Smartphones, Tablets,

14 Smart TVs

5 iOS iOS 15, 16, 17 Apple Inc. iPhones, iPads, iPods

6 UNIX Solaris, AIX, HP-UX AT&T (original), Enterprise Servers,

Oracle, IBM, HP Workstations

7 MS-DOS MS-DOS 6.22 Microsoft Early Personal

(famous version) Computers (Legacy)

8 ChromeOS ChromeOS (Cloud- Google Chromebooks,

Based) Education Systems,
Cloud-Centric Devices
 LAB ASSIGNMENT– 2
INTRODUCTION TO UNIX, LINUX AND WINDOWS
[Link] Study of UNIX
Introduction
UNIX is a powerful, multiuser, and multitasking operating system
originally developed in the 1960s and 1970s at AT&T’s Bell Labs. It
was designed with the philosophy of simplicity, portability, and
flexibility. Unlike many early operating systems, UNIX was written in
the C programming language, which made it easier to modify,
maintain, and port across different hardware platforms. Today, UNIX
and its variants form the backbone of many enterprise servers,
workstations, and academic systems.

Architecture of UNIX
The architecture of UNIX is layered, ensuring efficient interaction
between hardware and applications. It mainly consists of the
following components:
1. Kernel – The core of the operating system, responsible for
managing hardware, processes, memory, file systems, and
device control.
2. Shell – Acts as an interface between the user and the kernel. It
takes user commands and translates them into actions that the
kernel can execute.
3. File System – Organizes and manages data storage in a
hierarchical structure of files and directories.
 4. Utilities and Application Programs – A set of standard
commands, libraries, and programs that help users perform
tasks such as editing, compiling, and communication.
This modular structure makes UNIX highly stable, portable, and
reliable for different types of computing environments.

History of UNIX
• 1969 – UNIX was created by Ken Thompson, Dennis Ritchie, and
other researchers at Bell Labs.
• 1973 – The UNIX code was rewritten in the C programming
language, making it portable across systems.
• Late 1970s – UNIX gained popularity in universities and
research institutions due to its simplicity and academic
licensing.
• 1980s – Commercial versions of UNIX such as BSD (Berkeley
Software Distribution), SunOS, and HP-UX emerged, driving
enterprise adoption.
• Present Day – Modern UNIX systems and UNIX-like systems
(such as Linux and macOS) dominate server environments and
power critical infrastructure worldwide.

Features of UNIX
1. Multiuser Capability – Multiple users can access system
resources simultaneously.
2. Multitasking – Ability to run multiple processes at the same
time.
 3. Portability – Written in C, allowing it to run on different
hardware platforms.
4. Security – Provides strong user authentication and file-level
security.
5. Networking – Built-in networking support, making it suitable for
distributed computing.
6. Hierarchical File System – Organizes files systematically for
efficient access.
7. Stability and Reliability – Designed for long uptime without
crashes, making it ideal for servers.

Versions of UNIX
Over the years, several distributions and flavors of UNIX have been
developed:
• AT&T UNIX System V – One of the earliest commercial releases.
• BSD (Berkeley Software Distribution) – Introduced powerful
networking features; influenced many modern OS.
• Solaris (by Sun Microsystems, now Oracle) – Popular in
enterprise servers and data centers.
• AIX (by IBM) – Enterprise-level UNIX variant optimized for IBM
hardware.
• HP-UX (by Hewlett Packard) – Designed for high-performance
servers and workstations.
• macOS (by Apple) – A modern UNIX-based OS for Apple
computers, certified as UNIX-compliant.
2. Case Study of Linux
Introduction
Linux is a free and open-source family of operating systems based on
the Linux kernel, first released by Linus Torvalds in 1991. It is
designed as a Unix-like OS that emphasizes performance, security,
portability, and flexibility. Today, Linux powers a wide range of
systems including personal computers, smartphones, servers,
supercomputers, and embedded devices. Its open-source nature has
led to global collaboration and the creation of hundreds of
distributions suited for different needs.

Architecture of Linux
The architecture of Linux is modular and layered, ensuring smooth
interaction between hardware and applications. It consists of:
1. Kernel – The core of the OS; manages hardware, CPU
scheduling, memory, and device drivers. Linux has a monolithic
kernel with modular support, meaning extra features can be
loaded as needed.
2. System Libraries – Special functions and programs that allow
application programs or system utilities to access kernel
features.
3. Shell – Acts as the interface between the user and the kernel,
accepting commands and executing them.
4. System Utilities – Provide functionalities such as file
manipulation, program compilation, and system monitoring.
5. Application Programs – Software built on top of Linux to meet
user requirements (editors, browsers, servers, etc.).
History of Linux
• 1991 – Linus Torvalds, a Finnish student, developed the Linux
kernel as a personal project, initially for Intel 386 processors.
• GNU Influence – Linux combined with GNU tools (compilers,
libraries, shells) created a complete free operating system,
often referred to as GNU/Linux.
• 1990s – Linux gained popularity in universities and developer
communities due to its free availability and open-source
licensing.
• 2000s – Large companies like IBM, Red Hat, and Canonical
invested in Linux development, bringing enterprise-grade
distributions.
• Present Day – Linux dominates the server market, powers
Android smartphones, and runs on most supercomputers
worldwide.

Features of Linux
1. Free and Open-Source – Licensed under GNU GPL, allowing
modification and redistribution.
2. Multitasking & Multiuser – Multiple users and tasks can operate
simultaneously.
3. Portability – Runs on a wide range of hardware, from small IoT
devices to supercomputers.
4. Security – Strong file permissions, user authentication, and
community-driven security patches.
 5. Flexibility – Highly customizable; users can install only the
components they need.
6. Lightweight – Requires less memory and storage compared to
many other OS.
7. Graphical & Command-Line Interfaces – Supports both CLI for
advanced users and GUI for beginners.
8. Networking – In-built support for networking protocols, making
it ideal for servers.

Versions / Distributions of Linux

Linux comes in multiple distributions that bundle the kernel with
system tools and applications. Some famous distributions are:
• Ubuntu – User-friendly, widely used for desktops and servers
(by Canonical).
• Debian – Community-driven, stable, and a base for many other
distros.
• Fedora – Sponsored by Red Hat, known for cutting-edge
features.
• Red Hat Enterprise Linux (RHEL) – Commercial distro for
enterprises.
• Linux Mint – Desktop-focused, popular for beginners.
• Arch Linux – Lightweight and customizable for advanced users.
• MX Linux – Lightweight, Debian-based, known for stability.
3. Case Study of Windows
Introduction
Windows is a proprietary operating system developed by Microsoft.
It was first released in 1985 as a graphical user interface (GUI) for
MS-DOS and has since evolved into the world’s most widely used
desktop operating system. Designed for personal and business
computing, Windows provides an easy-to-use interface, broad
hardware compatibility, and extensive support for applications. Over
time, it has become a dominant player in the OS market, powering
desktops, laptops, servers, and enterprise systems worldwide.

Architecture of Windows
Windows OS follows a layered and modular architecture, ensuring
performance, scalability, and compatibility. Its key components
include:
1. Kernel (Windows NT Kernel) – The core of Windows,
responsible for process management, memory management,
device drivers, and security.
2. Hardware Abstraction Layer (HAL) – Provides a consistent
interface for hardware devices, making Windows portable
across different hardware platforms.
3. Executive Services – Includes process manager, I/O manager,
memory manager, and security reference monitor.
4. System Libraries (DLLs) – Provide system functions and APIs for
applications.
5. User Interface (GUI) – Offers the desktop environment, start
menu, taskbar, and file explorer.
 6. System Utilities & Applications – Tools such as Control Panel,
Microsoft Office support, and built-in apps for productivity and
entertainment.

History of Windows
• 1985 – Windows 1.0: Introduced as an extension of MS-DOS
with basic GUI features.
• 1990 – Windows 3.x: Achieved commercial success,
popularizing GUI computing.
• 1995 – Windows 95: Integrated MS-DOS with a full GUI,
introducing the Start menu.
• 2001 – Windows XP: One of the most stable and widely used
versions; merged consumer and business product lines.
• 2007 – Windows Vista: Introduced Aero interface but criticized
for performance issues.
• 2009 – Windows 7: Highly successful, user-friendly, and widely
adopted.
• 2012 – Windows 8: Introduced touch-friendly “Metro UI” but
faced mixed reception.
• 2015 – Windows 10: Unified across devices with regular feature
updates.
• 2021 – Windows 11: Latest release, featuring a modern design,
enhanced security, and productivity features.
Features of Windows
1. Graphical User Interface (GUI) – Intuitive, user-friendly
interface.
2. Multitasking – Ability to run multiple applications
simultaneously.
3. Broad Application Support – Compatible with millions of
applications and games.
4. Networking Capabilities – Advanced networking and internet
integration.
5. Security – Includes Windows Defender, firewall, and access
control.
6. Backward Compatibility – Supports legacy applications from
earlier versions.
7. Extensive Hardware Support – Works on a wide range of
devices and peripherals.
8. Regular Updates – Frequent patches and feature upgrades from
Microsoft.

Versions of Windows
Some of the most popular windows versions include:
• Windows 95 – First widely adopted version with GUI + MS-DOS
integration.
• Windows XP – Longest supported version, highly stable.
• Windows 7 – Considered one of the best Windows OS for
stability and usability.
• Windows 10 – Unified platform across PCs, tablets, and other
devices.
• Windows 11 – Latest version with modern UI, gaming
enhancements, and hybrid work features.
[Link] between Linux, Unix and Windows OS.
Features UNIX Linux Windows

Multiuser Support Yes Yes Yes

Multitasking Yes Yes Yes

Open Source No Yes No

Proprietary / Licensed Yes No Yes

GUI Support Yes Yes Yes

Command Line Interface (CLI) Yes Yes Yes

Portability Across Hardware Limited Yes Yes

Security (High Reliability) Yes Yes Moderate

Cost-Free / Freely Available No Yes No

Used in Servers Yes Yes Yes

Used in Personal Computing No Yes Yes

Compatibility with Legacy Yes Yes Yes

Software

Community Support Limited Yes Yes

Frequent Updates / Patches No Yes Yes

Designed Initially For Servers Servers & Personal

PCs PCs

Gaming Support No Limited Yes

 LAB ASSIGNMENT– 3
Few more points about LINUX:
[Link] Process of Linux
Steps to install Linux :
1. Choose a Linux Distribution
Decide which Linux distro to install (e.g., Ubuntu, Fedora, Linux
Mint, Debian) based on your needs — user-friendliness,
hardware compatibility, etc.
2. Download the ISO File
Visit the official website of the chosen distribution and
download the latest .iso file.
3. Create a Bootable USB Drive
Use tools like Rufus (Windows), Etcher to create a bootable USB
using the downloaded ISO.
4. Insert and Boot from USB
Plug the USB into the system, restart the computer, and enter
the BIOS/UEFI settings (usually by pressing F2, F12, Del, or Esc
during boot).
5. Change Boot Priority
In the BIOS/UEFI, set the USB as the first boot device so that
the system boots from the USB instead of the hard drive.
6. Start Linux Installer
Once the USB boots, you’ll see an option like “Try Linux” or
“Install Linux.” Choose “Install” to begin the setup.
7. Select Language and Keyboard Layout
Choose your preferred language and keyboard layout for the
installation.
8. Connect to Internet (Optional)
If available, connect to Wi-Fi to download updates during
installation.
9. Choose Installation Type
You’ll be asked whether you want to:
o Install Linux alongside an existing OS

o Erase disk and install Linux (fresh install)

o Manual partitioning (advanced users)

[Link] the Disk

• You can let the installer automatically handle this, or
• Manually create partitions like / (root), swap, /home, and
/boot depending on your setup needs.
11. Set User and Password
Enter your name, choose a computer name, and create a
username and strong password.
12. Begin Installation
Click “Install Now” — the installer will copy system files,
configure the bootloader (usually GRUB), and set up your
system.
13. Finish and Reboot
Once the installation is complete, remove the USB when
prompted and reboot the system.
14. First Boot into Linux
After rebooting, you’ll be taken to the login screen. Enter your
credentials and start using your newly installed Linux system.
2. Booting Process of Linux
The booting process in Linux refers to the steps that occur from
powering on the system to reaching the login screen. It consists of
several well-defined stages:
Step-by-Step Linux Booting Process:
1. BIOS/UEFI Initialization
When the system is powered on, the BIOS (or UEFI) firmware
initializes hardware components like RAM, hard disk, keyboard,
etc.
2. MBR or GPT Execution
The BIOS/UEFI looks for the bootloader in the Master Boot
Record (MBR) or GUID Partition Table (GPT). This is the first
sector of the bootable device.
3. GRUB (Bootloader) Loads
The GRUB (Grand Unified Bootloader) loads and presents a
menu (if multiple OSes are available). It helps load the Linux
kernel into memory.
4. Kernel Loads into Memory
The kernel is loaded and initialized. It detects and configures
hardware and mounts the root file system.
5. init or systemd Starts
After the kernel is loaded, it hands control to the init process
(or modern systemd in most distros), which is the first user-
space process (PID 1).
6. Runlevel Targets are Set
Based on system configuration, systemd executes various
services and daemons (like networking, graphical interface,
etc.).
 7. Login Prompt Appears
Finally, a login screen (TTY or GUI) is displayed, ready for user
interaction.

3. Login and Shutdown Process in Linux

Login Process:
1. User Prompt Appears
After booting, the system shows either a graphical login screen
(GUI) or a terminal-based prompt (TTY).
2. Enter Username and Password
The user types the login credentials. If authenticated correctly,
a user session begins.
3. Shell or Desktop Session Loads
Depending on the environment, the user is either taken to the
shell (CLI) or the desktop interface.
4. User Profile and Environment Variables are Loaded
Files like .bashrc and .profile are executed to configure the shell
environment.
Shutdown Process:
1. Initiate Shutdown
A shutdown can be triggered using GUI options or CLI
commands like:
o sudo shutdown now
o sudo poweroff
o sudo halt
 2. Processes Are Terminated
systemd sends signals to all running processes and services to
terminate them gracefully.
3. Unmount File Systems
All mounted file systems are safely unmounted to avoid data
corruption.
4. Power Off System
Once everything is stopped, the system is powered down
completely.

4. Internal and External Commands in Linux

Internal Commands
These are built into the shell itself and do not require a separate
program.
Examples:
• cd – Change directory
• echo – Display message
• pwd – Show current path
• set, export, history
External Commands
These are stored as separate binary files in directories like /bin,
/usr/bin.
Examples:
• ls – List directory contents
• grep – Search text
 • cp – Copy files
• mkdir, cat, find

5. Shells in Linux
A shell is an interface that allows users to interact with the operating
system via commands.
Types of Shells:
Shell Name Description
Bash (Bourne Again Most common and default in many distros.
Shell)
Sh (Bourne Shell) Traditional Unix shell; predecessor of Bash.
Zsh (Z Shell) More powerful than Bash with
customization features.
Ksh (Korn Shell) Advanced scripting and performance
features.
Fish (Friendly User-friendly with autosuggestions and
Interactive Shell) syntax highlighting.

6. File System and Directory Structure in Linux

Linux organizes files in a tree-like hierarchical structure. Everything is
treated as a file (including devices).

Key Directories:
Directory Purpose
/ Root directory (top of hierarchy)
/home User personal folders
/bin Essential user binaries
/sbin System binaries (admin)
/etc Configuration files
/var Variable data (logs, cache)
/usr User-installed software and libraries
/dev Device files (e.g., hard disks)
/proc Virtual filesystem providing process info
/tmp Temporary files

7. Editors in Linux
Text editors in Linux are used for editing configuration files, scripts,
and code.
Popular Editors:
Editor Type Description
nano CLI Simple and beginner-friendly
vi / CLI Powerful modal editor used widely by
vim professionals
gedit GUI Default editor for GNOME desktop
kate GUI KDE’s advanced text editor
emacs CLI/GUI Extremely customizable and powerful