DC MACHINES

Introduction
A DC machine is an electromechanical energy conversion device that comes in two types: the DC
generator and the DC motor. A DC generator converts mechanical power (ωT) into DC electrical
power (EI), while a DC motor converts DC electrical power into mechanical power. Although AC
motors are commonly used in the industry for converting electrical power into mechanical power, DC
motors are preferred in applications requiring a wide range of speeds and precise speed regulation, such as
electric traction systems.
Construction of a DC Machine:
A DC generator can be used as a DC motor without any constructional changes and vice versa is also
possible. Thus, a DC generator or a DC motor are be broadly termed as a DC machine. These basic
constructional details are also valid for the construction of a DC motor. Hence, let’s call this point as
construction of a DC machine instead of just 'construction of a DC generator.

Figure: constructional details of a simple 4-pole DC machine

The above figure shows constructional details of a simple 4-pole DC machine. A DC machine consists of
two basic parts; stator and rotor. Basic constructional parts of a DC machine are described below.
 Yoke: The outer frame of a dc machine is called as yoke. It is made up of cast iron or steel. It not
only provides mechanical strength to the whole assembly but also carries the magnetic flux
produced by the field winding.
 Poles and pole shoes: Poles are joined to the yoke with the help of bolts or welding. They carry
field winding and pole shoes are fastened to them. Pole shoes serve two purposes; (i) they support
field coils and (ii) spread out the flux in air gap uniformly.
 Field winding: They are usually made of copper. Field coils are former wound and placed on each
pole and are connected in series. They are wound in such a way that, when energized, they form
alternate North and South poles.
 Armature core: Armature core is the rotor of a dc machine. It is cylindrical in shape with slots to
carry armature winding. The armature is built up of thin laminated circular steel disks for reducing
eddy current losses. It may be provided with air ducts for the axial air flow for cooling purposes.
Armature is keyed to the shaft.
 Armature winding: It is usually a former wound copper coil which rests in armature slots. The
armature conductors are insulated from each other and also from the armature core. Armature
winding can be wound by one of the two methods; lap winding or wave winding. Double layer lap
or wave windings are generally used. A double layer winding means that each armature slot will
carry two different coils.

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  Commutator and brushes: Physical connection to the armature winding is made through a
commutator-brush arrangement. The function of a commutator, in a dc generator, is to collect the
current generated in armature conductors. Whereas, in case of a dc motor, commutator helps in
providing current to the armature conductors. A commutator consists of a set of copper segments
which are insulated from each other. The number of segments is equal to the number of armature
coils. Each segment is connected to an armature coil and the commutator is keyed to the shaft.
Brushes are usually made from carbon or graphite. They rest on commutator segments and slide
on the segments when the commutator rotates keeping the physical contact to collect or supply the
current.
Armature Winding of a DC Machine
Based on type of winding connections we classified armature winding of a dc machine into two types.
These winding connections are same for DC generator & DC motor. Types of Windings in DC Machine,
1. Lap winding.
2. Wave winding.
Lap winding of a DC Machine
In this type of winding the completing end of one coil is connected to a commutator segment and to the
start end of adjacent coil located under the same pole and similarly all coils are connected. This type of
winding is known as lap because the sides of successive coils overlap each other.

Lap winding may be simplex (single) or multiplex (duplex or triplex) winding. In simplex lap winding the
connection of the winding is that there are as many parallel paths as there are number of poles.
Whereas for duplex, the number of parallel paths are equal to twice that of the number of poles and for
triplex it is thrice. For this reason, the lap winding is called multiple or parallel winding. The sole purposes
of such type of windings are,
To increase the number of parallel paths enabling the armature current to increase i.e., for high current
output.
To improve commutation as the current per conductor decreases.

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Wave winding of a DC Machine
In wave winding the coils which are carrying current in one direction are connected in series circuit and
the carrying current in opposite direction are connected in another series circuit. A wave winding is shown
in figure.

If after passing once around the armature the winding falls in a slot to the left of its starting point then
winding is said to be retrogressive. If it fails one slot to the right it is progressive.

ARMATURE REACTION IN DC MACHINES

In a DC machine, two kinds of magnetic fluxes are present; 'armature flux' and 'main field flux'. The effect
of armature flux on the main field flux is called as armature reaction.

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MNA and GNA
EMF is induced in the armature conductors when they cut the magnetic field lines. There is an axis (or,
you may say, a plane) along which armature conductors move parallel to the flux lines and, hence, they do
not cut the flux lines while on that plane. MNA (Magnetic Neutral Axis) may be defined as the axis along
which no emf is generated in the armature conductors as they move parallel to the flux lines. Brushes are
always placed along the MNA because reversal of current in the armature conductors takes place along this
axis.
GNA (Geometrical Neutral Axis) may be defined as the axis which is perpendicular to the stator field axis.
Armature Reaction
The effect of armature reaction is well illustrated in the figure below.
Consider, no current is flowing in the armature conductors and only the field winding is energized (as
shown in the first figure of the above image). In this case, magnetic flux lines of the field poles are uniform
and symmetrical to the polar axis. The 'Magnetic Neutral Axis' (M.N.A.) coincides with the 'Geometric
Neutral Axis' (G.N.A.).
The second figure in the above image shows armature flux lines due to the armature current. Field poles
are de-energized.

Fig: Armature reaction

Now, when a DC machine is running, both the fluxes (flux due to the armature conductors and flux due to
the field winding) will be present at a time. The armature flux superimposes with the main field flux and,
hence, disturbs the main field flux (as shown in third figure the of above image). This effect is called as
armature reaction in DC machines.

The Adverse Effects of Armature Reaction:

 Armature reaction weakens the main flux. In case of a dc generator, weakening of the main flux
reduces the generated voltage.
 Armature reaction distorts the main flux, hence the position of M.N.A. gets shifted (M.N.A. is
perpendicular to the flux lines of main field flux). Brushes should be placed on the M.N.A.,
otherwise, it will lead to sparking at the surface of brushes. So, due to armature reaction, it is hard
to determine the exact position of the MNA
 For a loaded dc generator, MNA will be shifted in the direction of the rotation. On the other hand,
for a loaded dc motor, MNA will be shifted in the direction opposite to that of the rotation.

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How to Reduce Armature Reaction?
Usually, no special efforts are taken for small machines (up to few kilowatts) to reduce the armature
reaction. But for large DC machines, compensating winding and inter-poles are used to get rid of the ill
effects of armature reaction.

 Compensating winding: Now we know that the armature reaction is due to the presence of
armature flux. Armature flux is produced due to the current flowing in armature conductors. Now,
if we place another winding in close proximity of the armature winding and if it carries the same
current but in the opposite direction as that of the armature current, then this will nullify the
armature field. Such an additional winding is called as compensating winding and it is placed on
the pole faces. Compensating winding is connected in series with the armature winding in such a
way that it carries the current in opposite direction.
 Inter-poles: Inter-poles are the small auxiliary poles placed between the main field poles. Winding
on the inter-poles is connected in series with the armature. Each inter-pole is wound in such a way
that its magnetic polarity is same as that of the main pole ahead of it. Inter-poles nullify the
quadrature axis armature flux.

COMMUTATION:

The process of reversal of current in the short circuited armature coil is called ‘Commutation’. This process
of reversal takes place when coil is passing through the inter-polar axis (q-axis), the coil is short circuited
through commutator segments. Commutation takes place simultaneously for ‘P’ coils in a lap- wound
machine and two coil sets of P/2 coils each in a wave-wound machine.
The process of commutation of coil ‘B’ is shown below. In figure ‘1.29’ coil ‘B’ carries current from left
to right and is about to be short circuited in figure ‘1.30’ brush has moved by 1/3 rd of its width and the
brush current supplied by the coil are as shown. In figure ‘1.31’ coil ‘B’ carries no current as the brush is
at the middle of the short circuit period and the brush current in supplied by coil C and coil A. In figure
‘1.32’ the coil B which was carrying current from left to right carries current from right to left. In fig ‘1.33’
spark is shown which is due to the reactance voltage. As the coil is embedded in the armature slots, which
has high permeability, the coil possess appreciable amount of self-inductance. The current is changed from
+I to –I. So due to self-inductance and variation in the current from +I to –I, a voltage is induced in the coil
which is given by L dI/dt. Fig ‘1.34’ shows the variation of current plotted on the time axis. Sparking can
be avoided by the use of interpoles or commutating-poles.

Fig: Commutation process

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METHODS OF IMPROVING COMMUTATION:
Methods of Improving Commutation: There are two practical ways of improving commutation i.e. of
making current reversal in the short-circuited coil as sparkless as possible. These methods are known as (i)
resistance commutation and (ii) EMF. Commutation (which is done with the help of either brush lead or
inter-poles, usually the later).
 Resistance Commutation: This method of improving commutation consists of replacing low-
resistance Cu brushes by comparatively high-resistance carbon brushes. When current I from coil
C reach the commutator segment b, it has two parallel paths open to it. The first part is straight
from bar ‘b’ to the brush and the other parallel path is via the short-circuited coil B to bar ‘a’ and
then to the brush. If the Cu brushes are used, then there is no inducement for the current to follow
the second longer path, it would preferably follow the first path. But when carbon brushes having
high resistance are used, then current I coming from C will prefer to pass through the second path.
The additional advantages of carbon brushes are that (i) they are to some degree self-lubricating
and polish the commutator and (ii) should sparking occur, they would damage the commutator less
than when Cu brushes are used. But some of their minor disadvantages are:
Due to their high contact resistance (which is beneficial to sparkless commutation) a loss of
approximately 2 volt is caused. Hence, they are not much suitable for small machines where this
voltage forms an appreciable percentage loss.
Owing to this large loss, the commutator has to be made somewhat larger than with Cu brushes in
order to dissipate heat efficiently without greater rise of temperature.
Because of their lower current density (about 7-8 A/cm2 as compared to 25-30 A/cm2 for Cu
brushes) they need larger brush holders.

Fig: Resistance Commutation

 EMF Commutation: In this method, arrangement is made to neutralize the reactance voltage by
producing a reversing emf in the short-circuited coil under commutation. This reversing emf, as
the name shows, is an emf in opposition to the reactance voltage and if its value is made equal to
the latter, it will completely wipe it off, thereby producing quick reversal of current in the short-
circuited coil which will result in sparkless commutation. The reversing emf may be produced in
two ways: (i) either by giving the brushes a forward lead sufficient enough to bring the short-
circuited coil under the influence of next pole of opposite polarity or (ii) by using Interpoles. The
first method was used in the early machines but has now been abandoned due to many other
difficulties it brings along with.
 Inter-poles of Compoles: These are small poles fixed to the yoke and spaced in between the main
poles. They are wound with comparatively few heavy gauge Cu wire turns and are connected in
series with the armature so that they carry full armature current. Their polarity, in the case of a
generator, is the same as that of the main pole ahead in the direction of rotation. The function of
inter-poles is two-fold:
i) As their polarity is the same as that of the main pole ahead, they induce an EMF in the coil
(under commutation) which helps the reversal of current. The EMF induced by the
compoles is known as commutating or reversing EMF. The commutating EMF neutralizes
the reactance EMF thereby making commutation sparkless. With inter-poles, sparkless
commutation can be obtained up to 20 to 30% overload with fixed brush position. In fact,
interpoles raise sparking limit of a machine to almost the same value as heating limit.

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 Hence, for a given output, an inter-pole machine can be made smaller and, therefore,
cheaper than a non-inter-polar machine. As interpoles carry armature current, their
commutating EMF is proportional to the armature current. This ensures automatic
neutralization of reactance voltage which is also due to armature current.
ii) Another function of the interpoles is to neutralize the cross-magnetizing effect of armature
reaction. Hence, brushes are not to be shifted from the original position.

Fig: Interpoles of Compoles

OF as before, represents the MMF due to main poles. OA represents the cross-magnetizing MMF due to
armature. BC which represents MMF due to interpoles, is obviously in opposition to OA, hence they cancel
each other out. This cancellation of cross-magnetization is automatic and for all loads because both are
produced by the same armature current. The distinction between the interpoles and compensating windings
should be clearly understood. Both are connected in series and their [Link]. are such as to neutralize
armature reaction. But compoles additionally supply MMF for counteracting the reactance voltage induced
in the coil undergoing commutation. Moreover, the action of the compoles is localized; they have negligible
effect on the armature reaction occurring on the remainder of the armature periphery.

DC GENERATORS
Although a far greater percentage of the electrical machines in service are A.C. machines, the D.C. machines
are of considerable industrial importance. The principal advantage of the D.C. machine, particularly the D.C.
motor, is that it provides a fine control of speed. Such an advantage is not claimed by any A.C. motor.
However, D.C. generators are not as common as they used to be, because direct current, when required, is
mainly obtained from an A.C. supply by the use of rectifiers. Nevertheless, an understanding of D.C. generator
is important because it represents a logical introduction to the behaviour of D.C. motors. Indeed many D.C.
motors in industry actually operate as D.C. generators for a brief period. In this chapter, we shall deal with
various aspects of D.C. generators.
Generator Principle
An electric generator is a machine that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. An electric
generator is based on the principle that whenever flux is cut by a conductor, an E.M.F. is induced which will
cause a current to flow if the conductor circuit is closed. The direction of induced E.M.F. (and hence current)
is given by Fleming’s right hand rule. Therefore, the essential components of a generator are:
a) A magnetic field
b) Conductor or a group of conductors
Motion of conductor w.r.t. magnetic field

EMF Equation of a DC Generator

As the armature rotates, a voltage is generated in its coils. In the case of a generator, the EMF of rotation is
called the Generated EMF or Armature EMF and is denoted as Er = Eg. In the case of a motor, the EMF of
rotation is known as Back EMF or Counter EMF and represented as Er = Eb. The expression for EMF is same
for both the operations. I.e., for Generator as well as for Motor

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Derivation of EMF Equation of a DC Machine – Generator and Motor

EXAMPLES

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Types of DC Generators – Separately Excited and Self Excited
The DC generator converts the electrical power into electrical power. The magnetic flux in a DC machine
is produced by the field coils carrying current. The circulating current in the field windings produces a
magnetic flux, and the phenomenon is known as Excitation. DC Generator is classified according to the
methods of their field excitation.
By excitation, the DC Generators are classified as separately excited DC Generators and Self-excited DC
Generators. There is also Permanent magnet type DC generators. The self-excited DC Generators are
further classified as Shunt wound DC generators; Series wound DC generators and Compound wound DC
generators. The Compound Wound DC generators are further divided as long shunt wound DC generators,
and short shunt wound DC generators.
The field pole of the DC generator is stationary, and the armature conductor rotates. The voltage generated
in the armature conductor is of alternating nature, and this voltage is converted into the direct voltage at
the brushes with the help of the commutator. The detailed description of the various types of generators is
explained below.
Permanent Magnet type DC Generator
In this type of DC generator, there is no field winding is placed around the poles. The field produced by
the poles of these machines remains constant. Although these machines are very compact but are used only
in small sizes like dynamos in motorcycles, etc. The main disadvantage of these machines is that the flux
produced by the magnets deteriorates with the passage of time which changes the characteristics of the
machine.
Separately Excited DC Generator
A DC generator whose field winding or coil is energized by a separate or external DC source is called a
separately excited DC Generator. The flux produced by the poles depends upon the field current with the
unsaturated region of magnetic material of the poles, i.e. flux is directly proportional to the field current.
But in the saturated region, the flux remains constant.
The figure of self-excited DC Generator is shown below.

Separately Excited DC Generator

Here,
Ia = IL where Ia is the armature current and IL is the line current. Terminal voltage is given as

If the contact brush drop is known, then the equation (1) is written as

The power developed is given by the equation shown below.

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Power output is given by the equation (4) shown above.
Self-Excited DC Generator
Self-excited DC Generator is a device, in which the current to the field winding is supplied by the
generator itself. In self-excited DC generator, the field coils mat be connected in parallel with the armature
in the series, or it may be connected partly in series and partly in parallel with the armature windings.
The self-excited DC Generator is further classified as
Shunt Wound Generator
Series Wound Generator
Compound Wound Generator
1. Shunt Wound Generator
In a shunt wound generator, the field winding is connected across the armature winding forming a parallel
or shunt circuit. Therefore, full terminal voltage is applied across it. A very small field current I sh, flows
through it because this winding has many turns of fine wire having very high resistance R shof the order of
100 ohms. The connection diagram of shunt wound generator is shown below.

Shunt Wound DC Generator

Shunt field current is given as

Where Rsh is the shunt field winding resistance.

The current field Ish is practically constant at all loads. Therefore, the DC shunt machine is considered to
be a constant flux machine.
Armature current is given as

Terminal voltage is given by the equation shown below.

If the brush contact drop is included, the equation of the terminal voltage becomes

2. Series Wound Generator

A series-wound generator the field coils are connected in series with the armature winding. The series
field winding carries the armature current. The series field winding consists of a few turns of wire of thick

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wire of larger cross-sectional area and having low resistance usually of the order of less than 1 ohm because
the armature current has a very large value.
Its convectional diagram is shown below.

Series Wound DC Generator

Series field current is given as

Rse is known as the series field winding resistance.

Terminal voltage is given as

If the brush contact drop is included, the terminal voltage equation is written as

The flux developed by the series field winding is directly proportional to the current flowing through it.
But it is only true before magnetic saturation after the saturation flux becomes constant even if the current
flowing through it is increased.
3. Compound Wound Generator
In a Compound Wound Generator, there are two sets of the field winding on each pole. One of them is
connected in series having few turns of thick wire, and the other is connected in parallel having many turns
of fine wire with the armature windings. In other words, the generator which has both shunt and series
fields is called the compound wound generators.
If the magnetic flux produced by the series winding assists the flux produced by the shunt winding, then
the machine is said to be cumulative compounded. If the series field flux opposes the shunt field flux,
then the machine is called the differentially compounded.
It is connected in two ways. One is a long shunt compound generator, and another is a short shunt
compound generator. If the shunt field is connected in parallel with the armature alone then the machine is
called the short compound generator. In long shunt compound generator, the shunt field is connected in
series with the armature. The two types of generators are discussed below in details.
Long Shunt Compound Wound Generator
In a long shunt wound generator, the shunt field winding is parallel with both armature and series field
winding. The connection diagram of long shunt wound generator is shown below.

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 Long Shunt Compound Wound Generator
Shunt field current is given as

Series field current is given as

Terminal voltage is given as

If the brush contact drop is included, the terminal voltage equation is written as

Short Shunt Compound Wound Generator

In a Short Shunt Compound Wound Generator, the shunt field winding is connected in parallel with the
armature winding only. The connection diagram of short shunt wound generator is shown below.

Short Shunt Compound Wound Generator

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 Series field current and shunt field current are given as

Terminal voltage is given as

If the brush contact drop is included, the terminal voltage equation is written as

In this type of DC generator, the field is produced by the shunt as well as series winding. The shunt field
is stronger than the series field. If the magnetic flux produced by the series winding assists the flux
produced by the shunt field winding, the generator is said to be Cumulatively Compound Wound
generator.
If the series field flux opposes the shunt field flux, the generator is said to be Differentially Compounded.

EXAMPLES

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Voltage buildup in self excited Generator or Dc Shunt Generator
A self-excited DC generator supplies its own field excitation. A self-excited generator shown in figure is
known as a shunt generator because its field winding is connected in parallel with the armature. Thus the
armature voltage supplies the field current.

This generator will build up a desired terminal voltage. Assume that the generator in figure has no load
connected to it and armature is driven at a certain speed by a prime mover. We shall study the condition

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under which the voltage buildup takes place. Due to this residual flux, a small voltage Ear will be generated.
It is given by

This voltage is of the order of 1V or 2V. It causes a current If to flow in the field winding in the generator.
The field current is given by

This field current produces a magneto motive force in the field winding, which increases the flux. This
increase in flux increases the generated voltage Ea. The increased armature voltage Ea increases the
terminal voltage V. with the increase in V, the field current. If increases further. This in turn increases Φ
and consequently Ea increases further. The process of the voltage buildup continues. Figure shows the
voltage buildup of a dc shunt generator.

OCC Characteristics of DC generator

The effect of magnetic saturation in the pole faces limits the terminal voltage of the generator to a steady
state value.
We have assumed that the generator is no load during the buildup process. The following equations describe
the steady state operation.

Since the field current If in a shunt generator is very small, the voltage drop If Ra can be neglected, and
V= Ea.
The Ea versus If curve is the magnetization curve shown in figure
For the field circuit V = If Rf The straight line given by V = If Rf is called the field-resistance line.
The field resistance line is a plot of the voltage If Rf across the field circuit versus the field If. The slop this
line is equal to the resistance of the field circuit.
The no-load terminal voltage V0 of thr generator. Thus, the intersection point P of the magnetization curve
and the field resistance line gives the no-load terminal voltage V0 (bP) and the corresponding field current
(Ob). Normally , in the shunt generator the voltage buildup to the value given by the point P.
At this point Ea = If Rf = V0.
If the field current corresponding to point P is increase further, there is no further increase in the terminal
voltage.
The no-load voltage is adjusted by adding resistance in series with shunt field. This increase slope of this
line causing the operating point to shift at lower voltage

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The operating point are graphical solution of two simultaneous equation namely, the magnetization curve
and field resistance line. A graphical solution is preferred due to non-linear nature of magnetization curve.
Self-excited generator are designed to obtain no-load voltage from 50% to 125% of the rated value while
varying the added resistance in field circuit from maximum to zero value.
Critical Field Resistance:
Figure below shows the voltage buildup in the dc shunt generator for various resistances of the field circuit.

Fig: Determination of critical resistance

A decrease in the resistance of the field circuit reduces the slope of the field resistance line result in higher
voltage. If the speed remains constant, an increase in the resistance of field circuit increases the slop of
field resistance line, resulting in a lower voltage. If the field circuit resistance is increased to Rc which is
terminal as the critical resistance of the field, the field resistance line becomes a tangent to the initial part
of the magnetization curve. When the field resistance is higher than this value, the generator fails to excite.
Critical Speed:
Figure shows the variation of no-load voltage with fixed Rf and variable speed of the armature.

Fig: Determination of critical speed

The magnetization curve varies with the speed and its ordinate for any field current is proportional to the
speed of the generator. all the points on the magnetization curve are lowered, and the point of intersection
of the magnetization curve and the field resistance line moves downwards. At a particular speed, called the
critical speed, the field resistance line becomes tangential to the magnetization curve. Below the critical
speed the voltage will not build up.
In Brief, the following condition must be satisfied for voltage buildup in a self-excited generator.
There must be sufficient residual flux in the field poles.
The field terminal should be connected such a way that the field current increases flux in the direction of
residual flux.
The field circuit resistance should be less than the critical field circuit resistance.
If there is a no residual flux in the field poles, disconnected the field from the armature circuit and apply a
dc voltage to the field winding. This process is called flashing the field. It will induce some residual flux
in the field poles.

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DC GENERATORS CHARACTERISTICS
Generally, following three characteristics of DC generators are taken into considerations:
i) Open Circuit Characteristic (O.C.C.),
ii) Internal or Total Characteristic
iii) External Characteristic.
These characteristics of DC generators are explained below.

1. Open Circuit Characteristic (O.C.C.) (E0/If)

Open circuit characteristic is also known as magnetic characteristic or no-load saturation characteristic.
This characteristic shows the relation between generated emf at no load (E 0) and the field current (If) at a
given fixed speed. The O.C.C. Curve is just the magnetization curve and it is practically similar for all
type of generators. The data for O.C.C. curve is obtained by operating the generator at no load and keeping
a constant speed. Field current is gradually increased and the corresponding terminal voltage is recorded.
The connection arrangement to obtain O.C.C. curve is as shown in the figure below. For shunt or series
excited generators, the field winding is disconnected from the machine and connected across an external
supply.

Fig: Circuit for OCC

Now, from the EMF equation of dc generator, we know that Eg = kɸ. Hence, the generated EMF should
be directly proportional to field flux (and hence, also directly proportional to the field current). However,
even when the field current is zero, some amount of EMF is generated (represented by OA in the figure
below). This initially induced EMF is due to the fact that there exists some residual magnetism in the field
poles. Due to the residual magnetism, a small initial EMF is induced in the armature. This initially induced
EMF aids the existing residual flux, and hence, increasing the overall field flux. This consequently
increases the induced EMF. Thus, O.C.C. follows a straight line. However, as the flux density increases,
the poles get saturated and the ɸ becomes practically constant. Thus, even we increase the If further, ɸ
remains constant and hence, Eg also remains constant. Hence, the O.C.C. curve looks like the B-H
characteristic.

The above figure shows a typical no-load saturation curve or open circuit characteristics for all types of
DC generators.

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Internal or Total Characteristic (E/Ia)
An internal characteristic curve shows the relation between the on-load generated emf (Eg) and the
armature current (Ia). The on-load generated emf Eg is always less than E0 due to the armature reaction.
Eg can be determined by subtracting the drop due to demagnetizing effect of armature reaction from no-
load voltage E0. Therefore, internal characteristic curve lies below the O.C.C. curve.

External Characteristic (V/IL)

An external characteristic curve shows the relation between terminal voltage (V) and the load current (IL).
Terminal voltage V is less than the generated EMF Eg due to voltage drop in the armature circuit.
Therefore, external characteristic curve lies below the internal characteristic curve. External characteristics
are very important to determine the suitability of a generator for a given purpose. Therefore, this type of
characteristic is sometimes also called as performance characteristic or load characteristic.
Internal and external characteristic curves are shown below for each type of generator.

Characteristics of Separately Excited DC Generator:

If there is no armature reaction and armature voltage drop, the voltage will remain constant for any load
current. Thus, the straight line AB in above figure represents the no-load voltage vs. load current IL. Due
to the demagnetizing effect of armature reaction, the on-load generated EMF is less than the no-load
voltage. The curve AC represents the on-load generated EMF Eg vs. load current IL i.e. Internal
characteristic (as Ia = IL for a separately excited dc generator). Also, the terminal voltage is lesser due to
ohmic drop occurring in the armature and brushes. The curve AD represents the terminal voltage vs. load
current i.e. external characteristic.

Characteristics of DC Shunt Generator

To determine the internal and external load characteristics of a DC shunt generator the machine is allowed
to build up its voltage before applying any external load. To build up voltage of a shunt generator, the
generator is driven at the rated speed by a prime mover. Initial voltage is induced due to residual magnetism
in the field poles. The generator builds up its voltage as explained by the O.C.C. curve. When the generator
has built up the voltage, it is gradually loaded with resistive load and readings are taken at suitable intervals.
Connection arrangement is as shown in the figure below.

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 Fig: Circuit for External characteristics of shunt generator
Unlike, separately excited DC generator, here, IL≠Ia. For a shunt generator, Ia=IL+If. Hence, the internal
characteristic can be easily transmitted to Eg vs. IL by subtracting the correct value of If from Ia.

During a normal running condition, when load resistance is decreased, the load current increases. But, as
we go on decreasing the load resistance, terminal voltage also falls. So, load resistance can be decreased
up to a certain limit, after which the terminal voltage drastically decreases due to excessive armature
reaction at very high armature current and increased I2R losses. Hence, beyond this limit any further
decrease in load resistance results in decreasing load current. Consequently, the external characteristic
curve turns back as shown by dotted line in the above figure.

Characteristics of DC Series Generator

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 The curve AB in above figure identical to open circuit characteristic (O.C.C.) curve. This is because in DC
series generators field winding is connected in series with armature and load. Hence, here load current is
similar to field current (i.e. IL=If). The curve OC and OD represent internal and external characteristic
respectively. In a DC series generator, terminal voltage increases with the load current. This is because, as
the load current increases, field current also increases. However, beyond a certain limit, terminal voltage
starts decreasing with increase in load. This is due to excessive demagnetizing effects of the armature
reaction.

Characteristics of DC Compound Generator

The above figure shows the external characteristics of DC compound generators. If series winding amp-
turns are adjusted so that, increase in load current causes increase in terminal voltage then the generator is
called to be over compounded. The external characteristic for over compounded generator is shown by the
curve AB in above figure.
If series winding amp-turns are adjusted so that, the terminal voltage remains constant even the load current
is increased, then the generator is called to be flat compounded. The external characteristic for a flat
compounded generator is shown by the curve AC.
If the series winding has lesser number of turns than that would be required to be flat compounded, then
the generator is called to be under compounded. The external characteristics for an under compounded
generator are shown by the curve AD.
APPLICATIONS OF DC GENERATORS
Applications of Separately Excited DC Generators
These type of DC generators are generally more expensive than self-excited DC generators, because they need
a separate excitation source. This restricts their applications. They are used where self-excited generators do not
perform well.
1. Because of their ability of giving wide range of voltage output, they are generally used for testing
purpose in the laboratories.
2. Separately excited generators operate in a stable condition with any variation in field excitation. Because
of this property they are used as supply source of DC motors, whose speeds are to be controlled for
various applications. Example- Ward Leonard Systems of speed control.
Applications of Shunt Wound DC Generators
Shunt generators have limited use due to their dropping voltage characteristic. They supply power to devices
located close by. These type of DC generators provide a constant terminal voltage for short-distance operations
using field regulators.
1. They are used for general lighting.
2. They are used to charge battery because they can be made to give constant output voltage.
3. They are used for giving the excitation to the alternators.
4. They are also used for small power supply (such as a portable generator).

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Applications of Series Wound DC Generators
Series wound generators are limited in power supply use due to their increasing terminal voltage with load
current. This is evident from their characteristic curve. They provide a constant current in the dropping portion
of the curve, making them suitable as a constant current source for various applications.
1. They are used for supplying field excitation current in DC locomotives for regenerative breaking.
2. This types of generators are used as boosters to compensate the voltage drop in the feeder in various
types of distribution systems such as railway service.
3. In series arc lightening this type of generators are mainly used.
Applications of Compound Wound DC Generators
Compound wound DC generators are the most widely used due to their compensating properties. Depending on
the number of series field turns, they can be over compounded, flat compounded, or under compounded. They
achieve the desired terminal voltage by compensating for armature reaction and ohmic drops. These generators
have many applications.
1. Cumulative compound wound generators are generally used for lighting, power supply purpose and for
heavy power services because of their constant voltage property. They are mainly made over
compounded.
2. Cumulative compound wound generators are also used for driving a motor.
3. For small distance operation, such as power supply for hotels, offices, homes and lodges, the flat
compounded generators are generally used.
4. The differential compound wound generators, because of their large demagnetization armature reaction,
are used for arc welding where huge voltage drop and constant current is required.

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