TOPIC 2: CLASSICAL THEORIES OF MANAGEMENT

1. Introduction
A theory is a generalization that explains some phenomena in a systematic way. It can also be
defined as a set of general hypotheses or assumptions, which are systematically related.
2.1.1 The importance of theories
Theories are relevant in educational management because they:
i. Provide a framework for interpreting events and understand the nature and practice of
management.
ii. Reduce dependence on personal experience and assumptions because they describe
knowledge and research findings of others.
iii. Explain organizational culture and environmental contexts particularly to novice
manager(s).
iv. Help managers understand current developments and avoid past mistakes.
v. Foster an understanding and appreciation of current situations and developments and
facilitate the prediction of future conditions.
vi. Help managers organize information and approach problems systematically.
2.2 Classical Theories of Management
The classical approach to management has three sub theories, which feed on the same underlying
principles. These include the Scientific Management Theory (Taylorism), the Administrative
Management theory, and Bureaucracy.
2.2.1 Scientific Management theory
Fredrick W. Taylor founded the Scientific Management Theory in 1911. Taylor was often
referred to as the father of the scientific management movement because he was the first man to
come up with systematically studied work on management (Okumbe, 1998). The theory
emphasized on efficiency and job productivity.
Taylor was an American born in Boston. He studied in France, Germany and Italy and later
earned an engineering degree. He first started working as a labourer before he was promoted to a
foreman and finally to a chief engineer. He spent most of his time working at the problems of
achieving greater efficiency. To him, the key function of management was to have maximum
production/profit at a minimum cost (efficiency).
From his work experience, Taylor noticed that:
i. Workers were in charge of planning and performing tasks. This led to wastage of time,
hence inefficiency.
ii. Workers were placed at tasks for which they had little or no ability to handle.
iii. No incentives were used to improve labour performance.
iv. Management disregarded the truth that excellence in performance and operations would
mean a reward to both management and the labourers.
v. No effective work standards were applied.
vi. The management lacked a clear concept of workers and management responsibilities;
hence, workers wasted time and did not work as they were supposed to.
vii. Management decisions were based on intuition or experience.

Because of his observations, Taylor tried to change this view by developing a better way of
doing work based on scientific principles which he developed in his book “The Principles of
Scientific Management” published in 1911.

The principles were also formulated in an attempt to increase job productivity in the
organization. In his book he advocated “The man - Machine” theory which means that man can
be made to do work systematically like a machine in industries. To him, human beings are like
machines which need constant supervision and direction. He therefore looked at the lowest level
in the organization’s hierarchy (the worker).
Scientific Management theory advocated for the following:
 Change of technology for an organization to improve its output.
 Unity of command, i.e., there should be one boss in an organization who is expected to take
decisions alone.
 Unity of direction, i.e., there should be one plan to be followed by all workers.
 Promoted rigid adherences to structure, i.e., workers were to follow rules and regulations
strictly and individual interests should be subordinate to general interest of an organization.
 Formal channels of communication only.
NB: To the proponents of the theory, a worker is an economic man and is only useful as long as
he is productive.
Results of Taylor’s study
To increase productivity, he advocated for the following principles referred to as Principles of
Scientific Management (Okumbe, 1998):
i. A large daily task - each worker in the organization should be given a clearly defined task
which should take him a whole day to accomplish (maximum amount of work).
ii. Standard conditions of work – conditions like the work environment and tools should be
standardized so as to accomplish the work with certainty.
iii. High pay for success (Also referred as piece-rate principle) – High pay should be tied to
successful completion of the assigned task(s).
iv. Loss in case of failure - Failure to accomplish the given assignment or task should be
personally costly to the individual worker. In this case, workers who performed below
their daily targets should have their wages cut.
v. Expertise in large organizations - As organizations grow, tasks should be made more
sophisticated so as to be accomplished by well qualified and skilled first-rate workers.
Conclusion
 Taylor concludes that a worker was only useful as long as he worked, i.e. a tool of
production just like a machine (Taylor was task–oriented, hence he was only
interested in the accomplishment of tasks).
 All jobs should be studied to produce the most efficient ways and procedures of
carrying out these tasks since organizations are not static.
 After the correct procedure is established, the management should be taught to
perform these procedures to produce desired outcomes.
 Workers are economically driven, i.e. the only motivation to the workers was
offering them more money.
Criticisms/shortcomings of the theory
i. Taylor equates human beings with machines. Human beings are active and can think
unlike machines.
ii. He ignored physiological factors that motivate workers and looked at monetary gain as
the only motivating factor.
iii. His theory assumed that the key function of management was to have maximum
production and profit at minimum cost while overlooking other functions.
 iv. To realize quality and economy in production, management was to exercise close
supervision in accordance with the clearly stated task performance standards.
v. Scientific management theory looked at the lowest level of the organization (subordinate)
and never looked at the relationship between him and the boss.
vi. Taylor and his followers overlooked the social needs of workers and the human desire for
job satisfaction.
These weaknesses of the scientific theory gave birth to the administrative management theory.
2.2.2 Administrative Management Theory (Fayol, 1841- 1925)
This theory was propagated by Henry Fayol who published a book entitled “General and
Industrial Management” in 1916. Other contributors were Chester I. Bernard and James B.
Moornery. The theory came out of the need to manage complex organizations. Fayol looked at
the organization as a whole. He discovered that in any organization, there were technical and
managerial activities carried out. He discovered that managerial activities increased in
importance while technical activities decreased in importance as one moved from the lowest
level to the highest level of the organization. In his book, Fayol came up with management
processes and fourteen principles of management.
Managerial Processes
Fayol came up with the following functions of a manager, also referred to as administrative
processes or managerial processes:
i. Planning - Planning is the first step in the management process that is concerned with the
establishment of objectives and goals to be attained in the future. It involves forecasting
or designing a course of action that will enable an organization as a whole and for every
department or section within it to achieve its goals. For example, in school, the principal
may come up with a duty roster for teachers for a whole term. This helps to decide in
advance, what to do, how to do it, when to do it and who is to do it.
ii. Organizing- This is mobilizing the material and human resources of the organization to
put the plans into effect. It involves splitting work into manageable units and allocating it
to departments, sections, and individuals. Through organizing, the organization structure
fits with the resources, the objectives, and the environment. For example, in a school
setting, the leader has to organize teachers, students, workers, stationery, etc.
 iii. Commanding/Directing/Leading/Motivating- This is providing direction to the
employee and getting them to do their work. It involves passing unto others a share of
essential elements in the management process.
iv. Controlling - This is defined as judging or assessing the extent to which the organization
has achieved its objectives. In order for a manager to control, the following steps are
necessary:
v. Coordinating -This helps to bring about harmony of activities; duplication of efforts and
conflicts is avoided.
Fayol’s Principles of Management/Elements of Management
According to Fayol, there are fourteen principles of management:
i. Division of labour -This involves breaking down a task into its components. This enables
specialization due to practice and makes a worker more effective. For example, teaching
different subjects in school.
ii. Authority – This is the right to give orders. Fayol suggested that managers should give
orders to have things done and ensure that the orders are effected.
iii. Discipline – To him, any organization must have rules and regulations that govern its
members who should in effect adhere to these rules and regulations.
iv. Unity of command - Each employee must receive instructions about particular operations
from one person to reduce conflict and confusion at the workplace.
v. Unit of Direction - Those operations within the organization that have the same
objectives should be directed by one manager/head e.g., the personnel department should
have only one director.
vi. Subordination of individual interests to the common goal of the organization –
Employees’ interests should not go before the interests of the organization.
vii. Centralization - Fayol suggests that managers should retain the final responsibility but
should also give to the subordinate enough authority to do their jobs properly and also
make decisions e.g., in disciplining students in a school setting.
viii. Remuneration – Compensation for the work done should be fair to both the employees
and the employer.
 ix. Hierarchy – This should be Scalar-chain i.e., the line of authority should be clear from the
top management to the bottom/lowest level in an organization.
x. Order – Everything should be in its place at the right time (people and materials).People
should be in the jobs/positions most suited for them.
xi. Equity - Administrators/managers should be fair and friendly to all employees.
xii. Stability of tenure of staff/personnel - Changes should not be very frequent. Let workers
settle in their jobs.
xiii. Initiative - All staff should be allowed to show initiative i.e., freedom to carry out their
own plan, even if mistakes will come up.
xiv. Esprit de Corps- Team spirit should be promoted.
It is worth noting that Fayol and Taylor agreed that organizations are not static.

2.2.3 Bureaucracy - Max Weber (1864-1920)

Max Weber was a German sociologist who was interested in the way people interact in an
organization based on the organizational structure.
Definition of bureaucracy
It is an integrated hierarchy of specialized offices defined by systematic rules and impersonal
routinized structure where legitimized authority rests in the office and not the bearer of the
office/the person.
Elements of Bureaucracy
i. Hierarchy- Each supervisory office should be under the control of a higher one. Power and
authority is then delegated from each superior to his/her subordinates. For instance, in a
secondary school setting, the structure may be as follows:
 Principal

Deputy Principal

Senior Heads of Departments

Heads of Departments

Teachers

Students’ Councils

Students
In any bureaucratic organization each objective is divided into sub-objectives hence making
tasks to be divided into sub-asks so as to accomplish these sub-objectives.
ii. Division of labour/Professional qualities- Selection in a bureaucratic organization is based
on ability/competence. Skills are learnt by specialized training and experience. This ensures
greater efficiency as tasks or duties are divided into specialty areas and individual employees are
assigned tasks according to their training, skill and experience. Payments are determined by the
demands of the job and unity while salary is fixed.
iii. Career orientation/aspects- Promotion is based on seniority and achievement which is
determined by judgement of the supervisors. Dismissal is only for objective cause.
iv. Rules, regulations, and procedures- Decisions are governed by consistent use of rules and
regulations. Behaviour is therefore subjected to systematic discipline and control.
v). Legal authority and power/Impersonal relationships- Power and authority rests in the
office and not the bearer of the office. Members of the organization must be subject to strict and
systematic discipline and this will eliminate personal, emotional and irrational elements among
the members.
Advantages of Bureaucracy
i. Specialization – i.e. allows one to specialize in an area where one is an expert.
ii. Structure – The main task is sub-divided into sub-tasks with properly described duties
assigned. Therefore, a command hierarchy is encountered at every level for the activities
of the subordinate units to be achieved.
iii. Predictability and stability, for example, one can predict that students will learn on a
particular weekday during school days. This is possible due to the existence of rules and
regulations.
iv. Rationality, which implies that judgments are made according to objectives and generally
agreed criteria. Friendship, kinship or enemies do not matter in an organization. Hence,
one has to follow objectives since everything is made according to the objectives.
v. Democracy - It exists due to emphasis on technical competence as the sole basis for
gaining and holding a job. One’s ability allows for everything. Opportunities to train,
apply and be selected for a job are open to every employee/citizen.
Disadvantages of Bureaucracy
1. Rigidity: Rules and regulations in a bureaucracy are often rigid and inflexible. Rigid
compliance with rules and regulations discourages initiative and creativity. It may also provide
the cover to avoid responsibility for failures.
2. Goal Displacement: Rules framed to achieve organizational objectives at each level become
an end to themselves. When individuals at lower levels pursue personal objectives, the
overall objectives of the organization may be neglected.
3. Impersonality: A bureaucratic organization stresses a mechanical way of doing things.
Organizational rules and regulations are given priority over an individual’s needs and emotions.
4. Compartmentalization of Activities: Jobs are divided into categories, which restrict people
from performing tasks that they are capable of performing. It also encourages preservation of
jobs even when they become redundant.
5. Paperwork: Bureaucracy involves excessive paperwork as every decision must be put into
writing. All documents have to be maintained in their draft and original forms. This leads to
great wastage of time, stationery and space.
6. Empire Building: People in bureaucracy tend to use their positions and resources to
perpetuate self-interests. Every superior tries to increase the number of his subordinates as if this
number is considered a symbol of power and prestige.
7. Red Tape: Bureaucratic procedures involve inordinate delays and frustration in the
performance of tasks
2.3 Application of Classical Management Theories in Education Institutions Today
Classical management has been greatly applied in almost all spheres of management:
i. It advocates the establishment of goals and objectives. Educational managers are
committed to attainment of the goals of education effectively and efficiently.
ii. It advocates division of labour. In educational organizations, departments are created to
ensure that each member of the school organization has an important role to play.
iii. It strongly advocates the scientific measurements of tasks and levels of performance
e.g., in schools students are thoroughly tested through carefully planned tests.
iv. It emphasizes rules of behaviour and the established management of discipline
among the employees. In educational management, teachers’ code of regulations, terms
of service and school rules are well stipulated and deviant behaviour is dealt with in
accordance with the laid down disciplinary procedures.
v. The theories advocate recruitment based on ability, technical knowledge, and job
expertise. Teachers are trained in order to equip them with skills required to perform the
job effectively. Teacher selection is also based on qualifications and specialization.