TOPIC 4: THEORIES OF MOTIVATION IN EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION AND

MANAGEMENT

Motivation is an inner state which is sustainable that activates or moves individuals towards the
satisfaction of a specific need. Managers of educational institutions can use/apply theories of
motivation so as to prompt people to initiate action, influence their choices of action, and also
persist in that action over time. This in turn affects the attainment of goals of the institution.
Some of these theories include Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory, Douglas
McGregor’s theory X and theory Y and Fredrick Herzberg’s Two Factor theory.

4.1 Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory

Abraham Maslow was a social scientist who did studies on human motivation and came up with
a theory. He explained that a human being is motivated by 5 main needs arranged in hierarchy
from the lowest to the highest. The needs are:
 Physiological-food, shelter, clothing,
 Safety/Security
 Social affiliation
 Self-esteem
 Self-Actualization/gratification

Majority of the people are actually motivated to satisfy the primary needs after which they
progress upwards to the secondary or higher order needs. The lower order or primary needs are
the most fundamental. Once a need is fulfilled, it ceases to be a source of motivation and the
higher one becomes a motivation. One can fulfill two or three needs at the same time.

i. Physiological needs

These are the most basic needs in the hierarchy. They are the most superior of all other needs and
important in preserving human life. Consummatory behaviour is prevalent in this area. These
needs include the need for food, water and shelter. Some psychologists have also included sex as
one of the physiological needs (However, this is still a controversial issue among psychologists).

ii. The Safety or Security Needs

These needs occupy the second level in the [Link] relate to the desire to have a peaceful,
stable and smoothly run environment. They include emotional and physical needs. For example,
workers want assurance that their security needs will be met now and in the future. The lower
order needs are usually fairly satisfied in work environments and therefore they rarely dominate.
However, they should not be ignored and an educational manager should strive to see to it that
they are satisfied. For example, job security, fencing the school compound, providing lockable
desks for students, making arrangements for pension plans, insurance to teachers, etc.

iii. The Social Affiliation Needs or Love Needs or Social belonging Needs

These needs become dominant after physiological and security needs are minimally gratified.
Since man is a social being, who needs to belong and feel accepted within various groups, he
strives for meaningful relationships with others. If the opportunity for association is denied or
reduced, the individual will take vigorous action against the obstacles to social interactions. The
needs involve relationships with other people and status within a group. Since workers spend
most of their hours awake in their working environment, most of them need to be loved. As a
manager, you need to recognize and facilitate the formation of informal groups, for example,
welfare groups and other associations among the teachers, non-teaching staff, and even the
students to enable members to socialize.

iv. Self-esteem Needs

These are needs for self-confidence. A worker or a student needs to feel happy, competent,
appreciated, etc. When one belongs to a group, he does not just want to be an ordinary member
of a group, and he wants to be recognized for a specific achievement. Satisfaction of self-esteem
needs to produce feelings of self-confidence, prestige, power and control. Lack of satisfaction of
these needs produce feelings of inferiority, weakness and helplessness.

v. Self-Actualization / self-gratification

These appear when self-esteem needs are adequately satisfied. These are needed to maximize
ones’ potentiality and abilities, whatever they may be. Self-actualization is the desire to become
what one is capable of becoming. It is achieving the highest a person can ever achieve.
4.1.1 Application of Maslow’s Theory in Educational Management

Abraham Maslow’s theory of needs shows that individuals are wanting creatures with needs
which must be fulfilled one after the other, starting from the lowest to the highest. School
managers therefore, should ascertain that the basic needs are met first. S/He should make sure
that there exists a work climate in which teachers and students can satisfy their needs. The
manager should also grant permission to teachers/staff to attend to personal problems, for
example getting money from the bank or attending to family matters.

A school’s manager should make sure that students and staff are free from physical danger when
in the school compound. For example, fencing the school compound, or employing watchmen.
S/He can advise the staff to get insurance covers or introduce them to one.S/He can also facilitate
the establishment of staff unions and retirement programmes where possible, as well as, ensure
the Job security of the staff.

The principal should acknowledge that man is a social being and thus, he can facilitate the
formation of games and socialization clubs. Help in holding end of year parties for both students
and teachers. The principal or the administrator can introduce counseling services to both
students and staff.

The principal should inform teachers of any vacancies for promotions and training. S/He should
encourage staff to achieve good academic qualifications. S/He should recognize and reward any
work that has been well done.

S/He should give equal opportunities to all members of staff and students to maximize their
potential.

Activity

List the human needs of the learners and teaching staff and suggest ways in which these needs
can be met by the school/college manager.
4.2 Douglas McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y

Theory X and Theory Y are theories of human motivation created and developed by Douglas
McGregor at the MIT Sloan school of management in the 1960.s that have been used in human
resource management, organizational behaviour, and organizational communication and
development. They are also called human theory. Douglas [Link] a book in 1960
known as ‘The Human Enterprise”. He borrowed heavily from Maslow’s concepts of motivation.
His approach was from the managerial point of view. In his theory, he describes two very
different attitudes towards workforce motivation. He felt that organizations followed either one
or the other approach. He also thought that the key to connecting self actualization with work is
determined by the managerial trust of the subordinates. It is from these assumptions that he came
up with his Theory X and Theory Y.
a. Theory X Assumptions
 The average human being is generally lazy and has an inherent dislike of work,
hence will avoid it if he can.
 Because of disliking work, he must be coerced, controlled, directed or even
threatened with punishment in order for him to put forth adequate efforts towards
the achievement of organizational goals.
 Most people have little ambition and prefer to be led and directed, and they have
little desire for responsibility.
 The average man only wants his physical needs and security needs to be fulfilled (
motivation occurs only at physiological and safety levels.)
 Most people have little capacity for creativity and they cannot be trusted to solve
organizational problems.
 Man is inherently self- centered and resistant to organizational needs.
 Man is by nature resistant to change.

Thus, theory X emphasizes strict employee control and the application of extrinsic rewards.
Characteristics of schools employing Theory X assumptions

i. Employees have to be coerced, controlled or directed.

ii. There is a need for application of incentives/rewards.

iii. Performance appraisal must be carried out frequently.

Advantages of Theory X
i. Employees do not absent themselves from work unnecessarily.

ii. There are no delays in decision making.

Disadvantages of Theory X
i. There is a possibility of making wrong decisions since the administrator does not
consult

ii. Interpersonal relationships in the school are minimal.

iii. There is low output and morale.

iv. There are many conflicts between the manager and members of staff.

v. There is no job satisfaction among members of staff.

vi. Employees always need to be directed, hence lack initiative

b. Theory Y Assumptions

Theory Y employs a human and supportive approach to management. It assumes that:

 Work is as natural as play is, in satisfying a worker. Therefore, a worker does not
need to be forced to work.
 People will exercise self-control and direction towards achievement of
organizational goals if they are committed to them.
 People can be self-directed and creative at work if they are properly motivated.
  The average human being learns to accept and seek responsibility under
motivating working conditions. Avoidance of work and responsibility is learnt
and not inherent in human behavior.
 Commitment to objectives is a function associated with achievement.
 Motivation occurs at all social levels, self-esteem, self-actualization levels and not
only at physiological and safety needs.

According to theory Y, a manager’s role is that of providing an enabling environment for the
release of potentials which employees are endowed with. The theories are applied in both
management and leadership, as well as in discipline.

Characteristics of schools employing Theory Y assumptions

i. The principal or administrators consider staff as mature people.

ii. He allows staff members to participate in decision making activities and delegates duties.
iii. He accepts and supports staff members’ ideas.
iv. The administrator facilitates the flow of information to members of staff which is useful
to them.
v. Staff members are given a lot of freedom, self-control and self-direction.
vi. There is recognition of staff members for work well done.
vii. Workers or members of staff are highly motivated and committed to the achievement of
the organizational objectives.

Advantages of Theory Y
i. The workers’ morale is high.
ii. Organizational objectives are easily achieved since members of staff are committed to
their achievement.
iii. Employees will willingly accept directives from the administration.
iv. There are good interpersonal relationships in the organization.

Disadvantages of Theory Y
i. There is delay in decision making since there is a lot of consultation
 ii. Members of staff may view the administrator as weak and soft and may take advantage of
this by becoming irresponsible.

4.3 Fredrick Herzberg’s Two - Factor Theory

Fredrick Herzberg extended the work of Maslow and developed a specific content theory of
work motivation. This theory was referred to as Herzberg’s two-factor theory (motivation and
hygiene theory) based on the assumption that dissatisfaction leads to the avoidance of work and
satisfaction leads to attraction of work (Okumbe, 1999).

Herzberg conducted a motivational study on 200 accountants and engineers employed by firms
in and around Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. He used the critical incident method of obtaining data
for analysis. Each employee was asked to recall an event or a time personally experienced at
work when he felt particularly and exceptionally good about his job. Further interviews were
conducted to find out why employees felt as they did, and whether their feelings of satisfaction
had affected their performance, their personal relationships, and their feelings of well-being. The
respondents were also asked to recall an event or a time personally experienced at work when
they felt particularly and exceptionally bad about their jobs. Further interviews were conducted
to find out the nature of the events which led to the negative expressions.

The responses were analyzed and the following conclusions were derived:
 Factors which are associated with job-itself (intrinsic) tend to lead to job satisfaction.
These factors include achievement, recognition, work itself, responsibility and
advancement.
 Factors which are associated with the environment surrounding the job (extrinsic,
environmental or maintenance factors) do not lead to job satisfaction. These factors
include company policy and administration, supervision, salary, interpersonal relations
and working conditions.
 Job satisfiers are called motivators because they fulfill the individual’s need for
psychological growth.
 Job dissatisfiers are called hygiene because they merely serve to prevent an individual
from “feeling bad” about work.
Hertzberg’s theory is closely related to Maslow’s need hierarchy. The hygiene factors are
roughly equivalent to Maslow’s lower-order needs. According to Hertzberg, the hygiene factors
prevent dissatisfaction, but they do not lead to satisfaction. In other words, they bring motivation
to a theoretical zero and, therefore, prevent dissatisfaction. The motivators are equivalent to
Maslow’s higher-order needs. It is only the motivators which motivate workers on their job
(Okumbe, 1998).

This theory indicates that a worker must have a job with challenging content in order to be truly
motivated. In other words, work satisfaction and dissatisfaction are not opposites rather they are
separate and distinct dimensions of work orientation. Educational managers should ensure that
teachers are provided with direct, clear and regular feedback on their performance in particular
and the organizational performance in general. It is also imperative that teachers should be
provided with an enabling environment, by the management, so as to motivate them to learn new
and different procedures on the job and also experience some degree of personal growth through
promotion and further training.