SAMPLING

by
Dr. Himel Chakraborty
 INTRODUCTION
The process of selecting a number of individuals for a study in such a
way that the individuals represent the larger group from which they
were selected.

A sample is “a smaller (but hopefully representative) collection of units

from a population used to determine truths about that population”
(Field, 2005).

The sampling frame A list of all elements or other units containing the
elements in a population.
 POPULATION
The larger group from which individuals are selected to participate in a
study.
Target population:
A set of elements larger
than or different from the
population sampled and
to which the researcher
would like to generalize
study findings.
Purpose of Sampling:
To gather data about the
population in order to make an
inference that can be
generalized to the population.
STAGES IN THE SELECTION OF A
SAMPLE
 QUANTITATIVE SAMPLING
Purpose: To identify participants from whom to seek some information.

Issues:
◦ Nature of the sample (random samples)
◦ Size of the sample
◦ Method of selecting the sample
Important issues
◦ Representation: The extent to which the sample is representative of the
population.
◦ Generalization: The extent to which the results of the study can be
reasonably extended from the sample to the population.
◦ Sampling error: The chance occurrence that a randomly selected sample
is not representative of the population due to errors inherent in the
sampling technique.
◦ Sampling bias: Some aspect of the researcher’s sampling design creates
bias in the data.
◦ Three fundamental steps: Identify a population, define the sample size &
Select the sample.
SELECTION OF RESEARCH PROBLEM
(Cont.)
The five components of a research problem as under:
1. Research consumer: individuals or group which have some
difficulty or problem. they may be researcher or other.
2. Research - consumer’s objective: there must be some objective to be
attained as the research consumer must have something to get it. If
one wants noting one cannot have a problem.
3. Alternative means to meet the objective: this means that there must
be at least two means(courses of action) available to a researcher or
if has no choice of means, he/she cannot have a problem.
4. Doubt in regard to selection of alternatives: the existence of
alternative courses of action is not enough to experience a problem -
The researcher must have some doubt as to which alternative to
select. -without such a doubt there can be no problem
5. There must be one or more environments: there must be some
environment to which the difficulty or problem pertains. A
researcher may have doubts as to which will be most efficient means
in one environment. Some problems are specific to any one
environment while others are quite general.
SAMPLING METHODS
 SAMPLING METHODS (Cont.)
SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING
Simple random sampling occurs when a subset of a statistical population
allows for each member of the demographic to have an equal opportunity of
being chosen for surveys, polls, or research projects. The goal of collecting
information in this way is to provide an unbiased representation of the entire
group.

Advantages:
1. One of the great advantages of simple random sampling method is that
it needs only a minimum knowledge of the study group of population in
advance.
2. It is free from errors in classification.
3. This is suitable for data analysis which includes the use of inferential
statistics.
4. Simple random sampling is representative of the population
5. It is totally free from bias and prejudice
6. The method is simple to use.
7. It is very easy to assess the sampling error in this method.
 SAMPLING METHODS (Cont.)
SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING (Cont.)
Disadvantages:
1. This method carries larger errors from the same sample size than that are found
in stratified sampling.
2. In simple random sampling, the selection of sample becomes impossible if the
units or items are widely dispersed.
3. One of the major disadvantages of simple random sampling method is that it
cannot be employed where the units of the population are heterogeneous in
nature.
4. This method lacks the use of available knowledge concerning the population.
5. Sometimes, it is difficult to have a completely cataloged universe.
6. It may be impossible to contact the cases which are very widely dispersed.

Selection process:
• Identify and define the population
• Determine the desired sample size
• List all members of the population
• Assign all members on the list a consecutive number
• Select an arbitrary starting point from a table of random numbers and read the
appropriate number of digits
 SAMPLING METHODS (Cont.)
SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING
Systematic sampling is more or less a method that involves the selection of
various elements that are ordered from a sampling frame and taking this
statistical procedure starts from the random selection of elements that belongs to
a list and then every sampling interval from the frame is selected and this method
of sampling can only be applied if at all the given population is homogeneous as
these sample units are systematically distributed over the population.

This is a method where probability sampling is performed by randomly selecting

sample members from the mass population at a fixed interval. This periodic
interval is better termed as the sampling interval, and it can be calculated by
ascertaining the required sample size and dividing the same by the size of the
population.
 SAMPLING METHODS (Cont.)
SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING (Cont.)
Types of Systematic Sampling:

LINEAR
 This termed linear since it follows a very linear path and tends to stop at
the end with respect to a particular population. In this type of sampling,
any sample is not repeated in the end.
 Also, ‘n’ units are chosen to form a part of the sample that has ‘N’ units of
population. The analysts and researchers can take skip logic into use for
the selection of ‘n’ units instead of randomly selecting these ‘n’ units from
a given sample.
 A linear systematic sample is selected by arranging the total population
and classifying the same in a sequence, selecting the ‘n’ or the sample size,
calculating the sampling interval (K= N/n), randomly selecting a number
from 1 to K, adding ‘K’ (sampling interval) to the randomly chosen
number for adding the next member to the sample and repeating this
process for adding the remaining members from the sample.
 SAMPLING METHODS (Cont.)
SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING (Cont.)
Types of Systematic Sampling:

CIRCULAR
 In this type of sampling, it is seen that the sample starts from a point
where it has ended. This means the sample restarts from the point where
it has actually ended. In this type of statistical sampling method, the
elements are arranged in a circular fashion.
 There are particularly two ways to form a sample in this type of statistical
sampling method. If K= 3, then the samples will be the ad, be, ca, db and
ec whereas, if K=4, then the samples are ae, ba, cb, dc, and ed.
 SAMPLING METHODS (Cont.)
SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING (Cont.)
Advantages:
 Quick: This is a quick method; i.e., it can save statisticians a lot of their time. It
becomes really easy for researchers and analysts to choose a sample size with the
help of this approach since it is really quick. There is a negligible need to number
each and every member from the sample, and this also helps in the faster and
simpler representation of a particular population.
 Appropriateness and Efficiency: The results obtained from systematic sampling are
appropriate as well. As compared to other statistical methods, the results derived
from the statistical method are highly efficient and appropriate.
 Low Risk of Data Manipulation: The probabilities of data manipulation are really
low as compared to other statistical methods.
 Simplicity: This method is really simple. This is one of the main reasons why
analysts and researchers prefer to go for this method instead of any other method.
The simplicity of this method has made it quite popular amongst analysts and
researchers.
 Minimal Risks: The amount of risk involved in the systematic sampling method is
the bare minimum.
 SAMPLING METHODS (Cont.)
SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING (Cont.)
Disadvantages:

 This becomes difficult when the population size cannot be estimated. This even
compromises the effectiveness of systematic sampling in various areas, such as field
research on animals. There is also a possibility of data manipulation and business
since the researcher gets to choose the sampling interval.
 SAMPLING METHODS (Cont.)
STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING
The population is divided into two or more groups called strata, according to
some criterion, such as geographic location, grade level, age, or income, and
subsamples are randomly selected from each strata.

Advantages:
1. The aim of the stratified random sample is to reduce the potential for human bias in the
selection of cases to be included in the sample. As a result, the stratified random sample
provides us with a sample that is highly representative of the population being studied,
assuming that there is limited missing data.
2. Since the units selected for inclusion within the sample are chosen using probabilistic
methods, stratified random sampling allows us to make statistical conclusions from the
data collected that will be considered to be valid.
3. Relative to the simple random sample, the selection of units using a stratified procedure
can be viewed as superior because it improves the potential for the units to be more evenly
spread over the population. Furthermore, where the samples are the same size, a stratified
random sample can provide greater precision than a simple random sample. Because of
the greater precision of a stratified random sample compared with a simple random
sample, it may be possible to use a smaller sample, which saves time and money.
4. The stratified random sample also improves the representation of particular strata
(groups) within the population, as well as ensuring that these strata are not over-
represented. Together, this helps the researcher to compare strata, as well as make more
valid inferences from the sample to the population.
 SAMPLING METHODS (Cont.)
STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING (Cont.)

Disadvantages:
1. The application of stratified random sampling requires the knowledge of strata
membership a priori. The requirement to be able to easily distinguish between
strata in the sample frame may create difficulties in practical levels.
2. Research process may take longer and prove to be more expensive due to the
extra stage in the sampling procedure.
3. The choice of stratified sampling method adds certain complexity to the analysis
plan.

Selection process:
• Identify and define the population
• Determine the desired sample size
• Identify the variable and subgroups (i.e., strata) for which you want to
guarantee appropriate representation
• Classify all members of the population as members of one of the identified
subgroups
 SAMPLING METHODS (Cont.)
CLUSTER SAMPLING
The process of randomly selecting intact groups, not individuals, within the
defined population sharing similar characteristics. Clusters are locations within
which an intact group of members of the population can be found.

Advantages:
1. Cluster sampling is less expensive and more quick. It is more economical to
observe clusters of units in a population than randomly selected units scattered
over throughout the state.
2. Cluster Sample permits each accumulation of large samples.
3. The loss of precision per individual case is more than compensated for by the
possibility of studying larger samples for the same cost.
4. Cluster sample may combine the advantages of both random sampling as well as
stratified sampling.
5. Cluster sampling procedure enables to obtain information from one or more
areas.
 SAMPLING METHODS (Cont.)
CLUSTER SAMPLING (Cont.)
Disadvantages:
1. In a cluster sample, each cluster may be composed of units that is like one another.
This may produce large sampling error and reduce the representativeness of the
sample.
2. In Cluster sampling, when unequal size of some of the subsets is selected, an
element of sample bias will arise.
3. This type of sampling may not be possible to apply its findings to another area.
4. Sometimes, adequate number of cases from the stand point of increasing the
precision of sample is not selected, an overlapping effect may take place.

Selection process:
• Identify and define the population
• Determine the desired sample size
• Identify and define a logical cluster
• List all clusters that make up the population of clusters
• Estimate the average number of population members per cluster
• Determine the number of clusters needed by dividing the sample size by the estimated size of
a cluster
• Randomly select the needed numbers of clusters
• Include in the study all individuals in each selected cluster
 SAMPLING METHODS (Cont.)
CONVENIENCE SAMPLING
Convenience sampling is defined as a method adopted by researchers where they collect
market research data from a conveniently available pool of respondents. It is the most
commonly used sampling technique as it’s incredibly prompt, uncomplicated, and
economical. In many cases, members are readily approachable to be a part of the sample.

Advantages:
1. Collect data quickly: In situations where time is a constraint, many researchers choose this method for
quick data collection. The rules to gather elements for the sample are least complicated in comparison to
techniques such as simple random sampling, stratified sampling, and systematic sampling. Due to this
simplicity, data collection takes minimal time.
2. Inexpensive to create samples: The money and time invested in other probability sampling methods are
quite large compared to convenience sampling. It allows researchers to generate more samples with less or
no investment and in a brief period.
3. Easy to do research: The name of this surveying technique clarifies how samples are formed. Elements are
easily accessible by the researchers and so, collecting members for the sample becomes easy.
4. Low cost: Low cost is one of the main reasons why researchers adopt this technique. When on a small
budget, researchers – especially students, can use the budget in other areas of the project.
5. Readily available sample: Data collection is easy and accessible. Most convenience sampling considers the
population at hand. Samples are readily available to the researcher. They do not have to move around too
much for data collection. Quotas are met quickly, and the data collection can commence even within a few
hours.
6. Fewer rules to follow: It doesn’t require going through a checklist to filter members of an audience. Here,
gathering critical information and data becomes uncomplicated. For instance, if an NGO wants to survey
women’s empowerment, they can go to schools, colleges, offices, etc. in their proximity and gather quick
responses.
 SAMPLING METHODS (Cont.)
CONVENIENCE SAMPLING (Cont.)
Disadvantages:

1. A convenience sample doesn’t provide a representative result.

2. It is easier to provide false data with a convenience sample.
3. Some researchers don’t understand the specificity of convenience sampling.
4. It is challenging to replicate the results of convenience samples.
5. Researcher bias can enter into the sampling technique.
6. Convenience sampling does not identify subgroup differences.
7. This research method has a significant problem with dependence.
 SAMPLING METHODS (Cont.)
QUOTA SAMPLING
Quota sampling can be defined as a sampling method where a sample of respondents, with
specific characteristics and traits, for research is selected from the population of interest.

Advantages:
1. Quota sampling is quite easy to conduct and administer as compare to the other similar
research sampling methods.
2. The quota sampling method is suitable for research where the researcher has the time limit
to conduct the study. Quota sampling can be performed quickly as compared to other
research sampling methods. Therefore, it saves a lot of time for the researcher.
3. The quota sampling method is cost-effective. It can be used for researches with a limited
budget.
4. In quota sampling, over-representation of the population is avoided as in quota sampling,
participants of the research group are selected based on specific characteristics and traits
and not randomly.
5. Quota sampling makes the interpretation of information convenient for the researcher.
6. Quota sampling method can be used in researches where probability sampling techniques
are challenging to implement.
7. Quota sampling can be used as a primary research method of researches of different types.
8. Quota sampling helps in an easy comparison of two groups of research.
 SAMPLING METHODS (Cont.)
QUOTA SAMPLING (Cont.)
Disadvantages:
1. Quota sampling does not allow random selection of participants of the research.
2. Quota sampling increases the risk of researcher bias as a researcher might include people in
research who he finds to easy to approach or have co-operative nature.
3. The outcome of quota sampling is not accurate as it lacks randomness of the selection of
participants.
4. The result of quota sampling research is not reliable as it is affected by many factors.
5. The accuracy of quota sampling largely depends on the judgment of the study. The biased
approach of the researcher influences the accuracy of the result of the quota sampling
research method.

Selection process:
• Quota sampling is easy to use when comparative analysis of two subgroups is required to
make. Quota sampling helps in determining the distinguishing features among the
interconnected traits of two subgroups.
• Quota sampling is beneficial in scenarios where researchers have specific criteria to conduct
research. Quota sampling is quite convenient to use in such a situation because of the
filtering characteristics of the method.
 SAMPLING METHODS (Cont.)
JUDGMENTAL SAMPLING
Judgmental sampling, also called purposive sampling or authoritative sampling, is a non-
probability sampling technique in which the sample members are chosen only on the basis
of the researcher’s knowledge and judgment. As the researcher’s knowledge is
instrumental in creating a sample in this sampling technique, there are chances that the
results obtained will be highly accurate with a minimum margin of error.
Advantages:
1. The approach is understood as well and has been refined through experience over many
years.
2. The auditor is given an opportunity to bring his judgment and expertise to play. Well all
auditing in professional judgment is an exercise.
3. No special knowledge of statistics is utilized.
4. No time is wasted playing along with mathematics.
Disadvantages:
1. It is unscientific;
2. It usually too large samples are selected and It is wasteful;
3. You cannot extrapolate the conclusion to the population such as a entire as the samples are
not representative;
4. Personal bias in, to choice the sample is unavoidable;
5. There is no logic to the selection of its size or the sample;
6. The sample selection is so erratic which is cannot be said to have applied for all items in a
year;
7. So the result reached is usually vague.
 SAMPLING METHODS (Cont.)
SNOWBALL SAMPLING
Snowball sampling or chain-referral sampling is defined as a non-probability
sampling technique in which the samples have traits that are rare to find. This is a
sampling technique, in which existing subjects provide referrals to
recruit samples required for a research study.

TYPES OF SNOWBALL SAMPLING:

1. Linear Snowball Sampling: The formation of a sample group starts with one individual
subject providing information about just one other subject and then the chain continues with
only one referral from one subject. This pattern is continued until enough number of
subjects are available for the sample.

2. Exponential Non-Discriminative Snowball Sampling: In this type, the first subject is

recruited and then he/she provides multiple referrals. Each new referral then provides with
more data for referral and so on, until there is enough number of subjects for the sample.

3. Exponential Discriminative Snowball Sampling: In this technique, each subject gives

multiple referrals, however, only one subject is recruited from each referral. The choice of a
new subject depends on the nature of the research study.
 SAMPLING METHODS (Cont.)
SNOWBALL SAMPLING (Cont.)
Advantages:
1. It’s quicker to find samples: Referrals make it easy and quick to find subjects as they come
from reliable sources. An additional task is saved for a researcher, this time can be used in
conducting the study.
2. Cost effective: This method is cost effective as the referrals are obtained from a primary data
source. It’s is convenient and not so expensive as compared to other methods.
3. Sample hesitant subjects: Some people do not want to come forward and participate in
research studies, because they don’t want their identity to be exposed. Snowball sampling
helps for this situation as they ask for a reference from people known to each other. There are
some sections of the target population which are hard to contact. For example, if a researcher
intends to understand the difficulties faced by HIV patients, other sampling methods will not
be able to provide these sensitive samples. In snowball sampling, researchers can closely
examine and filter members of a population infected by HIV and conduct a research by
talking to them, making them understand the objective of research and eventually, analyzing
the received feedback.
Disadvantages:
1. Sampling bias and margin of error: Since people refer those whom they know and have
similar traits this sampling method can have a potential sampling bias and margin of error.
This means a researcher might only be able to reach out to a small group of people and may
not be able to complete the study with conclusive results.
2. Lack of cooperation: There are fair chances even after referrals, people might not be
cooperative and refuse to participate in the research studies.