Special Devices & Integrated

Circuits
Thyristor
In general, a thyristor is the family name for a type of solid-state
semiconductor device that functions as a high-power electronic switch.

Think of it as a "controlled diode."

Like a regular diode, it allows current to flow in only one direction.

Unlike a diode, it won't conduct current (even in the forward direction) until
it's "triggered" by a small signal.

How It Works
A thyristor is a bistable device, meaning it has two stable states: "OFF"
(blocking current) or "ON" (conducting current).

1. OFF State: It acts as an open switch, blocking current from flowing.

2. Triggering: A small voltage or current applied to a control terminal, called

the Gate, turns the device "ON."

3. ON State (Latching): Once triggered, the thyristor "latches" on. It will

continue to conduct current (like a closed switch) even after the gate signal
is removed.

4. Turning OFF: It only turns "OFF" when the main current flowing through it
drops below a certain level (called the "holding current") or is reversed.

Thyristor vs. SCR

You will often hear the terms "thyristor" and "SCR" (Silicon Controlled
Rectifier) used interchangeably.

Thyristor: This is the broad family name for these four-layer (P-N-P-N)
switching devices. This family also includes other components like TRIACs
and DIACs.

SCR: This is the most common type of thyristor. Because it's so common,
its name (SCR) has become a synonym for "thyristor" in many contexts.

Special Devices & Integrated Circuits 1

 Primary Applications
Because they can control very large amounts of power with a tiny control
signal, thyristors are the key component in circuits for:

Light dimmers

Electric motor speed control

Heating control

High-voltage power-switching circuits

Semiconductor-Controlled Rectifier (SCR)

A Semiconductor-Controlled
Rectifier (SCR), also known as a
thyristor, is a four-layer p-n-p-n
semiconductor device. It functions as
a bistable switch, meaning it has two
stable states:

OFF State: A high-impedance,

low-current state.

ON State: A low-impedance,
high-current state.

Terminals
The SCR has three terminals:

Anode (A): The terminal connected to the outer p-layer.

Cathode (K): The terminal connected to the outer n-layer.

Gate (G): The third terminal, connected to the inner p-layer, which acts as
the control input.

2. Two-Transistor Equivalent Circuit

Special Devices & Integrated Circuits 2

 The operation of the p-n-p-n
structure can be understood by
modeling it as two interconnected
bipolar transistors: a pnp transistor
(Q1) and an npn transistor (Q2).

The p-n-p-n structure is "split"

into a p-n-p (Q1) and an n-p-n
(Q2).

Feedback Connection: The

collector of Q1 is connected to
the base of Q2, and the collector
of Q2 is connected to the base of
Q1. This forms a positive
feedback loop.

Terminal Mapping:

The Anode is the emitter of Q1.

The Cathode is the emitter of Q2.

The Gate is the base of Q2.

3. Analysis of Anode Current (I)

By analyzing this two-transistor model, we can derive an expression for the
total anode current I .

Let:

I = Total anode current

α1 = Current gain of the pnp transistor (Q1)
​

α2 = Current gain of the npn transistor (Q2)

​

ICo1 = Reverse-saturation current of Q1

​

ICo2 = Reverse-saturation current of Q2

​

The collector current IC2 of the npn transistor is:

​

IC2 = α2 I + ICo2 
​ ​ ​

Special Devices & Integrated Circuits 3

 The base current IB1 of the pnp transistor is:
​

IB1 = (1 − α1 )I − ICo1 
​ ​ ​

From the model, the base of Q1 is connected to the collector of Q2, so IB1 ​ =
IC2 . By equating these two expressions and solving for the total current I , we
​

get:
ICo1 +ICo2
I= ​

1−(α1 +α2 )
​
​
​

Understanding the ON/OFF States

This equation explains the SCR's switching behavior, as the current gains (α)
are dependent on the current flowing through them:

OFF State: When the device is off, the current I is very small (just leakage).
At such small currents, the gains α1 and α2 are very close to zero. The
​ ​

denominator [1 − (α1 + α2 )]is close to 1, and the total current I is just the
​ ​

sum of the reverse saturation currents (I ≈ ICo1 + ICo2 ). The device has
​ ​

very high resistance.

ON State (Latching): To turn the device ON, a trigger pulse is applied to the
gate. This injects current, causing α1 and α2 to increase. As the sum (α1 +
​ ​ ​

α2 )approaches 1, the denominator [1 − (α1 + α2 )]approaches zero. This

​ ​ ​

causes the total current I to become very large, and the device "latches"
into its low-impedance ON state.

4. V-I Characteristics and Operation

The Volt-Ampere characteristic curve (Fig. 16.5) illustrates the SCR's behavior.

Turning the SCR ON (Firing)

An SCR can be turned ON in two main ways:

Special Devices & Integrated Circuits 4

 1. Gate Triggering: This is the
normal method. The amount of
gate current directly controls the
anode-cathode voltage needed
for firing:

→ Positive IG (IG ​ ​
> 0): This is
the standard trigger. A positive
gate current (e.g., IG2 ​ > IG1 )
​

lowers the breakover voltage,

causing the SCR to fire at a low
anode voltage.

→ Zero IG (IG ​ ​ = 0): The device

will only fire when the voltage
reaches the high forward
breakover voltage (VF ). ​

→ Negative IG (IG ​ ​ < 0):

Applying a negative gate current
makes the device more stable. It
increases the forward breakover
voltage (VF ), requiring an even
​

higher anode-cathode voltage to

force it ON.

2. Breakover Voltage (VF ): If the gate current is zero (IG ​ ​ = 0), the device will
remain in the OFF state (forward-blocking mode) until the anode-cathode
voltage becomes large enough to reach the firing or breakover voltage (VF ​

) . At this point, the reverse-biased middle junction (J2) breaks down,

current flows, the alphas increase, and the device latches ON.

Turning the SCR OFF

The gate cannot turn the device OFF. The only way to turn the SCR OFF is to
reduce the anode current I below a critical value called the holding current.
This is typically done by:

1. Reducing the anode voltage.

2. Reversing the polarity between the anode and cathode.

Special Devices & Integrated Circuits 5

 Here are comprehensive and descriptive notes based on the provided images,
explaining how thyristors (SCRs) are used for power control in rectifier circuits.

Thyristor (SCR) Applications in Power Control

Thyristors (SCRs) are primarily used as power switches. Their ability to control
large amounts of power with a small gate signal makes them ideal for many
applications, including:

Heat control

Light dimming

Speed control of motors

High-frequency induction heating

Ultrasonic cleaning

Replacing electromechanical relays

The following notes describe two fundamental circuits for power control: the
variable half-wave and full-wave rectifiers.

1. Variable Half-wave Rectifier

This circuit (Fig. 16.5A) uses a single SCR to control the amount of power
delivered to a load (RL ) during only the positive half-cycle of the AC input.
​

Circuit and Operation (Fig. 16.5A)

Components: The circuit consists of an AC source (vi ), the load (RL ), the
​ ​

SCR, and a gate trigger circuit composed of resistors R, R1 (variable), and
​

a diode D1 . ​

Special Devices & Integrated Circuits 6

 Positive Half-Cycle:

1. The input voltage vi is positive. The SCR's anode is positive with
​

respect to its cathode.

2. The diode D1 is forward-biased, allowing a gate current (IG ) to flow.

​ ​

3. This IG is limited by the total resistance R + R1 .

​ ​

4. When vi rises high enough for IG to reach the SCR's "turn-on" value,
​ ​

the SCR fires (turns ON).

5. Once ON, the anode-cathode voltage (vAK ) drops to a very low

​

conduction value (near 0V). The full (or remaining) positive voltage vi is
​

applied across the load RL . ​

Negative Half-Cycle:

1. The input voltage vi is negative. The SCR's anode is now negative with
​

respect to its cathode.

2. The SCR is reverse-biased and remains OFF.

3. The diode D1 is also reverse-biased, which prevents any reverse gate
​

current from flowing, protecting the SCR's gate.

4. No current flows through the load.

Control Mechanism & Waveforms (Fig. 16.5B)

The key to "variable" control is the adjustable resistor R1 . ​

Special Devices & Integrated Circuits 7

 Firing Angle (θ ): This is the angle in the AC cycle (from 0°) at which the
SCR turns ON.

By adjusting R1 , we change the resistance in the gate circuit.

​

If R1 is large, a higher vi is needed to produce the required turn-on

​ ​

gate current. This results in a larger firing angle (the SCR fires later in
the cycle).

If R1 is small, the turn-on current is reached very quickly. This results
​

in a small firing angle (θ ≈ 0).

This circuit typically allows θ to be varied between 0° and 90°.

Conduction Angle (ϕ): This is the total angle during which the SCR is ON.
For the half-wave rectifier, ϕ = 180∘ − θ.
Waveforms:

Load Voltage (vL ): Is 0V until the SCR fires at θ . It then follows the input
​

vi from θto 180°. It remains 0V from 180° to 360°.

​

SCR Voltage (vAK ): This is the voltage across the SCR.
​

From 0° to θ : The SCR is OFF, so it blocks the voltage. vAK follows

​

vi . ​

From θ to 180°: The SCR is ON. vAK drops to almost 0V.
​

From 180° to 360°: The SCR is OFF (reverse-biased). vAK follows

​

the negative vi . ​

By varying the firing angle θ , this circuit provides a simple method for
controlling the RMS current and power delivered to the load.

2. Variable Full-wave Rectifier

This circuit (Fig. 16.5C) improves upon the half-wave version by controlling
power during both halves of the AC cycle, leading to more efficient and
smoother control.

Circuit and Operation (Fig. 16.5C(a))

Special Devices & Integrated Circuits 8

 Components: It uses a bridge rectifier (four diodes) to convert the AC
input vi into a full-wave rectified (pulsed DC) signal.
​

SCR Placement: The SCR is placed in series with the load RL , after the
​

bridge rectifier. The gate trigger circuit (omitted for simplicity) would also
be connected to this pulsed DC.

Operation:

1. The bridge rectifier inverts the negative half-cycles of vi , so the voltage

​

applied to the SCR-load combination is a continuous series of positive

"humps."

2. At the beginning of each hump (at 0°, 180°, 360°, etc.), the input voltage
drops to 0V. This causes the SCR's current to drop below its holding
value, so the SCR automatically turns OFF at the end of each half-
cycle.

3. The SCR remains OFF at the start of the next hump until the gate circuit
provides a trigger current.

4. When the SCR fires at the firing angle θ , it conducts for the rest of that
half-cycle.

Waveform and Applications (Fig. 16.5C(b))

Load Voltage (vL ): The waveform shows the SCR firing at an angle θ and
​

conducting for an angle ϕduring both half-cycles.

From 0° to θ : vL ​ = 0.
From θ to 180°: vL follows the rectified sine wave.
​

From 180° to 180∘ + θ: vL = 0.

​

From 180∘ + θto 360°: vL follows the second rectified sine wave.
​

Special Devices & Integrated Circuits 9

 Applications: This circuit efficiently controls the average load current.
Because it delivers smoother power, it is commonly used for:

Varying the brightness of a lamp (dimmer switch).

Controlling the temperature of an electric heater.

Varying the speed of a DC motor.

Unijunction Transistor (UJT) - Definition and

Structure
Definition: A Unijunction Transistor (UJT) is a three-terminal semiconductor
device. Its name "uni-junction" (one-junction) comes from the fact that it
has only one p-n junction.

Construction (Fig. 16.10a): It is built from a lightly doped n-type silicon bar.

Terminals:

1. Base 2 (B2): An ohmic contact at one end of the bar.

2. Base 1 (B1): An ohmic contact at the other end.

3. Emitter (E): A p-type region alloyed near the center of the n-type bar,
forming the single p-n junction.

Interbase Resistance (RBB ): This is the total resistance of the n-type bar
​

between B1 and B2 (with the emitter open). It is typically in the range of 5 to

10 kΩ.

Special Devices & Integrated Circuits 10

 Circuit Symbol (Fig. 16.10b): The symbol shows an emitter arrow pointing
onto the base line, indicating the p-n junction. The arrow points in the
direction of conventional forward-bias current.

2. UJT Operation and V-I Characteristics

The UJT's operation is defined by the voltage divider action in its base and its
unique switching characteristic.

Intrinsic Stand-off Ratio (η )

When a voltage VBB is applied across B2 and B1, the n-type bar acts as a
​

voltage divider.

The resistance of the bar is split into two parts:

RB1 : Resistance from Base 1 to the Emitter junction.

​

RB2 : Resistance from Base 2 to the Emitter junction.

​

The Intrinsic Stand-off Ratio (η ) is a fixed property of the UJT, defined as:
RB1 RB1
η= RB1 +RB2
​
​

​
​ = RBB
 ​

​
​

This ratio determines the voltage at the n-side of the emitter junction, which
is ηVBB . ​

Firing Voltage (VP ) ​

As long as the emitter voltage VE is less than the junction voltage (ηVBB )
​ ​

plus a diode drop, the p-n junction is reverse-biased.

The voltage VE must reach to forward-bias the junction is called the firing
​

voltage (VP ). ​

VP = ηVBB + VD 
​ ​ ​

(Note: The text often simplifies this by ignoring the diode drop VD , using ​

VP = ηVBB for its calculations, as seen in the definition η = VP /VBB ).

​ ​ ​ ​

V-I Characteristic Curve (Fig. 16.12)

The Emitter V-I curve shows the UJT's unique behavior and three operating
regions:

Special Devices & Integrated Circuits 11

 1. Cut-off Region:

This is the region where

VE < VP .
​ ​

The p-n junction is reverse-

biased, and only a small
leakage current flows.

The UJT is in a high-

impedance "OFF" state.

2. Negative Resistance Region: When VE exceeds VP , the p-n

​ ​

junction becomes forward-

biased.

The p-type emitter injects holes

into the n-type bar, specifically
into the B1 region.

This "flooding" of charge carriers

drastically increases the
conductivity of the B1 region, a
process called conductivity
modulation.

As a result, the resistance RB1 ​

drops significantly.

As RB1 drops, the voltage VE (which depends on RB1 ) also drops, even as
​ ​ ​

the emitter current IE is increasing. This phenomenon, where voltage

​

decreases as current increases, is known as negative resistance.

This region continues until the "Valley Point" (VV , IV ). ​ ​

3. Saturation Region:

For IE ​
> IV , the device is fully turned on and saturated.
​

RB1 is at its minimum, and the device is in a low-impedance "ON"

​

state.

Special Devices & Integrated Circuits 12

 In this region, VE begins to increase slowly with IE .
​ ​

Key Difference from Thyristor: A thyristor switches ON due to internal

regenerative (positive feedback) transistor action. A UJT switches ON due to
conductivity modulation that creates a negative resistance region.

3. Application: UJT Relaxation Oscillator

The UJT's negative resistance characteristic makes it ideal for building simple
oscillators, such as the sawtooth generator.

Circuit Operation (Fig. 16.13)

The circuit consists of a UJT, a charging resistor R, and a charging capacitor C
.

1. Charging Phase:

Initially, the UJT is OFF (high impedance).

The capacitor C charges through the resistor R, with its voltage VE 
​

rising exponentially toward the supply VBB . ​

2. Firing (ON State):

When the capacitor voltage VE reaches the firing voltage VP , the UJT
​ ​

turns ON.

The Emitter-to-Base 1 path (E-B1) suddenly becomes a very low-

impedance path due to saturation.

3. Discharging Phase:

Special Devices & Integrated Circuits 13

 The capacitor C now has a low-resistance path to ground through RB1 . ​

It discharges very rapidly through the UJT.

4. Reset (OFF State):

As the capacitor discharges, its voltage VE drops. When VE falls below

​ ​

the valley voltage VV , the UJT can no longer stay in conduction and
​

turns OFF.

The E-B1 path returns to a high-impedance state, and the charging

cycle (Step 1) begins again.

Output: The voltage VE across the capacitor results in a sawtooth

​

waveform (a slow linear rise followed by a rapid drop).

4. Period of Oscillation (T )
The period of the sawtooth wave is determined almost entirely by the charging
time, as the discharge time is assumed to be zero.

The voltage across a charging capacitor is given by: VE (t) ​ = VBB [1 −

​

exp(−t/CR)].
The UJT fires when t = T and VE (T ) = VP . ​

T
VP = VBB [1 − exp (− CR
​ ​
)] ​

Using the simplified definition η = VP /VBB :

​ ​

T
η = 1 − exp (− CR ) ​

Solving for the period T :

T
exp (− CR ) = 1 − η
​

T
− CR = ln(1 − η)
​

T = −CR ln(1 − η)

T = CR ln ( 1−η
1
) ​

Linearity: For the sawtooth to be approximately linear, the charging must

only use the initial (most linear) part of the exponential curve. This is
achieved when the time constant CRis much larger than the charging
period T .

Special Devices & Integrated Circuits 14

 Operational Amplifier

1. What is an Operational Amplifier (Op-Amp)?

An Operational Amplifier (Op-Amp) is a fundamental building block in
electronics. It is a direct-coupled, high-gain, differential-input amplifier.

Origin of Name: The term "operational" comes from its original use in
analog computers, where it was used to perform mathematical operations
like summation, subtraction, integration, and differentiation.

Key Advantage (Negative Feedback): The main advantage of Op-Amps is

that their performance can be precisely controlled by applying negative
feedback (connecting the output back to an input, usually through resistors
or capacitors).

When feedback is used, the circuit's behavior becomes stable,

predictable, and dependent only on the external feedback components,
not on the Op-Amp's internal transistor characteristics.

Other Applications: Op-Amps are inexpensive, temperature-stabilized, and

versatile. They are used in:

Signal amplification

Active filters

Oscillators

Voltage regulators

Wave shaping

Analog-to-Digital (A/D) and Digital-to-Analog (D/A) converters

2. Terminals and Basic Function

An Op-Amp has five main terminals:

1. Inverting Input ( - , terminal a ): A signal applied here will appear at the

output with its polarity reversed (180° phase shift).

2. Non-inverting Input ( + , terminal b ): A signal applied here will appear at

the output with the same polarity (0° phase shift).

3. Output (terminal c ): The output of the amplifier.

Special Devices & Integrated Circuits 15

 4. Positive Power Supply ( +V , terminal d ): The positive DC voltage required
for operation.

5. Negative Power Supply ( -V , terminal e ): The negative DC voltage, usually

balanced with the positive supply (e.g., +15V and -15V).

The power supply terminals ( d and e ) are often omitted from circuit diagrams
(schematics) for simplicity.
The core function of an Op-Amp is to amplify the difference between its two
input terminals. This amplification factor is called the Open-Loop Voltage Gain (
A).
vo = A × (vb − va )
​ ​ ​

Where:

vo is the output voltage.

​

vb is the voltage at the non-inverting input.

​

va is the voltage at the inverting input.

​

3. Ideal vs. Practical Op-Amp Characteristics

The design of an "ideal" Op-Amp provides a simple model for analysis.
Practical devices are excellent approximations of this ideal.

Characteristic 💡 Ideal Op-Amp 🔧 Practical Op-Amp

Open-Loop Gain
Infinite Very high (typically 103 to 106 )
($A$)

Infinite (draws no
Input Impedance Very high (150 kΩto a few hundred MΩ)
current)

Output Impedance Zero Very low (0.75 Ωto 100 Ω)

Infinite (amplifies all Finite (gain is constant up to several

Bandwidth
frequencies) hundred kHz, then decreases)

Characteristics change slightly with

Temperature Drift None
temperature

Perfect (if va = vb , Not perfect (may have a small output

Balance (Offset)
​ ​

then vo ​
= 0) voltage even if inputs are equal)

4. Open-Loop Characteristic and Saturation

Special Devices & Integrated Circuits 16

 Open-Loop (A): This refers to the Op-Amp's behavior without any
feedback. The gain Ais designed to be extremely high.

Saturation (Fig. 14.5C): Because

the gain Ais so large, even a tiny
difference in voltage between the
inputs (vd = vb − va ) will cause
​ ​ ​

the output to swing to its

maximum possible value.

If vd is even slightly positive,

​

the output vo hits the positive

​

saturation voltage (+V),

which is nearly equal to the
positive power supply.

If vd is even slightly

​

negative, the output vo hits

​

the negative saturation

voltage (-V), which is nearly
equal to the negative power
supply.

Conclusion: In an open-loop configuration, the Op-Amp does not function

as a linear amplifier. It acts as a comparator, with its output always stuck at
either the positive or negative saturation voltage.

Op-Amp Linear vs. Saturated Operation

Before applying an op-amp, it's important to understand its two main operating
regions:

1. Linear Region: When the magnitude of the output signal vo is less than the
​

power supply voltage (e.g., ∣vo ∣ ​ < 15V ), the op-amp is in its linear region.
In this mode, the output voltage is a linear, amplified version of the input. All
the circuits discussed below operate in this region.

2. Saturated Region: When the output voltage vo tries to exceed the power
​

supply, it "clips" and remains constant at the supply voltage (e.g., +V or
−V ). In this state, the op-amp is "saturated," and the output is no longer
proportional to the input.

Special Devices & Integrated Circuits 17

 Applications of Op-Amp

1. The Inverting Amplifier

An inverting amplifier (Fig. 14.6) is a basic op-amp circuit that produces an
output signal with the opposite polarity (180° phase inversion) of the input.

Key Concept: Virtual Ground

The analysis of this circuit depends on a crucial concept called virtual ground.

1. Setup: The input signal v1 is ​

applied to the inverting input ()

through R1 . The non-inverting
​

input ( + ) is connected directly to

ground (0V).

2. Op-Amp Action: An op-amp's

open-loop gain (A) is extremely
high (ideally infinite). The op-amp
amplifies the difference between
its two inputs. The voltage at the
inverting input (point G) is v , and
the voltage at the non-inverting
input is 0V.

3. Derivation: The output voltage vo ​ = A × (0 − v) = −A × v .

This can be rearranged to v = −vo /A. ​

Because the op-amp is in its linear region, vo is a finite voltage (e.g.,
​

5V).

Since Ais nearly infinite (e.g., 106 ), the voltage v must be practically
zero. (v = −5V /106 ≈ 0V ).
4. Conclusion: The inverting input terminal (G) is not physically connected to
ground, but the op-amp's feedback action holds it at 0 volts. This is called
a virtual ground.

Note: Virtual vs. Actual Ground

An actual ground can sink an infinite amount of current.

Special Devices & Integrated Circuits 18

 A virtual ground cannot sink any current. Because the op-amp has
infinite input impedance, no current can flow into its input terminal (G).

Gain Derivation
1. Because point G is a virtual ground (0V) and no current flows into the op-
amp, all the current iflowing from v1 through R1 must continue to flow ​ ​

through Rf to the output vo . ​ ​

2. The current $i$ can be written in two ways using Ohm's law:

Current through R1 : i ​ = (v1 − v)/R1 = (v1 − 0)/R1 

​ ​ ​ ​

Current through Rf : i ​ = (v − vo )/Rf = (0 − vo )/Rf 

​ ​ ​ ​

3. Equating the two expressions for i:

v1 −vo
R1
​

​
​ = Rf ​
 ​

4. Solving for the closed-loop gain (vo /v1 ): ​ ​

R
vo
v1
​

​
​
= − Rf1  ​

Inverting Amplifier Characteristics

Voltage Gain: The gain is the ratio of the feedback resistor to the input
resistor.

Phase Shift: The negative sign indicates a 180° phase inversion. A positive
input gives a negative output.

Input Impedance: The input impedance of the entire circuit (seen by v1 ) is ​

simply R1 , because point G is at a virtual ground.

​

Output Impedance: The output impedance of the circuit is very small (a

characteristic of negative feedback).

2. The Non-inverting Amplifier

A non-inverting amplifier (Fig. 14.7) produces an output signal with the same
polarity as the input.

Gain Derivation
1. Setup: The input signal v1 is applied directly to the non-inverting input
​

( + ). The feedback network (Rf and R1 ) is connected to the inverting input

​ ​

Special Devices & Integrated Circuits 19

 (), with R1 going to ground. ​

2. Op-Amp Action: Due to the infinite open-loop gain and negative feedback,
the op-amp will do whatever it takes to make the voltage at the inverting
input (G) equal to the voltage at the non-inverting input.

3. Therefore, the voltage at point G is vG ​ = v1 . ​

4. No current flows into the op-amp's inverting input. Thus, the current
flowing up from ground through R1 must be the same as the current ​

flowing from vo through Rf . ​ ​

5. Using Ohm's law for this single current path:

Current through R1 : i ​ = (vG − 0)/R1 = v1 /R1 

​ ​ ​ ​

Current through Rf : i ​
= (vo − vG )/Rf = (vo − v1 )/Rf
​ ​ ​ ​ ​

6. Equating the two expressions for i:

v1 vo −v1
R1
​

​
​ = ​

Rf  ​
​

7. Solving for the closed-loop gain (vo /v1 ): ​ ​

v 1 R f = R 1 (v o − v 1 )
​ ​ ​ ​ ​

v1 R f = vo R 1 − v1 R 1 
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

v1 R f + v1 R 1 = vo R 1 
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

v 1 (R f + R 1 ) = v o R 1 
​ ​ ​ ​ ​

Rf +R1 Rf
vo
= =1+ 
​ ​ ​

v1 R1 R1
​ ​ ​

​ ​ ​

Non-inverting Amplifier Characteristics

Voltage Gain: The gain is 1 + (Rf /R1 ), which is always greater than or ​ ​

equal to 1.

Phase Shift: The positive sign indicates there is no phase difference (0°
phase shift).

Input Impedance: The input impedance of the circuit is very high, as the
signal v1 connects directly to the op-amp's high-impedance non-inverting
​

terminal.

Output Impedance: The output impedance is very low.

Special Devices & Integrated Circuits 20

 3. Voltage Follower (Unity-Gain Buffer)
The voltage follower (Fig. 14.8) is a special case of the non-inverting amplifier
that provides a gain of exactly 1.

= 0(a short circuit) and

Setup: It is a non-inverting amplifier where Rf ​

R1 = ∞(an open circuit). This means the output vo is connected directly
​ ​

back to the inverting input ( - ).

Gain:

Using the non-inverting formula: Av ​ = 1 + (0/∞) = 1.

Using the op-amp rule v− ​ = v+ : v1 is applied to v+ and vo is applied to
​ ​ ​ ​

v− . Therefore, vo = v1 .
​ ​ ​

Characteristics (Usefulness):

Gain: 1 (or "unity")

Input Impedance: Extremely high.

Output Impedance: Extremely low.

Application: It is used as a buffer, or an impedance matching device. It

draws almost no current from a high-impedance source, and then provides
the same voltage to a low-impedance load without any signal loss.

Slew Rate (SR)

1. What is Slew Rate?
Slew rate is the maximum possible rate of change of an amplifier's output
voltage with respect to time. It's a measure of how "fast" the amplifier can
respond to a large, rapid change in its input.

It is typically measured in Volts per microsecond (V/μs).

Analogy: Imagine a car's top speed. This is the absolute fastest it can go,
regardless of how hard you press the accelerator. Slew rate is like the "top
speed" for an op-amp's output voltage. No matter how fast the input signal
asks the output to change, the output can only change as fast as its slew
rate.

Example: A standard LM741 op-amp has a slew rate of 0.5 V/μs. This
means its output voltage can, at most, change by 0.5 volts in one

Special Devices & Integrated Circuits 21

 microsecond. An OPA847 op-amp, designed for high speed, has a slew rate
of 850 V/μs.

2. The Cause of Slew Rate

Slew rate is an internal, non-ideal limitation. The primary cause is the internal
compensation capacitor (CC ) found in most op-amps.
​

1. This capacitor is intentionally added to ensure the amplifier is stable and

doesn't oscillate.

2. To change the output voltage, this capacitor must be charged or

discharged.

3. The internal circuitry can only supply a limited, finite amount of current
(let's call it $I_{max}$) to charge or discharge this capacitor.

The rate of change of voltage across a capacitor is given by the formula $dV/dt
= I/C$. Therefore, the slew rate is set by this internal limit:
Slew Rate (SR) = Imax /CC  ​ ​

Once the internal current source is maxed out, the output voltage changes at
this maximum, constant rate, and the amplifier is said to be "slewing."

3. Effects of Slew Rate (Slew-Rate Limiting)

When an input signal requires the output to change faster than the op-amp's
slew rate, the output becomes distorted. This is called slew-rate limiting.

On a Square Wave
An ideal square wave has instantaneous (infinite) rise and fall times. An op-
amp's output cannot do this.

Ideal Input: A perfect, fast step in voltage.

Actual Output: The output will not be a step. Instead, it will be a linear ramp
(a trapezoid) with a slope equal to the op-amp's slew rate.

Calculation: The time it takes for the output to change by ΔV is T ime =
ΔV /SR.

On a Sine Wave

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 This is where slew-rate limiting is most often a problem. A sine wave's rate of
change is fastest at its zero-crossing point.

Input: A high-frequency or high-amplitude sine wave.

Actual Output: If the required slew rate of the sine wave is greater than the
op-amp's SR, the op-amp "can't keep up." The output signal will distort and
begin to look like a triangle wave.

Bibliography
Chattopadhyay, D., and Rakshit, P. C. Electronics Fundamentals and
Applications. 11th ed., New Age International Publishers, New Delhi (2010).

Special Devices & Integrated Circuits 23