[Link].

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World Geography

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Cosmology Important Facts

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• The Universe or the Cosmos, as perceived today,
consists of millions of Galaxies. A galaxy is a huge • Parsec: It represents the distance at which the
congregation of stars held together by the forces of mean radius of earth’s orbit subtends an angle of

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gravity. one second of an arc. It is equal to 3.26 light years.
• Edwin Hubble in 1924 first demonstrated existence • Stars are self – luminous bodies that account for 98
of galaxies beyond Milky Way. He proved that these per cent of the material in the galaxy. The rest 2 per
galaxies are flying away from each other and that cent consists of interstellar or galactic gas and dust

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the farther they are, the faster they fly. This means in an attenuated form.
that the universe is expanding like a balloon that is
being blown up. • A star’s colour indicates the temperature of its
• In 140 AD, Ptolemy propounded the theory that the surface. Blue colour denotes maximum
earth was the centre of the universe and the sun and temperature. Then comes yellow, then red, etc.

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other heavenly bodies revolved around it. In 1543, • The life of a star is spread over billions of years. It
Copernicus argued that the sun and not the earth begins to form by compression of galactic gas and
was the centre of the universe. dust. Compression generates heat which in turn

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• However, he still equated the universe with the
solar system. Kepler supported Copernicus but said
that the sun was the centre of the solar system and
not the universe. In 1805, Hershel made it clear that
the solar system was a part of the much larger
causes hydrogen to be converted into helium in

system of stars called galaxy.

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• Our galaxy is Milky Way Galaxy (or the Akash
Ganga). It is spiral in shape. It consists of over a 100
billion stars rotating and revolving about its centre.
Nearest galaxy to ours is Andromeda.
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• The Big Bang Theory evaluates that 15 billion years

ago, cosmic matter (universe) was in an extremely
compressed state, from which expansion started by
a primordial explosion. This explosion broke up the
superdense ball and cast its fragments far out into
space, where they are still traveling at thousands of
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miles per second.

Measurement Units of Space are :

• Light Year : It is the distance covered by light in one
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year in vacuum at a speed of 3 105 km/s.

• Astronomical Unit (A.U) : It is the mean distance
between the earth and the sun. One light year is
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equal to 60,000 A.U.

•
[Link] | [Link] | [Link]
 nuclear fusion, thereby emitting large amount of • Morning/Evening Star: Venus
heat and light. • Earth's Twin: Venus
• If the star is of sun’s size, it becomes a White • Green Planet: Neptune
Dwarf. Their central density can reach up to • Planet with a big red spot: Jupiter
10grams per cubic cm. • Lord of the Heavens: Jupiter
• Greatest Diurnal Temperature: Mercury
• If die star is bigger than the sun but not more than
twice as big, it will turn into a Neutron Star or Earth Movement

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Pulsar. • The Earth also called Blue Planet. It is the densest of
• Their central density is 1014 grams per cubic cm. all planets.
They are formed due to Novae or Super novae • Earth Circumference : 40,232 Kilometers.
explosion. • Earth Area : 510 million Square Kilometers
• Stars having mass greater than three times that of Average distance from sun: 149 million-Kilometers.
the sun, because of their great gravitational power,

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• Earth Perihelion : Nearest position of earth to sun.
have contracteso much that they have developed The earth reaches its perihelion on January 3 every
super density of 1016 grams per cubic cm. It is so year at a distance of about 147 million-Kilometers.
dense that nothing, not even light, can escape from • Aphelion : Farthest position of earth from sun. The
its gravity and hence called ‘Black Hole’. earth reaches its aphelion on July 4, when the earth

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• Brightest star outside our Solar System is Sirius, is at a distance of 152 million Kilometers.
also called Dog Star. • The shape of the earth is oblate spheroid or oblate
• Closest star of Solar System is Proxima Centauri (4.2 ellipsoid (i.e. almost spherical, flattened a little at
light years away). Then come Alpha Centauri (4.3 the poles with a slight bulge at the centre).

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light years away) and Barnard’s Star (5.9 light years
away). Types of Earth Movements:
• 1. Rotation or daily movement.
• 2. Revolution or annual movement.
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Earth Solar System
• Earth solar system consists of : Earth Rotation
• The Sun • Spins on its imaginary axis from west to east in 23
• The Planets hrs, 56 min and 40.91 sec.
• Dwarf Planets and countless fragments of left – • Rotational velocity at equator is 1667 Kilometers/h
overs called asteroids, meteors, comets and
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and it decreases towards the poles, where it is zero.

satellites of the planets (Called small solar system
Bodies). Earth’s rotation results in
• i . Causation of days and nights;
• ii . A difference of one hour between two meridians
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which are 15° apart;

• iii. Change in the direction of wind and ocean
currents;
• Rise and fall of tides everyday.
Solar System Some Facts • The longest day in North Hemisphere is June 21,
• Biggest Planet: Jupiter
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while shortest day is on 22 Dec (Vice-versa in S.

• Smallest Planet: Mercury Hemisphere).
• Nearest Planet to Sun: Mercury • Days and nights are almost equal at the equator.
• Farthest Planet from Sun: Neptune
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• Nearest Planet to Earth: Venus Earth Revolution

• Brightest Planet: Venus • It is earth’s motion in elliptical orbit around the sun.
• Brightest star after Sun Sirius Earth’s average orbital velocity is 29.79
• Planet with maximum satellites: Jupiter Kilometers/s.
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• Coldest Planet: Neptune • Takes 365 days, 5 hrs, 48 min and 45.51 sec. It
• Hottest Planet: Venus results in one extra day every fourth year.
• Heaviest Planet: Jupiter
• Red Planet: Mars
• Biggest Satellite: Gannymede
• Smallest Satellite: Deimos
• Blue Planet: Earth
[Link] | [Link] | [Link]
• Revolution of the earth results in • There are total 181 latitudes including the equator.
i . Change of seasons Each parallel of latitude is a circle, but they are not
ii . Variation in the lengths of days and nights at equal.
different times of the year • The circle becomes smaller towards the poles.
iii . Shifting of wind belts Equator is the ‘Greatest Circle’ that can be drawn on
iv . Determination of latitudes. the earth’s surface.
• The distance between any two parallels of latitude
The 4 Earth Seasons are: is always equal.

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• Spring: On March 21, the sun is directly overhead
the equator. This is the season of spring in the
northern hemisphere.
• Summer: On June 21, the sun is directly overhead
the Tropic of Cancer. Thus, the northern
hemisphere experiences summer.

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• Autumn: On September 23, the sun returns to the Earth Longitude
equator, and the northern hemisphere experiences • It is the angular distance measured from die centre
autumn. of the earth. On the globe the lines of longitude are
• Winter: On December 22, the sun is at the Tropic of drawn as a series of semicircles that extend from

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Capricorn, and the northern hemisphere the North Pole to the South Pole through the
experiences winter. equator. They are also called meridians.
• The distance between any two meridians is not
equal. At the equator, 1 degree = 111 km. At 30°N or

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S, it is 96.5 km. It goes on decreasing this way until
it is zero at the poles.
• There are 360 meridians of longitude. The prime
meridian is a longitude of 00, passing through the
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Royal Observatory at Greenwich near London.
• This meridian is taken by geographers to divide the
earth into the eastern and the western hemispheres.
• Each meridian of longitude is a semi-circle. 180°
meridian (International Date Line) lies exactly
opposite to ° meridian. Such points are called
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Antipodl Points.
• The earth is divided into 24 longitudinal zones, each
being 15° or 1 hour apart in time (4 minutes /
degree).
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Longitude and Time

• Places that are on the same meridian have the same
local (sun) time. Since the earth makes one
complete revolution of 360° in 24 hours, it passes
through 15° in one hour or 1° in 4 minutes.
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• The earth rotates from west to east, hence places

east of Greenwich see the sun earlier and gain time
whereas places west of Greenwich see the sun later
and lose time.
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Earth Latitude and Longitude

Earth Latitude • India, whose longitudinal extent is approx. 30°, has
adopted only one time zone, selecting the 82.5°E for
• Imaginary lines drawn parallel to the equator.
the standard time which is 5 hours and 30 minutes
Measured as an angle whose apex is at the centre of
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ahead of GMT (Greenwich Mean Time).

the earth
• The equator represents 0° latitude, while the North
International Date Line
Pole is 90° N and the South Pole 90° S
• It is the 180° meridian running over the Pacific
• 23½° N represents Tropic of Cancer while 23½° S
Ocean, deviating at Aleutian Islands, Fiji, Samoa and
represents Tropic of Capricorn.\
Gilbert Islands.
• 66½° N represents Arctic Circle while 66½° S
• Travelers crossing the Date Line from west to east
represents Antarctic Circle.
(i.e., from Japan to USA) repeat a day and travelers
[Link] | [Link] | [Link]
 crossing it from east to west (i.e., from USA to
Japan) lose a day.

Earth Eclipses
Earth Lunar Eclipse
• When earth comes between sun and moon. • It is the outermost and the thinnest layer of the
• Occurs only on a full moon day. However, it does not earth’s surface, about 8 to 40 km thick. The crust
occur on every full moon day because the moon is varies greatly in thickness and composition – as

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so small and the plane of its orbit is tilted about 5° small as 5 km thick in some places beneath the
with respect to the plane of the earth’s orbit. It is for oceans, while under some mountain ranges it
this reason that eclipses do not occur every month. extends up to 70 km in depth.
• This light is red because the atmosphere scatters • The crust is made up of two layers- an upper lighter
the other colors present in sunlight in greater layer called the Sial (Silicate + Aluminium) and a
amounts than it does red.

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lower
Earth Tides • density layer called Sima (Silicate + Magnesium).
Earth Tides • The average density of this layer is 3 gm/cc.
• Refer to the phenomenon of regular rise and fall of • The average density of this layer is 3 gm/cc.
the sea water. Though both sun and moon exert

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gravitational force on earth, resulting in the
production of tides, the moon, by nature of its The Mantle of Earth
closeness to the earth, has greater control over the • This layer extends up to a depth of 2900 km.
timings of the tidal rises and falls. • Mantle is made up of 2 parts: Upper Mantle or

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• The interval between two tides is 12 hrs and 26 Asthenosphere (up to about 500 km) and Lower
minutes. Mantle. Asthenosphere is in a semi-molten plastic
state, and it is thought that this enables the
Spring Tide lithosphere to move about it. Within the
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• When the sun, moon and the earth are in a straight asthenosphere, the velocity of seismic waves is
line, the gravitational force is at its greatest because considerably reduced (Called ‘Low Velocity Zone’).
tide producing forces of both sun and moon • The line of separation between the mantle and the
complement each other and they pull together. This crust is known as Mohoviricic Discontinuity.
produces tides of unusually great range, called the • The Core of Earth
spring tide.
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• Beyond a depth of 2900 km lies the core of the

• These occur about twice a month: at new moon earth. The outer core is 2100 km thick and is in
when the sun and the moon are in conjugation and molten form due to excessive heat out there. Inner
at full moon when they are in opposition. core is 1370 km thick and is in plastic form due to
the combined factors of excessive heat and
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pressure. It is made up of iron and nickel (Nife) and

is responsible for earth’s magnetism. This layer has
the maximum specific gravity.
• The temperatures in the earth’s core lie between
2200°c and 2750°c.
Note: Temperature Inside the Earth: In the first 100
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Neap Tide km, 12° increase per km. In the next 300 km, 2°
• Lowest magnitude as the tide producing forces of increase per km. After that it is 1° increase per km.
sun and moon act opposite to each other, as they
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form a triangle. Composition of Earth

• This happens during phases of first and third • Made up of over 100 elements.
quarter, i.e., at half moon, the sun’s tide producing
force tends to balance the tide producing force of The following 8 are important:
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the moon., resulting in tides of unusually small • Oxygen 46.5%

range known as neap tides. • Silicon 27.72%
• Aluminium 8.13%
• Iron 5 .01%
Internal Structure of Earth
• Calcium 3.63%
• The Crust of Earth
• Sodium 2.85%
• Potassium 2.62%
[Link] | [Link] | [Link]
• Magnesium 2.09%
Types of Waves Earthquakes
Earth Rocks • 1. Primary Waves (P-Waves): Travel from the
Rocks of Earth point of happening by the displacement of
• Any aggregate of material particles that forms part surrounding particles.
of the earth’s crust is called a rock. They are transmitted through solids, liquids and
gases. Travels fastest.
There are 3 major types of rock types : • 2. Secondary Waves (S-Waves): Travels through

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Igneous Rocks solids only. Thus they cannot pass through core.
• Formed by the solidification of molten magma from • 3. Surface Waves or Long Waves (L-Waves):
the interior of the earth. Travels on earth’s surface and causes maximum
• Most abundant of the three types of rocks (95%). destruction. They are recorded after the P and S
• All other types of rocks originate from these rocks, waves.
thus called Primary rocks.

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Sedimentary Rocks
• Made up of weathered remains of igneous rocks.
Also contains fossils of plants and animals.

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• Comprise only about 5% of the earth’s crust but
cover about 75% of the total land surface.
• The layers of sedimentary rocks hold all reserve of
coal, oil and natural gas.

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• Also known as Stratified Rocks because of the
layers.

Sedimentary rocks fall into three main groups:

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• 1. Mechanically Formed: These are called clastic
sedimentary rocks; the sediments are largely
derived from pre-existing rocks that have been
broken down and then transported by water, wind
or ice to form rocks.
2. Organically Formed Rocks: These rocks are
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•
derived from remains of plants (e.g. peat, lignite,
bituminous coal), or animals (e.g., chalk and coral).
• 3. Chemically Formed: E.g., Gypsum, salt rock, etc
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Metamorphic Rocks
• Sometimes igneous or sedimentary rocks
metamorphize or change due to great ‘pressure, Distribution of Earthquakes
intense temperature or the action of water and • Around the Pacific Ocean along a belt of volcanoes
chemical activity. known as the Ring of Fire. 68 per cent of the
volcanoes are experienced in this region.
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Earthquakes • From the middle of Asia (Himalayas, Caspian Sea)

Earthquakes through the Mediterranean Sea to West Indies. 21
• Tremors or vibrations of earth’s surface produced per cent earthquakes are experienced in the region.
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by internal forces. • Mid-Atlantic ridge belt which accounts for 11 per

• The point of origin of earthquake is called Seismic cent of the earthquakes
focus.
• The point on the earth’s surface vertically above the Earth Volcanoes
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earth’s surface is called Epicentre. • A volcano is a vent or opening usually circular in

• The passage of earthquake waves is recorded by form through which heated materials consisting of
Seismograph. gases, water, liquid lava and fragments of rocks are
• The magnitude of waves is measured on Richter’s ejected from the highly heated interiors to he
scale. For measurement of the intensity of the surface of the earth.
earthquake (damage caused), the Modified Mercalli
Intensity Scale is used. Classification of Volcanoes

[Link] | [Link] | [Link]

 1. Classification on the basis of Periodicity of • Pennines Europe -893
Eruptions: • Pyrenees Europe- 3,404
• Active Volcano: Volcano which erupt periodically. • Appalachian North America- 2,040
E.g. Maona Loa in Hawaii, Etna in Sicily, Vesuvius in • Cyclones in World
Italy, Stromboli in Mediterranean Sea, etc. • It is a system of very low pressure in the center
• Dormant Volcano: Volcano which has been surrounded by increasingly high pressure
quiescent for a long time but in which there is a outwards.
possibility of eruption. E.g. Fujiyama in Japan, • In this, the winds blows in a circular manner in

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Krakatoa in Indonesia, Barren island Volcano in Anticlockwise direction in Northern Hemisphere.
Andamans, etc. Clockwise direction in Southern Hemisphere.
• In the temperate region, they occur due to the
Distribution of Volcanoes in the World coming close and imperfect mixing of two masses of
• About 15% of world’s active volcanoes are found air of contrasting temperature and humidity
along the ‘constructive or divergent’ plate margins,

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conditions. Cycles of this type are also known as
whereas 80% volcanoes are associated with the Wave Cyclones or Temperate Cyclones.
‘destructive or convergent’ plate boundaries. • On the other hand, in the tropical regions, they
occur due to intense heating up of air in some
Earth Mountains regions causing

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Types of Mountains very low pressure in these locations. Tropical seas
• Fold Mountains of the World: They are formed and oceans are most conducive to the development
when the rocks of the crust of the earth folded of tropical
under stress, mainly by forces of compression (as a

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result of series of earthquakes). E.g. – All big cyclones.
mountain systems: Himalayas, Alps, Andes, Rockies, These are known as :
Atlas, etc. • Cyclones – in the Indian Ocean
• Hurricanes – in the Caribbean Islands
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• Typhoons – in the China Sea
• Willy-Willies – in the North West Australia
• Tornadoes – in coastal US.
• Twisters – in Mississippi Valley, USA

Earth Clouds
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Old Mountains • Earth Clouds are masses of minute water droplets

• They belong to pre-drift era, then subjected to and / or ice crystals formed by the condensation of
denudation and uplift; many faults were formed; water vapour and
occur as relict mountains today. E.g. Pennines • held in suspension in the atmosphere.
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(Europe), Appalachians (US), Aravallis (India). Condensation, which results from cooling, usually
• Relict Mountains: Sometimes, the mountains are takes place around nuclei such as dust, smoke
carved out as a result of erosion of plateaus & high particles and salt. Such particles are called
planes by various agents of erosion. E.g., Highlands condensation nuclei.
of Scotland, Sierras of Spain, Catskill mountains of • Earth Clouds are of different types and they can be
New York and Nilgiri, Parasnath, Girnar, Rajmahal
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classified on the basis of their form and altitude.

of India.
On the basis of form, there are two major
Major Mountain Ranges of the World groups:
• Andes -South America -6,960
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• 1. Stratiform or layered types, and

• Himalayas Karakoram-Hindukush -South Central • 2. Cumuliform or massive types.
Asia 8,850
• Rockies North America 4,401 Stratiform Clouds
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• Great Dividing Range East Australia -2,228 • These clouds, which are fairly thin and blanket like,
• Western Ghats Western India- 2,637 are sub-divided into three main categories on the
• Caucasus Europe, -Asia -5,642 basis of altitude.
• Alaska USA -6,194
• Alps Europe -4,808
• Apennines Europe -2,912
• Ural Asia -1,895

[Link] | [Link] | [Link]

 • These seven continents were believed to be part of
Pangaea which was a single landmass around 250
million years ago.
• Due to the tectonic movement, the landmass broke
up and the component continents separated and
moved away to its present position. All these took
High Clouds (mean ht 5-13 km) around 1 million years to complete.
• Cirrus Clouds: Indicates fair weather.

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• Cirrocumulus Clouds: Forms the mackerel sky. The Continents of the World,
• Cirrostratus Clouds: Produces a halo around sun • Asia Continents Countries
and moon. • Africa Continents Countries
• North America Continents Countries
Middle Clouds (mean ht 2-7 km) • South America Continents Countries
• Altocumulus Clouds: Indicate fine weather.

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• Europe Continents Countries
• Alto-stratus Clouds: Associated with development • Australia Continents Countries
of bad weather. • Antarctica Continents Countries

Low (mean ht up to 2 km)

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• Stratus Clouds: Brigs dull weather, usually
accompanied with a drizzle.
• Nimbostratus Clouds: If rain or snow is falling
from a stratus cloud, it is called nimbostratus.

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Riverside Cities - World
City River Country
Amsterdam Amsel Netherlands
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Antwerp Schelde Belgium
Baghdad Tigris Iraq
Belgrade Danube Yugoslavia
Berlin Spree Germany
Bonn Rhine Germany
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Budapest Danube Hungary

Cairo Nilew Egypt
Glasgow Clyde Scotland
Hamburg Elbe Germany
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Karachi Indus Pakistan

Lahore Ravi Pakistan
London Thames England
Moscow Moskva Russia
New York Hudson USA
Paris Seine France
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Quebuc [Link] Canada

Yangon Irrawaddy Myanmar
Rome Tiber Italy
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Tokyo Sumida Japan

Vienna Danube Austria
Warsaw Vistula Poland
Washington
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Potomac USA

Continents of the World

World Continents
• Asia, Africa, North America, South America, Europe,
Australia and Antarctica are the seven continents of
the world.

[Link] | [Link] | [Link]

 Indian Geographical Location
• Lying between latitude 4 N to 37°6 N and from • Great Nicobar is the southernmost island and is only
longitude 68°7 E to 97°25 E, the country is divided 147 km away from Sumatra island of Indonesia.
into almost equal parts by the Tropic of Cancer • Volcanic Islands: Barren and Narcondam Islands.
(passes from Jabalpur in MP). Barren is in the process of eruption these days after
• The southernmost point in Indian Territory, (in lying dormant for 200 years.
Great Nicobar Island) is the Indira Point (6°45),

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while Kanyakumari, also known as Cape Comorin, is
the southernmost point of Indian mainland. The
country thus lies wholly in the northern and eastern
hemispheres.
• The 82°30 E longitude is taken as the Standard Time

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Meridian of India, as it passes through the middle of
India (from Naini, near Allahabad). The Arabian Sea Group
• All the islands in the Arabian Sea (Total 25) are
Area Geography & Boundaries Geography coral islands and are surrounded by Fringing Reefs

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• India stretches 3,214 km from North to South & (North :Lakshadweep, South: Minicoy).
2,933 km from East to West.
• Geography Area of India : 32,87,263 sq. km. Important Points
Accounts for 2.4% of the total world area and • Ten Degree Channel separates Andamans from
roughly 16% of the world population. Nicobars (Little Andaman from Car Nicobar)

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• Mainland India has a coastline of 6,100 km. • Duncan Passage lies between South Andaman and
Including the Lakshadweep and Andaman and Little Andaman.
Nicobar Islands, the coastline measures about • Nine Degree Channel separates Kavaratti from
7516.6 km.
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Minicoy Island.
• In India, of the total land mass: • Eight Degree Channel separates Minicoy Island
Plains Geography: 43.3% (India) from Maldives.
Plateaus: 27.7%
Hills: 18.6% Rivers of India
Mountains Geography: 10.7% • In India, the rivers can be divided into two main
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groups:
• 1. Himalayan Rivers
• 2. Peninsular Rivers

Himalayan Rivers of India

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In this three major river systems are there:

The Indus System
• In the South, on the eastern side, the Gulf of Mannar • It has a total length of 2880 km (709 km in India).
& the Palk Strait separate India from Sri Lanka. Rises in Tibet (China) near Mansarovar Lake.
• Total land neighbours: 7 (Pakistan, Afghanistan, • In Jammu and Kashmir, its Himalayan tributaries
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China, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh and Myanmar). are: Zanskar, Dras, Gartang, Shyok, Shigar, Nubra,
• India’s Islands include the Andaman & Nicobar Gilgit, etc
Islands in Bay of Bengal and Lakshadweep, Minicoy • Its most important tributaries, which join Indus at
& Amindive Islands in the Arabian Sea. various places, are: Jhelum (725 km), Chenab (1800
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km), Ravi (720 km), Beas (470 km) & Sutlej (1050
The Andaman and Nicobar Group km).
• Andamans is a group of 204 islands of which the • According to the Indus Water Treaty signed
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largest is Middle Andaman. between India and Pakistan in 1960, India can
• The Andamans are believed to be extensions of utilize only 20% of the total discharge of Indus,
mountains system in the N.E. part of the country. Jhelum and Chenab.
• Saddle Peak (737 m) in [Link] is the highest
peak. The Ganga System
• The Nicobars is a group of 19 islands of which the • It is 2525 km long of which 1450 km is in
largest is Great Nicobar. Most of them are volcanic Uttarakhand and UP, 445 km in Bihar and 520 km in
in nature. West Bengal.
[Link] | [Link] | [Link]
• The Ganga, the head stream is constituted of two Infact, it is the only peninsular river which flows
main rivers – Bhagirthi and Alaknanda, which almost throughout the year. Known as the ‘Ganga of
combine at Devprayag to form Ganga. the South’.
• Before Alaknanda meets Bhagirthi at Devprayag,
Mandakini meets Alaknanda at Rudraprayag.
• Sources: Bhagirthi from Gaumukh, Alaknanda from West Flowing Rivers in India
Badrinath, Mandakini from Kedarnath (all from • Narmada River (1057 km) : Has only l/10th part
Uttarakhand). in Gujarat. Rises in Amarkantak Plateau and flows

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into Gulf of Khambat. It forms the famous Dhuan
The Brahmaputra system Dhar Falls near Jabalpur. Main tributaries: Hiran,
• It has a total length of 2900 km. It rises in Tibet Burhner, Banjar, Shar, Shakkar, Tawa, etc.
(from Chemayungdung glacier), where it is called • Tapti River (724 km) : Rises from Betul distt in MR
Tsangpo, and enters the Indian territory (in Also known as twin or handmaid of Narmada. Main
Arunachal Pradesh) under the name Dihang. tributaries: Purna, Betul, Arunavati, Ganjal, etc.

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• Important Tributaries: Subansiri, Kameng, • Sabarmati River (416 km) : Rises from Aravallis
Dhansiri, Manas, Teesta. in Rajasthan.
• In Bangladesh, Brahmaputra is known by the name • Mahi River (560 km) : Rises from Vindhyas in MR
of Jamuna while Ganga gets the name Padma. • Luni River (450 km) : Rises from Aravallis. Also

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• Mahanadi River (858 km) : Rises in Raipur distt. called Salt River. It is finally lost in the marshy
in Chhatisgarh. Main tributaries: lb, Seonath, Hasdo, grounds at the head of the Rann of Kuchchh.
Mand, Jonk, Tel, etc.
• Godavari River (1465 km) : Also called Vriddha Riverside Cities - India

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Ganga or Dakshina Ganga. It is the longest
peninsular river. Rises in Nasik. Main tributaries: City River State
Manjra, Penganga, Wardha, Indravati, Wainganga, Agra Yamuna Uttar Pradesh
Sabari, etc. Ahmedabad Sabarmati Gujarat
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• Krishna River (1327 km) : Rises in Western Ghats Ayodhya Sarayu Uttar Pradesh
near Mahabaleshwar. Main tributaries: Koyna, Badrinath Ganga Uttrakhand
Dudhganga, Panchganga, Malprabha, Ghatprabha, Cuttack Mahanadi Orissa
Bhima, Tungabhadra, Musi, etc. Delhi Yamuna Delhi
• Cauvery River (805 km) : It is the largest Dibrugarh Brahmaputra Assam
peninsular river (maximum amount of water).
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Haridwar Ganga Uttaranchal

Hyderabad Musi AP
Jabalpur Narmada MP
Kanpur Ganga Uttar Pradesh
Kolkata Hoogly West Bengal
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Kota Chambal Rajasthan

Lucknow Gomti Uttar Pradesh
Ludhiana Sutlej Punjab
Nasik Godavari Maharashtra
Pandharpur Bhima Maharashtra
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Patna Ganga Bihar

Rajahmundry Godavari Andhra
/ Pradesh
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Rajamahendri
Sambalpur Mahanadi Orissa
Srinagar Jhelum Jammu &
Kashmir
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Surat Tapti Gujarat

Tirucharapallil Kaveri / Tamil Nadu
Cauveri
Varanasi Ganga Uttar Pradesh
Vijayawada Krishna Andhra Pradesh

[Link] | [Link] | [Link]

 Note: • Sown at the beginning of winter and harvested
• The largest man-made lake in India is Indira Sagar before the onset of the summer season, between
Lake, which is the reservoir of Sardar Sarovar Feb and April. Eg: Wheat, barley, oilseeds, gram,
Project, Onkareshwar Project and Maheshwar potatoes, etc.
Project in Gujarat-MP.
• Chilka Lake (Orissa) is the largest brackish water Zayad Crops
lake of India. Otherwise also, it is the largest lake of • They are raised between April and June. E.g. : Melon,
India. watermelon, cucumber, toris, leafy and other

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• Wular Lake (J & K) is the largest fresh water lake of vegetables.
India. Dul Lake is also there in J & K.
• From Sambhar and Didwana Lake (Rajasthan), salt Cash Crops of India (Commercial Crops)
is produced. • Grown mainly for the market, only a small portion
• Other important lakes are Vembanad in Kerala and of the product is consumed by the farmers
Kolleru & Pulicat in AP. themselves (cotton, sugarcane etc.

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The three important Gulfs in the Indian Important National Park in India
Territory are: • Kaziranga National Park - Golaghat/Nagaon
• Gulf of Kuchch (west of Gujarat) : Region with (Assam)

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highest potential of tidal energy generation • Manas Tiger Sanctuary – Barpeta (Assam)
• Gulf of Cambay or Gulf of Khambat (Gujarat) : • Keoladeo National Park - Bharatpur (Rajasthan)
Narmada, Tapti, Mahi and Sabarmati drain into it. • Sundarbans Tiger Sanctuary - 24Paraganas (West
• Gulf of Mannar (south east of Tamil Nadu) : Bengal)

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Asia’s first marine biosphere reserve. • Bandhavgarh National Park - Shahdol (Madhya
Pradesh)
Climate Seasons in India • Kanha National Park - Mandla (Madhya Pradesh)
• In India, the year can be divided into four seasons, • Dudwa National Park - Lakhimpur Kheri (Uttar
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resulting from the monsoons which occur mainly Pradesh)
due to the differential heating of land and • Chandraprabha Sanctuary - Varanasi (Uttar
movement of the sun’s vertical rays. Pradesh)
• The vertical rays of the sun advance towards Tropic • Corbett National Park - Nainital (Uttarakhand)
of Cancer from mid-March, due to which hot and dry • Rajaji National Park - Dehradun, (Uttarakhand)
weather arrives. As temperatures rise over most of • Dachigam National Park - Srinagar (Jammu &
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northern and Central India, a vast trough of low Kashmir)

pressure is created. The highest temperature • Ranthambore Tiger Sanctuary - Sawai Madhopur
experienced in South is in April while in North it is (Rajasthan)
in May and June. • Ghatprabha Bird Sanctuary - Belgaum (Karnataka)
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• This part of the year is marked by a dry spell and • Bandipur National Park – Mysore (Karnataka)
the north-western parts of the country experience • Gir National Park - Junagarh (Gujarat)
hot, dry winds, called loo. • Nal Sarovar Bird Sanctuary - Ahmedabad
(Gujarat)
• Hazaribagh National Park - Hazaribagh
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(Jharkhand)
• Nelapattu Bird Sanctuary - Nellore (Andhra
Pradesh)
• Mudumalai Sanctuary - Nilgiris (Tamilnadu)
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• Periyar Sanctuary - Idduki (Kerala)

Agriculture in India
• Simlipal Tiger Sanctuary - Mayurbhanj (Odisha)
Cropping Seasons in India
• Gahirmatha Turtle Sanctuary - Kendrapara
• Kharif Crops of India
(Odisha)
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• Sown in summers between May and July, and

• Vikramshila Gangetic Dolphin Sanctuary -
harvested after the rains, in September and October.
Bhagalpur (Bihar)
Eg: Rice, Jowar, Bajra, Maize, Cotton, Jute,
• Silent Valley National Park - Palakkad, (Kerala)
Sugarcane, Tobacco, Groundnut, Pulses, etc.
• Rani Jhansi Marine National Park - Andaman &
Rabi Crops of India Nicobar Island
• Campbell National Park - Andaman & Nicobar
Islands
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• Galathea National Park - Andaman & Nicobar • The Indian Railways operate in three different
Island gauges :
• Mahatma Gandhi Marine National Park - Andaman • 1. Broad Gauge Railway (Distance between rails is
& Nicobar 1.67 m).
• 2. Metre Gauge Railways (Distance between rails is
Largest Producers of crops in India 1.00 m).
• The largest producer of wheat in India -Uttar • 3. Narrow Gauge Railways India (Distance between
Pradesh rails is 0.762 or 0.610 m).

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• The largest producer of sugarcane in India -Uttar
Pradesh Railway Manufacturing Units :
• The largest producer of groundnut in India -Gujarat • Chittaranjan Locomotive Works : Located in
• The largest producer of tea in India - Assam Chittaranjan (W.B) and manufactures electric
• The largest producer of coffee in India -Karnataka engines.
• The largest producer of jute in India -West Bengal Diesel Locomotive Works : Located in Varanasi

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•
• The largest producer of tobacco in India -Andhra (U.P) and manufactures diesel engines.
Pradesh • Integral Coach Factory in India : Located in
• The largest producer of bananas in India Perambur (TN) and manufactures rail coaches.
-Tamilnadu Wheel and Axle Plant : Locatedat Yalahaka

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•
• The largest producer of onion in India (Bangalore, Karnataka) and manufactures wheels
-Maharashtra and axles.
• The largest producer of black pepper in India • Diesel Component Works : Locatedat Patiala
-Kerala (Punjab) and manufactures components of diesel

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engines.
Railways in India • Rail Coach Factory in India : Located at Kapurthala
• Indian railway system is the largest in Asia and the (Punjab) and manufactures rail coaches.
fourth largest in the world. It is the biggest
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departmental public undertaking in the country. Road Transport in India
• The first train ran in India between Bombay and • India’s road network is one of the largest in the
Thane, a stretch of 34 km. on April 16 1853. world. The total length of roads is more than 33
• The Indian Railways celebrated its 150th lakh km. or the purpose of maintenance and
anniversary on April 16, 2003. To commemorate construction, roads are classified into National
Highways, State Highways, District Highways,
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the occasion, 16 January – Shatabadi inter – city

express trains were announced to be inducted. Village Roads, Border Roads, etc.
• The second train ran between Howrah and Hooghly • National highways are maintained by the Central
in 1854. Government, State highways by the respective state
• The headquarters of Indian Railway is in New Delhi. government while District highways by the
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• The first electric train in India was ‘Deccan Queen’. respective District Board. Border roads and
It was introduced in 1929 between Bombay and International highways are also die responsibility of
Poona. Central Government.
• Indian Railways has the second biggest electrified • The present length of the National Highways in
system in the world after Russia. India is approx. 45,000 km. They constitute only 2%
of the total road length and carries nearly 40% of
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• The fastest train in India is the Shatabadi Express

whose maximum speed is 140 km/hr. the road traffic.
• The total route covered is approx 63,000 km.
• The total number of railway stations in India is
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7,100.
• The longest railway platform in India is at
Kharagpur (W.B.).
Some of the Important National Highways are:
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• Mumbai is the destination where maximum number

of trains in India head for. • NH 1: New Delhi – Ambala – Jalandhar – Amritsar.
• The longest train route is of ‘Himsagar Express’ • NH 2: Delhi – Mathura – Agara – Kanpur –
from Jammu Tavi to Kanyakumari. It covers a Allahabad – Varanasi – Kolkata.
distance of 3,726 km and passes through ten states. • NH 3: Agra – Gwalior – Nasik – Mumbai
• The first Metro Rail was introduced in Kolkata • NH 4: Thane and Chennai via Pune and Belgaun.
([Link]) on October 24, 1984. The two stations • NH 5: Kolkata – Chennai
connected were Dumdum and Belgachhia. • NH 6: Kolkata – Dhule
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• NH 7: Varanasi – Kanyakumari • Chennai Port : Oldest artificial harbour. This port
• NH 8: Delhi – Mumbai (via Jaipur, Baroda and ranks only second after Mumbai in terms of the
Ahmedabad) traffic handling capacity.
• NH 9: Mumbai – Vijaywada • Ennore Port : Declared a major port in 2001. It is
• NH 10: Delhi – Fazilka the first port with corporate participation. Provided
• NH 11: Agra – Bikaner with all the modern facilities for handling the
• NH 12: Jabalpur – Jaipur thermal coal required for Tamil Nadu Electricity
• NH 24: Delhi – Lucknow Board Power Station.

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• NH 27: Allahabad – Varanasi • Tuticorin Port : It came into existence during the
• NH 28: Barauni – Lucknow reign of Pandya kings. It has an artificial deep sea
• NH 29: Gorakhpur – Varanasi harbour.
• NH 56: Lucknow – Varanasi • Cochin Port : A fine natural harbour located on
• NH – 7 is the longest highway of India Kerala coast. Handles the export of tea, cofee and
spices and import of petroleum and fertilisers.

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• Airports in India : • New Mangalore Port : The ‘Gateway of Karnataka’.
There are 12 International Airports in India : Handles the export of iron-ore of Kudremukh.
• Begumpet Airport, Hyderabad • Marmugao Port : It has a naval base. India’s leading
iron-ore port.

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• Calicut International Airport, Calicut
• Chatrapati Shivaji International Airport, Mumbai • Mumbai Port : A natural port, India’s busiest. A
new port, Nhava Sheva, is being developed near
• Chennai International Airport, Chennai
Mumbai port.
• HAL Airport, Bangalore
• Jawaharlal Nehru Port : Occupies the 5th position
• Goa Airport in Vasco da Gama city, Goa

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in the world’s faster growing ports.
• Lokpriya Gopinath Bordolio International
• Kandla Port : Called the ‘offspring of partition’ as it
Airport, Guwahati
was developed after the partition as a substitute of
• Indira Gandhi International Airport, Delhi
Karachi port. It is a tidal port and a free trade zone
• Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose International
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located in the Rann of Kachchh.
Airport, Kolkata
• Rja Sansi International Airport, Amritsar
IMPORTANT POINTS
• Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel International Airport,
Ahmedabad • The first person to use the word geography was –
• Thiruvananathapuram International Airport, Erastosthenes (276 – 194 BC)
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Thiruvananathapuram • The First presented the India on the world map –

Note:The Indira Gandhi International Airport and the Tolmie
Chatrapati Shivaji International Airport handle more • 10 latitude give the seperatio of – 111 kms
than half of the air traffic in South Asia. Besides these • 10 Longitude is equal to – 4” (minutes)
• The Closest capital to tropic cancer – Ranchi
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airports several other domestic airports are located in

India. • 3 capitals are above to Tropic of Cancer – Jaipur,
Aizwol, Agarthala
• The atmosphere layer which reflects radio – waves
is known as - Lonosphere
• Which State is known as the name of Black Water?
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-Andaman and Nicobar

• Which latitude divides India into two parts? – 23 ½
Salient Features : 0
Kolkata Port (including Haldia) : Kolkata is a • The largest delta in the world is – The delta of
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•
riverine port, located about 128 km from the Bay of Ganga.
Bengal on the banks of river Hooghly. Haldia was • The type of climate in India is – Monsoon
developed because excessive silting prevented the • Most of the iron in India is found in – Dharwar
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entry of large marine vessels in Kolkata. Rocks

• Paradip Port : Located on the Orissa coast along • Ozone layer is found in – Stratosphere
the Bay of Bengal. India exports raw iron to Japan • “Ring of fire” refers to – Circum – Pacific Seismic
from here. belt
• Vishakhapatnam Port : The deepest port, located • Willy – Willy is the tropical cyclone occurring in –
in Andhra Pradesh. It serves the Bhilai and Rourkela Coast of North – west Australia
steel plants. • On which river, the Baglihar Hydro- powr project is
located? – Chenab
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• The term Rugur refers to – Black cotton Soil
• Which two peninsular rivers flow through troughs?
– Narmad and Tapi
• How much area does India cover of the total
geographical area of the world? – 2.42 %
• The length of the Indian coastline is 7516.6 km

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