Overcurrent Protection

5
5.1 INTRODUCTION
A protective relay which operates when the load current exceeds a preset value, is
called an overcurrent relay. The value of the preset current above which the relay
operates is known as its pick-up value. Overcurrent relays offer the cheapest and sim-
plest form of protection. These relays are used for the protection of distribution lines,
large motors, power equipment, industrial systems, etc. Overcurrent relays are also
used on some subtransmission lines which cannot justify more expensive protection
such as distance or pilot relays. A scheme which incorporates overcurrent relays for
the protection of an element of a power system, is known as an overcurrent protection
scheme or overcurrent protection. An overcurrent protection scheme may include
one or more overcurrent relays.
At present, electromechanical relays are widely used for overcurrent protection.
The induction disc type construction, as shown in Fig. 2.9(b) is commonly used.
With the development of numerical relays based on microprocessors or micorcon-
trollers, there is a growing trend to use numerical overcurrent relays for overcurrent
protection.

5.2 TIME-CURRENT CHARACTERISTICS

A wide variety of time-current characteristics is available for overcurrent relays.
The name assigned to an overcurrent relay indicates its time-current characteristic
as describe below.
5.2.1 De inite-time Overcurrent Relay
A definite-time overcurrent relay operates after a predetermined time when the
current exceeds its pick-up value. Curve (a) of Fig. 5.1 shows the time-current
characteristic for this type of relay. The operating time is constant, irrespective of
the magnitude of the current above the pick-up value. The desired definite operating
time can be set with the help of an intentional time-delay mechanism provided in the
relaying unit.

5.2.2 Instantaneous Overcurrent Relay

An instantaneous relay operates in a definite time when the current exceeds its pick-up
value. The operating time is constant, irrespective of the magnitude of the current,
as shown by the curve (a) of Fig. 5.1. There is no intentional time-delay. It operates
222 Power System Protection and Switchgear

in 0.1s or less. Sometimes the term

like “high set” or “high speed” is
used for very fast relays having
operating times less than 0.1s. (b)

Operating time
Inverse-time characteristic
5.2.3 Inverse-time Over-
(a) Definite-time characteristic
current Relay
An inverse-time overcurrent relay
operates when the current exceeds Pickup value
its pick-up value. The operating
Actuating quantity
time depends on the magnitude of
the operating current. The operat- Fig. 5.1 De inite-time and inverse-time
ing time decreases as the current characteristics of overcurrent relays
increases. Curve (b) of Fig. 5.1 shows the inverse time-current characteristic of this
types of relays.
5.2.4 Inverse De inite Minimum Time Overcurrent (I.D.M.T) Relay
This type of a relay gives an inverse-time current characteristic at lower values
of the fault current and definite-time characteristic at higher values of the fault
current. Generally, an inverse-time characteristic is obtained if the value of the plug
setting multiplier is below 10. For values of plug setting multiplier between 10 and
20, the characteristic tends to become a straight line, i.e. towards the definite time
characteristic. Figure 5.2 shows the characteristic of an I.D.M.T. relay along with
other characteristics. I.D.M.T. relays are widely used for the protection of distribu-
tion lines. Such relays have a provision for current and time settings which will be
discussed later on.

5.2.5 Very Inverse-time Overcurrent Relay

A very inverse-time overcurrent realy gives more inverse characteristic than that of a
plain inverse relay or the I.D.M.T. relay. Its time-current characteristic lies between
an I.D.M.T. characteristic and extremely inverse characteristic, as shown in Fig. 5.2.
The very inverse characteristic gives better selectivity than the I.D.M.T. characteris-
tic. Hence, it can be used where an I.D.M.T. relay fails to achieve good selectivity. Its
recommended standard time-current characteristic is given by
13.5
t = ____
I–1
The general expression for time-current characteristic of overcurrent relays is
given by
K
t = _____
In – 1
The value of n for very inverse characteristic may lie between 1.02 and 2.
Very inverse time-current relays are recommended for the cases where there
is a substantial reduction of fault current as the distance from the power source
increases. They are particularly effective with ground faults because of their steep
characteristic.
 Overcurrent Protection 223

5.2.6 Extremely Inverse-time Overcurrent Relay

An extremely inverse time overcurrent relay gives a time-current characteristic more
inverse than that of the very inverse and I.D.M.T. relays, as shown in Fig. 5.2. When
I.D.M.T. and very inverse relays
fail in selectivity, extremely inverse
relays are employed. I.D.M.T. relays
20
are not suitable to be graded with
fuses. Enclosed fuses have time-cur-
10
rent characteristics according to the
law 5.0
4.0
I 3.5t = K Inverse-time

Operating time in seconds

3.0
(IDMT)
The electromechanical relay 2.0
which gives the steepest time-current
characteristic is an extremely inverse 1.0
relay. The time-current characteris- Very
0.5 inverse-time
tic of an extremely inverse relay is
I2t = K. Its characteristic is not good
enough to be graded with fuses. But 0.2 Extremely
the best that can be done with electro- inverse-time
mechanical relay is to use extremely 0.1
inverse relays to grade with fuses.
An extremely inverse relay is 1 2 3 4 10 20
very suitable for the protection of Current plug setting multiplier
machines against overheating. The
heating characteristics of machines Fig. 5.2 I.D.M.T., very inverse-time and
extremely inverse-time characteristics
and other apparatus is also governed
2
by the law I t = K. Hence, this type of relays are used for the protection of alterna-
tors, power transformers, earthing transformers, expensive cables, railways trolley
wires, etc. The rotors of large alternators may be overheated if an unbalanced load or
fault remains for a longer period on the system. In such a case, an extremely inverse
relay, in conjunction with a negative sequence network is used. By adjusting the time
and current settings, a suitable characteristic of the relay is obtained for a particular
machine to be protected.
A relay should not operate on momentary overloads. But it must operate on
sustained short circuit current. For such a situation, it is difficult to set I.D.M.T.
relays. An extremely inverse relay is quite suitable for such a situation. This relay is
used for the protection of alternators against overloads and internal faults. It is also
used for reclosing distribuition circuits after a long outage. After long outages, when
the circuit breaker is reclosed there is a heavy inrush current which is comparable
to a fault current. An I.D.M.T. relay is not able to distinguish between the rapidly
decaying inrush current of the load and the persistent high current of a fault. Hence,
an I.D.M.T. relay trips again after reclosing. But an extremely inverse relay is able
to distinguish between a fault current and inrush current due to its steep time-current
characteristic. Therefore an extremely inverse relay is quite suitable for the load res-
toration purpose.
224 Power System Protection and Switchgear

5.2.7 Special Characteristics

Overcurrent relays, having their time-current characteristics steeper than those of
extremely inverse relays are required for certain industrial applications. These relays
have time-current characteristic I n = K with n = 2. To protect rectifier transform-
ers, a highly inverse characteristic of I 8t = K is required. The characteristics having
n = 2 are realised by static relays or microprocessor-based overcurrent relays.
Enclosed fuses have a time-current characteristic of I 3.5t = K. A static relay or micro-
processor-base relay can be designed to give I 3.5t = K characteristic, suitable to be
graded with fuses.
5.2.8 Method of De ining Shape of Time-current Characteristics
The general expression for time-current charactgeristics is given by
K
t = _____
I n –1
The approximate expression is
K
t = __n
I
For definite-time characteristic, the value of n is equal to 0. According to the British
Standard, the following are the important characteristics of overcurrent relays.
0.14
(i) I.D.M.T.: t = _______
0.02
I –1
13.5
(ii) Very inverse: t = ____
I–1
80
(iii) Extremely inverse: t = _____
I2 – 1
The inverse time-current characteristics obtained from the above expressions are
not straight line characteristics. A microprocessor-based relay can easily give straight
line characteristics of the form t = K/I n with any value of n. These characteristics are
straight line characteristics on log t/log I graph. The advantage of such simplified
time-current curves is the saving in time in calculating relay time settings.

5.2.9 Technique to Realise Various Time-Current Characteristics

using Electromechanical Relays
The magnetic circuit of an overcurrent relay can be designed to saturate above a
certain value of the actuating current. Below this value of the actuating current, the
relay gives an inverse characteristic. Above the saturation value of the current, the
relay gives a straight line characteristic, parallel to the current-axis. It means that
whatever may be the value of the current above saturation value the operating time
remains constant.
If the core is designed to saturate at the pick-up value of the current, the relay
gives a definite time-characteristic. If the core is designed to saturate at a later stage,
an I.D.M.T. characteristic is obtained. If the core saturates at a still later stage, a very
inverse characteristic is obtained. If the saturation occurs at a very late stage, the
relay give an extremely inverse characteristic.
 Overcurrent Protection 225

5.3 CURRENT SETTING

The current above which an overcurrent relay should operate can be set. Suppose
that a relay is set at 5 A. It will then operate if the current exceeds 5 A. Below 5 A,
the relay will not operate. There are a number of tappings on the current coil, avail-
able for current setting, as shown in Fig. 2.9 and Fig. 2.10. The operation of the relay
requires a certain flux and ampere turns. The current settings of the relay are chosen
by altering the number of turns of the current coil by means of a plug PS in Fig. 2.9
and 2.10. The plug-setting (current-setting) can either be given directly in amperes
or indirectly as percentages of the rated current. An overcurrent relay which is used
for phase-to-phase fault protection, can be set at 50% to 200% of the rated current in
steps of 25%. The usual current rating of this relay is 5 A. So it can be set at 2.5 A,
3.75 A, 5 A, ..., 10 A. When a relay is set at 2.5 A, it will operate when current
exceeds 2.5 A. When the relay is set at 10 A, it will operate when current exceeds 10
A. The relay which is used for protection against ground faults (earth-fault relay) has
settings 20% to 80% of the rated current in steps of 10%. The current rating of an
earth-fault relay is usually 1 A.
If time-current curves are drawn, taking current in amperes on the X-axis, there
will be one graph for each setting of the relay. To avoid this complex situation, the
plug setting multipliers are taken on the
50
X-axis. The actual r.m.s. current flowing
in the relay expressed as a multiple of the
setting current (pickup current) is known
as the plug setting multiplier (PSM). 20
Suppose, the rating of a relay is 5 A and it
is set at 200%, i.e. at 10 A. If the current 10
Operating time in seconds

flowing through the relay is 100 A, then

the plug setting multiplier will be 10. The
PSM = 4 means 40 A of current is flow- 5
4
ing, PSM = 6 means 60 A of current is
3
flowing and so on.
If the same relay is set at 50%, i.e. at 2
2.5 A, the PSM = 4 means 10 A; PSM =
6 means 15 A; PSM = 10 means 25 A and 1
so on. 1 2 3 4 5 10 20
Hence, PSM can be expressed as Plug setting multiplier

Secondary current Fig. 5.3 Standard I.D.M.T. characteristic

PSM = _________________
Relay current setting
Primary current during fault, i.e. fault current
= _____________________________________
Relay current setting × CT ratio
While plotting the time-current characteristic, if PSM is taken on the X-axis, there
will be only one curve for all the settings of the relay. Figure 5.3 shows a time-current
characteristic with PSM on the X-axis. The curve is generally plotted on log/log
226 Power System Protection and Switchgear

graph. Only this curve will give the operating time for different settings of the relay.
Suppose the relay is set at 5 A. The operating times for different currents are shown
in Table 5.1.
If the same relay is set at 10 A, the corresponding operating times for different
currents are shown in Table 5.2, using the same curve of Fig. 5.3

Table 5.1
Current in Amperes 5 10 20 50
PSM 1 2 4 10
Operating time
in seconds No operation 10 5 3

Table 5.2
Current in Amperes 5 10 20 40 100
PSM less than
1 1 2 4 10
Operating time Relay will not
in seconds operate No operation 10 5 3

5.4 TIME SETTING

The operating time of the relay can be set at a desired value. In induction disc type
relay, the angular distance by which the moving part of the relay travels for closing
the contacts can be adjusted to get different operating time. There are 10 steps in
which time can be set. The term time multiplier setting (TMS) is used for these steps
of time settings. The values of TMS are 0.1, 0.2, ..., 0.9, 1. Suppose that at a particu-
lar value of the current or plug setting multiplier (PSM), the operating time is 4 s with
TMS = 1. The operating time for the same current with TMS = 0.5 will be 4 × 0.5 =
2 s. The operating time with TMS = 0.2 will be 4 × 0.2 = 0.8 s.
Figure 5.4 (a) shows time-current characteristics for different values of TMS. The
characteristic at TMS = 1 can also be presented in the form shown in Fig. 5.4 (b).

Example 5.1 The current rating of an overcurrent relay is 5 A. The relay has a
plug setting of 150% and time multiplier setting (TMS) of 0.4. The CT ratio is
400/5. Determine the operating time of the relay for a fault current of 6000 A. At
TMS = 1, operating time at various PSM are given in the Table 5.3

Table 5.3
PSM 2 4 5 8 10 20
Operating time in seconds 10 5 4 3 2.8 2.4
 Overcurrent Protection 227

10
9
8
7
6
5
4

3
Operating time in seconds

1.0
2 0.9
0.8 Time
0.7 multiplier
0.6 setting
1.0 0.5
0.9 0.4
0.8
0.7 0.3
0.6
0.5
0.2
0.4

0.3
0.1
0.2

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8910 20
Current plug setting multiplier

Fig. 5.4 (a) Time-current characteristics for different values of TMS

Plug setting multiplier

1 1.3 2 2.5 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 14 16 18 20

30 20 15 10 8 6 5 4 3.5 3 2.8 2.6 2.4 2.2

Time in seconds

Fig. 5.4 (b) Logarithmic scale for I.D.M.T. relay at TMS = 1

Solution: CT ratio = 400/5 = 80

Relay current setting = 150% of 5 A = 1.5 × 5 A = 7.5 A
Secondary current
PSM = _________________
Relay current setting
Primary current (fault current)
= __________________________
Relay current setting × CT ratio
6000
= _______ = 10
7.5 × 80
228 Power System Protection and Switchgear

The operating time from the given table at PSM of 10 is 2.8 s. This time is for
TMS = 1.
The operating time for TMS of 0.4 will be equal to 2.8 × 0.4 = 1.12 s.

5.5 OVERCURRENT PROTECTIVE SCHEMES

Overcurrent protective schemes are widely used for the protection of distribution
lines. A radial feeder may be sectionalised and two or more overcurrent relays
may be used, one relay for the protection of each section of the feeder, as shown in
Fig. 5.5. If a fault occurs beyond C, the circuit breaker at substation C should trip.
The circuit breakers at A and B should not trip as far as the normal operation is
concerned. If the relay at C fails to operate, the circuit breaker at B should trip as a
back-up protection. Similarly, if a fault occurs between B and C, the circuit breaker
at B should trip; the circuit breaker at A should not trip. But in the case of failure
of a relay and/or the circuit breaker at B, the circuit breaker at A should trip. Thus,
it is seen that the relays must be selective with each other. For proper selectivity of
the relays, one of the following schemes can be employed, depending on the system
conditions.
(i) Time-graded system
(ii) Current-graded system
(iii) A combination of time and current grading.
5.5.1 Time-graded System
In this scheme, definite-time overcurrent relays are used. When a definite-time relay
operates for a fault current, it starts a timing unit which trips the circuit breaker
after a preset time, which is independent of the fault current. The operating time of
the relays is adjusted in increasing order from the far end of the feeder, as shown in
Fig. 5.5. The difference in the time setting of two adjacent relays is usually kept at
0.5 s. This difference is to cover the operating time of the circuit breaker and errors
in the relay and CT. With fast circuit breakers and modern accurate relays, it may be
possible to reduce this time further to 0.4 s or 0.3 s.

A B C

Time 1.5 s 1s 0.5 s

Fig. 5.5 Time-graded overcurrent protection of a feeder

When a fault occurs beyond C, all relays come into action as the fault current
flows through all of them. The least time setting is for the relay placed at C. So it
operates after 0.5 s and the fault is cleared. Now the relays at A and B are reset. If
the relay or circuit breaker at C fails, the fault remains uncleared. In this situation,
after 1 s, the relay at B will operate and the circuit breaker at B will trip. If the circuit
breaker at B also fails to operate, after 1.5 s, circuit breaker at A will trip.
 Overcurrent Protection 229

The drawback of this scheme is that for faults near the power source, the operat-
ing time is more. If a fault occurs near the power source, it involves a large current
and hence it should be cleared quickly. But this scheme takes the longest time in
clearing the heaviest fault, which is undesirable because the heaviest fault is the most
destructive.
This scheme is suitable for a system where the impedance (distance) between sub-
stations is low. It means that the fault current is practically the same if a fault occurs
on any section of the feeder. This is true for a system in which the source impedance
Zs is more than the impedance of the protected section, Z1. If the neutral of the system
is grounded through a resistance or an impedance, Zs is high and Zs/(Zs + Z1) is not
sufficiently lower than unity. In this situation, the advantage of inverse-time charac-
teristic cannot be obtained. So definite relays can be employed, which are cheaper
than I.D.M.T. relays. Definite-time relays are popular in Central Europe.
5.5.2 Current-graded System
In a current-graded scheme, the relays are set to pick-up at progressively higher val-
ues of current towards the source. The relays employed in this scheme are high set
(high speed) instantaneous overcurrent relays. The operating time is kept the same
for all relays used to protect different sections of the feeder, as shown in Fig. 5.6. The
current setting for a relay corresponds to the fault current level for the feeder section
to be protected.
Time characteristic
Ideally, the relay at B should trip for
faults any where between B and C. But it A B C
should not operate for faults beyond C.
Similarly, the relay at A should trip for faults 80%
between A and B. The relay at C should trip
for faults beyond C. This ideal operation is Fig. 5.6 Instantaneous overcurrent
protection of a feeder
not achieved due to the following reasons.
(i) The relay at A is not able to differentiate between faults very close to B which
may be on either side of B. If a fault in the section BC is very close to the
station B, the relay at A ‘understands’ that it is in section AB. This happens
due to the fact that there is very little difference in fault currents if a fault
occurs at the end of the section AB or in the beginning of the section BC.
(ii) The magnitude of the fault current cannot be accurately determined as all the
circuit parameters may not be known.
(iii) During a fault, there is a transient conditions and the performance of the relays
is not accurate.
Consequently, to obtain proper discrimina-
tion, relays are set to protect only a part of the
feeder, usually about 80%. Since this scheme
Time

cannot protect the entire feeder, this system is

not used alone. It may be used in conjunction
with I.D.M.T. relays, as shown in Fig. 5.7. A B C
The performance of instantaneous relays is Fig. 5.7 Combined instantaneous
affected by the dc component of transients. The and I.D.M.T. protection
230 Power System Protection and Switchgear

error introduced by the dc offset component causes the relay to overreach. Higher the
X/R ratio of the system, greater is the problem. A dc filter is used to overcome this
problem. In the USA an instantaneous relay, employing induction cup type construc-
tion is used for this purpose as it is less sensitive to the d.c. offset component. A less
expensive solution is to employ a relay as shown in Fig. 2.2(b). This arrangement
also provides a high reset to pick-up ratio, more than 90%.
The current-graded scheme is used where the impedance between substations is
sufficient to create a margin of difference in fault currents. For such a system Zs
is smaller compared to Z1. The advantage of this system as compared to the time-
graded scheme is that the operating time is less near the power source.

5.5.3 Combination of Current and Time-grading

This scheme is widely used for the protection of distribution lines. I.D.M.T. relays
are employed in this scheme. They have the combined features of current and
time-grading. I.D.M.T. relays have current as well as time setting arrangements. The
current setting of the relay is made according to the fault current level of the particu-
lar section to be protected. The relays are set to pickup progressively at higher current
levels, towards the source. Time setting is also done in a progressively increasing
order towards the source. The difference in operating times of two adjacent relays is
kept 0.5 s.
An inverse time-current characteristic is desirable where Zs is small compared
with Z1. If a fault occurs near the substation, the fault current is I = E/Zs. If a fault
occurs at the far end of the protected section, the fault current I = E/(Zs + Z1). If Z1 is
high compared to Zs, there is an appreciable difference in the fault current for a fault
at the near end and for a fault at the far end of the protected section of the feeder. For
such a situation, a relay with inverse-time characteristic would trip faster for a fault
near the substation, which is a very desirable feature. Inverse time relays on solidly
grounded systems have an advantage. Definite-time characteristic is desirable where
Zs is large compared to Z1. An I.D.M.T. characteristic is a compromise. At lower
values of fault current, its characteristic is an inverse-time characteristic. At higher
values of fault current, it gives a definite-time characteristic.
Though I.D.M.T. relays are widely used for the protection of distribution systems
and some other applications, in certain situations very inverse and extremely inverse
relays are used instead of I.D.M.T. relays. This has already been discussed in section
5.2.5 and 5.2.6.

Example 5.2 An earth fault develops at point F on the feeder shown in the
Fig. 5.8, and the fault current is 16000 A. The IDMT relays at points A and B are
fed via 800/5 A CTs: The relay at B
A B F
has a plug setting of 125% and time
multiplier setting (TMS) of 0.2. The
circuit breakers take 0.20 s to clear
16,000 A
the fault, and the relay error in each
case is 0.15 s. Fig. 5.8 System for Example 5.2
 Overcurrent Protection 231

For a plug setting of 200% on the relay A, determine the minimum TMS on that
relay for it not to operate before the circuit breaker at B has cleared the fault. A
relay operating time curve is same as shown in Fig. 5.3.
Solution: The primary current in both relays is 16,000 A
CT ratio = 800/5 = 160

Thus secondary current

Primary current
= _____________
CT ratio
16,000
= ______ = 100 A
160
For relay at B,
Current setting = 125% of 5 A = 1.25 × 5 A
= 6.25 A
Secondary current
PSM = _________________
Relay current setting
100
= ____ = 16
6.25
From the curve in Fig. 5.3, the operating time at PSM of 16 for a TMS of 1 =
2.5 s
Since TMS of relay at B = 0.2,
Operating time of B = 0.2 × 2.5 s = 0.50 s
Discrimination time = time for breaker at B + twice relay error
= 0.20 + 2 × 0.15 = 0.50 s
This is because one relay may run rapidly while the second runs slowly. moreover,
the relay at A does not reset until the breaker at B has interrupted the fault current.
Any overshoot of the relay A has been neglected.
Hence time for relay at A = operating time for B + discrimination time
= 0.50 s + 0.50 s = 1.00 s
Secondary current in A = 100 A
For relay at A, current setting = 200% of 5 A
= 2 × 5 A = 10 A
100
Thus, PSM = ____ = 10
10
From the curve in Fig. 5.3, the operating time at PSM of 10 for a TMS of 1 =
3.0 s.
But actual time required = 1.00 s
Hence required TMS for relay at A = 1.00/3.0
= 0.33
i.e., the minimum value of TMS of relay at A must be 0.33.
232 Power System Protection and Switchgear

Example 5.3 A 20 MVA transformer, which may be called upon to operate at

25% overload, feeds 11-kV busbars through a circuit breaker; other circuit breakers
supply outgoing feeders. The transformer circuit breaker is equipped with 1000/5
A CTs and the feeder circuit breakers with 500/5 A CTs and all sets of CTs feed
induction-type overcurrent relays. The relays on the feeder circuit breakers have a
125% plug setting and a 0.4 time setting. If a three phase fault current of 7500 A
flows from the transformer to one of the feeders, find the operating time of the
feeder relay, the minimum plug setting of the transformer relay, and its time
setting assuming a discriminative time margin of 0.5 second. The time-current
characteristic of the relays is same as shown in Fig. 5.3.
Solution:
Feeder
5
Secondary current = 7500 × ____ = 75 A
500
Relay current setting = 125% of 5 A = 1.25 × 5 = 6.25 A
Secondary current 75
PSM = _________________ = ____ = 12
Relay current setting 6.25
From the curve in Fig. 5.3, the operating time at PSM of 12 for a TMS of 1
= 2.8 s
Since TMS of the relay = 0.4,
Operating time of the relay = 0.4 × 2.8 = 1.12 s
Transformer
(1.25 × 20) × 103
Overload current = ______________
__ = 1312 A
÷3 × 11
5
Secondary current = 1312 × _____ = 6.56 A
1000
6.56
Plug Setting Multiplier (PSM) = ______
PS × 5
Where PS means plug setting of the relay.
Since the transformer relay must not operate to overload current, its plug setting
multiplier (PSM) must be less than 1, i.e., PS × 5 > 6.56. Thus plug setting (PS)
> 6.56/5 > 1.31% or 131%.
The plug settings are restricted to standard values (See section 5.3) in intervals of
25%, so the nearest value is 150%.
5
Secondary fault current = 7500 × _____ = 37.5 A
1000
Relay current setting = 150% of 5 A = 1.5 × 5 A = 7.5 A
Secondary fault current 37.5
PSM = ___________________ = ____ = 5
Relay current setting 7.5
The operating time from the curve in Fig. 5.3 at PSM of 5 and TMS of 1 = 4.7
seconds
 Overcurrent Protection 233

But, actual operating time required

= Operating time of feeder relay + discriminative time margin
= 1.12 sec + 0.50 sec
= 1.62 sec
Hence required time multiplier setting (TMS) = 1.62/4.7 = 0.345

Example 5.4 Two relays R1 and R2 are connected in two sections of a feeder
as shown in Fig. 5.9. CTs are of ratio 1000/5 A. The plug setting of relay R1 is
100% and R2 is 125%. The operating time characteristics of the relays is same
as given in Table 5.3 of Example 5.1.
The time multiplier setting of the relay R1 is 0.3. The time grading scheme has
a discriminative time margin of 0.5 s between the relays. A three-phase short
circuit at F results in a fault current of 5000 A. Find the actual operating times
of R1 and R2. What is the time multiplier setting (TMS) of R2.

1000/5A 1000/5A F

A B C
R2 R1 5000 A

Fig. 5.9 System for Example 5.4

5
Solution: CT secondary current = 5000 × _____ = 25 A
1000
Relay R1
Plug setting = 100%
Current setting = 5 A
Secondary current 25
PSM of R1 = _________________ = ___ = 5
Relay current setting 5
Operating time of the relay at PSM of 5 and TMS of 1 from the table of Example
5.1 = 4 seconds.
Since TMS of the relay R1 is 0.3, the actual operating time of the relay = 0.3 × 4
= 0.3 × 4 = 1.2 seconds
Relay R2
Plug setting = 125%
Relay current setting = 125% of 5 A = 1.25 × 5 = 6.25 A
Secondary current 25
PSM = _________________ = ____ = 4
Relay current setting 6.25
Operating time at PSM of 4 and TMS of 1 from the table of Example 5.1 =
5 seconds
Actual operating time of R2 = Operating time of R1 + time grading margin
= 1.2 + 0.5
= 1.7 seconds
Hence, TMS = 1.7/5 = 0.34
234 Power System Protection and Switchgear

5.6 REVERSE POWER OR DIRECTIONAL RELAY

Figure 5.10(a) shows an electromechanical directional relay. A directional relay is
energised by two quantities, namely voltage and current. Fluxes f1 and f2 are set up
by voltage and current, respectively. Eddy currents induced in the disc by f1 interact
with f2 and produce a torque. Similarly, f2 also induces eddy currents in the disc,
which interact with f1 and produce a torque. The resultant torque rotates the disc.
The torque is proportional to VI cos f, where f is the phase angle between V and I.
The torque is maximum when voltage and current are in phase. To produce maximum
torque during the fault condition, when the power factor is very poor, a compensating
winding and shading are provided, as shown in Fig. 5.10(a).
Earlier it has been mentioned that the torque produced by an induction relay is
given by T = f1 f2 sin q μ I1 I2 sin q, where f1 and f2 are fluxes produced by I1 and
I2, respectively. The angle between f1 and f2 or I1 and I2 is q. If one of the actuating
quantities is voltage, the current flowing in the voltage coil lags behind voltage by
approximately 90°. Assume this current to be I2. The load current I (say I1) lags V by
f. Then the angle q between I1 and I2 is equal to (90 – f), as shown in Fig. 5.10(b).

V
Compensating
Voltage circuit f
90°
q
Shading
coil I (or I1)
Trip

I2

Current
(a) Construction (b) Phasor diagram

Fig. 5.10 Induction disc type directional relay

T = I1 I2 sin (90 – f) μ I1 I2 cos f μ VI cos f Voltage

An induction cup construction can also be used
to produce a torque proportional to VI cos f. The
arrangement is shown in Fig. 5.11. Two opposite
poles are energised by voltage and the other two
Current

poles by current. Here voltage is a polarising

quantity. The polarising quantity is one which
produces one of the two fluxes. The polarising
quantity is taken as a reference with respect to the
other quantity which is current in this case.
Torque produced is positive when cos f is
positive, i.e. f is less than 90°. When f is more Fig. 5.11 Induction cup type
than 90° (between 90° and 180°), the torque is directional relay
 Overcurrent Protection 235

negative. At a particular relay location, when power flows in the normal direction,
the relay is connected to produce negative torque. The angle between the actuating
quantities supplied to the relays is kept (180° – f) to produce negative torque. If due
to any reason, the power flows in the reverse direction, the relay produces a positive
torque and it operates. In this condition, the angle between the actuating quantities
f is kept less than 90° to produce a positive torque. This is shown in Fig. 5.12(a).
For normal flow of power, the relay is supplied with V and – I. For reverse flow, the
actuating quantities become V and I. Torque becomes VI cos f, i.e. positive. This can
be achieved easily by reversing the current coil, as shown in Fig. 5.12(b).
Relaying units supplied with single actuating quantity discussed earlier are
non-directional overcurrent relays. Non-directional relays are simple and less expen-
sive than directional relays.

Current coil
–I
For normal power flow
–ve torque

f
V
Voltage
For reverse V Loads
coil
I power flow
+ve torque

(a) (b)

Fig. 5.12 (a) Phasor diagram for directional relay

(b) Connection of current coil for reverse power relay

5.6.1 Directional Relay Connections

When a close-up fault occurs, the voltage becomes low and the directional relay may
not develop sufficient torque for its operation. Under certain fault conditions the
power factor may be very low due to which insufficient torque is developed. If the
relay is connected in the normal way to develop a torque proportional to VI cos f,
these types of problems cannot be overcome. To get sufficient torque during all types
of faults, irrespective of their locations with respect to the relays, the relay connec-
tions are to be modified. Each relay is energised by current from its respective phase
and voltage from the other two phases.
There are two methods of connections, one of them is known as the 30° connec-
tion and the other the 90° connection. In the 30° connection the current coil of the
relay of phase A is energised by phase current IA and line voltage VA-C. Similarly, the
relay in phase B is energised by IB and VB-A, the relay in phase C with IC and VC-B, as
shown by the phasor diagram, Fig. 5.13(a). The relay is designed to develop maxi-
mum torque when its current and voltage are in phase. This condition with present
connection is satisfied when the system power factor is 0.866 lagging. See Ref. 2 for
details.
The 90° connection gives better performance under most circumstances. In this
connection, the relay in phase A is energised by IA and VB-C, B phase relay by IB
and VC-A and C phase relay by IC and VA-B, as shown in Fig. 5.13(b). The relays
are designed to develop maximum torque when the relay current leads voltage by
236 Power System Protection and Switchgear

45° and have internal compensation. For all types of faults, L-L, L-G, 2L-G, 3-f,
the phase angle seen by the relay is well below 90°. This connection also ensures
adequate voltage polarisation, except for a three-phase close-up fault when the volt-
ages on all phases become very small. For three-phase symmetrical faults the 90°
connection is better than the 30° connection (see Ref. 2 for more details).

IA VA – C VA – B IA

°
30
VB – C
VC – B

IC IB IC IB

VB – A VC – A
(a) (b)

Fig. 5.13 Phasor diagram for directional relay connections:

(a) For 30¡ connection (b) For 90¡ connection

5.6.2 Directional Overcurrent Relay

A directional overcurrent relay operates when the current exceeds a specified value
in a specified direction. Figure 5.14 shows a directional overcurrent relay. It contains
two relaying units, one overcurrent unit and the other a directional unit. For direc-
tional control, the secondary winding of the overcurrent unit is kept open. When the

Overcurrent I
unit

Trip

Directional
V
unit

Fig. 5.14 Directional overcurrent relay

 Overcurrent Protection 237

directional unit operates, it closes the open contacts of the secondary winding of the
overcurrent unit. Thus, a directional feature is attributed to the overcurrent relay.
The overcurrent unit may be of either a wattmeter or shaded pole type. In shaded
pole type, the opening is made in the shading coil which is in this case a wound coil
instead of an ordinary copper strip.

5.7 PROTECTION OF PARALLEL FEEDERS

Figure 5.15 shows an overcurrent A C
protective scheme for parallel feed-
Load
ers. At the sending end of the feeders
(at A and B), non-directional relays F
are required. The symbol ´ indi- B D
cates a non-directional relay. At the
other end of feeders (at C and D), Fig. 5.15 Protective scheme for parallel feeder
directional overcurrent relays are required. The arrow mark for directional relays
placed at C and D indicate that the relay will operate if current flows in the direc-
tion shown by the arrow. If a fault occurs at F, the directional relay at D trips, as the
direction of the current is reversed. The relay at C does not trip, as the current flows
in the normal direction. The relay at B trips for a fault at F. Thus, the faulty feeder is
isolated and the supply of the healthy feeder is maintained.
If non-directional relays are used at C and D, both relays placed at C and D will
trip for a fault at F. This is not desired as the healthy feeder is also tripped. Due to this
very reason relays at C and D are directional overcurrent relays. For faults at feeders,
the direction of current at A and B does not change and hence relays used at A and B
are non-directional.

5.8 PROTECTION OF RING MAINS

Figure 5.16(a) shows an overcurrent scheme for the protection of a ring feeder. Figure
5.16(b) is another way of drawing the same scheme. Compared with radial feeders,
the protection of ring feeders is costly and complex. Each feeder requires two relays.
A non-directional relay is required at one end and a directional relay at the other end.
The operating times for relays are determined by considering the grading, first in one
direction and then in the other direction, as shown in Fig. 5.16.
If a fault occurs at F1 as shown in Fig. 5.16(a), the relays at C¢ and D¢ will trip
to isolate the faulty feeder. The relay at C will not trip as the fault current is not
flowing in its tripping direction though its operating time is the same as that of C¢.
Similarly, the relays at B and D will not trip as the fault currents are not in their trip-
ping direction, though their operating time is less than the operating time of B¢ and
D¢ respectively. Figure 5.16(b) is an alternative way of drawing the same scheme. In
this figure, loads, though present are not shown on buses A, B and D so as to make the
figure simple to understand. If a fault occurs at F2, the relays at A¢ and D will trip.
Fig. 5.16(c) shows a scheme involving even greater number of feeders.
238 Power System Protection and Switchgear

B B¢
0.1 1.1

Cu
1.6 rre
ult nt
0.6
Fa
A C
Infeed
A¢ C¢
Fa nt F 1
1.6 u lt re
F C ur 0.6
2

0.1 1.1
D D¢
(a)
2.8 0.1 2.3 0.6 1.8 1.1

1.6 B B¢ 0.6
C
0.1 1.1
Infeed
Infeed

C¢
1.6 D D¢ 0.6
2.8 0.1 2.3 0.6 1.8 1.1
(b) (c)

Fig. 5.16 Protection of ring feeder

5.9 EARTH FAULT AND PHASE FAULT PROTECTION

A fault which involves ground is called an earth fault. Examples are—single line
to ground (L-G) fault and double line to ground (2L-G) fault. Faults which do not
involve ground are called phase faults. The protective scheme used for the protection
of an element of a power system against earth faults is known as earth fault protec-
tion. Similarly, the scheme used for the protection against phase faults is known as
phase fault protection.

5.9.1 Earth Fault Relay and Overcurrent Relay

Relays which are used for the protection of a section (or an element) of the power
system against earth faults are called earth fault relays. Similarly, relays used for the
protection of a section of the power system against phase faults are called phase fault
relays or overcurrent relays. The operating principles and constructional features of
earth fault relays and phase fault relays are the same. They differ only in the current
levels of their operation. The plug setting for earth fault relays varies from 20% to
80% of the CT secondary rating in steps of 10%. Earth fault relays are more sensitive
than the relays used for phase faults. The plug setting for phase fault relays varies
from 50% to 200% of the CT secondary rating in steps of 25%. The name phase fault
relay or phase relays is not common. The common name for such relays is overcur-
rent relay. One should not confuse this term with the general meaning of overcurrent
 Overcurrent Protection 239

relay. In a general sense, a relay which operates when the current exceeds its pick-up
value is called an overcurrent relay. But in the context under consideration, i.e. phase
fault protection and earth fault protection, the relays which are used for the protection
of the system against phase faults are called overcurrent relays.

5.9.2 Earth Fault Protective Schemes

An earth fault relay may be energised by a residual current. As shown in Fig. 5.17(a),
ia, ib and ic are currents in the secondary of CTs of different phases. The sum (ia + ib
+ ic) is called residual current. Under normal conditions the residual current is zero.
When an earth fault occurs, the residual current is non-zero. When it exceeds pick-up
value, the earth fault relay operates. In this scheme, the relay operates only for earth
faults. During balanced load conditions, the earth fault relay carries no current; hence
theoretically its current setting may be any value greater than zero. But in practice, it
is not true as ideal conditions do not exist in the system. Usually, the minimum plug
setting is made at 20% or 30%. The manufacturer provides a range of plug settings
for earth fault relay from 20% to 80% of the CT secondary rating in steps of 10%.
A

CTs B
A
ia C
B
ib CT R
C
ic
R
(a) (b)

Ring CT

A
B B
C C
CT R

R
(c) (d)

Fig. 5.17 Various earth fault protective schemes

240 Power System Protection and Switchgear

The magnitude of the earth fault current depends on the fault impedance. In case
of an earth fault, the fault impedance depends on the system parameter and also on
the type of neutral earthing. The neutral may be solidly grounded, grounded through
resistance or reactance. The fault impedance for earth faults is much higher than that
for phase faults. Hence, the earth fault current is low compared to the phase fault
currents. An earth fault relay is set independent of load current. Its setting is below
normal load current. When an earth fault relay is set at lower values, its ohmic imped-
ance is high, resulting in a high CT burden.
Figure 5.17(b) and 5.17(c) show an earth fault relay used for the protection of
transformer and an alternator, respectively. When an earth fault occurs, zero-sequence
current flows through the neutral. It actuates earth fault relay.
Figure 5.17(d) shows the connection of an earth fault relay using a special type of
CT known as a core-balance CT, which encircles the three-phase conductors.

5.10 COMBINED EARTH FAULT AND PHASE

FAULT PROTECTIVE SCHEME
CTs
Figure 5.18 shows two overcurrent relays (phase A
to phase fault relays) and one earth fault relay. B
When an earth fault occurs, the burden on the C
active CT is that of an overcurrent relay (phase R R
fault relay) and the earth fault relay in series.
R
Thus, the CT burden becomes high and may
cause saturation. Fig. 5.18 Two overcurrent and one
earth fault relays

5.11 PHASE FAULT PROTECTIVE SCHEME

Figure 5.19 shows three overcurrent relays for CTs
the protection of a three-phase system. This A
scheme is mainly for the protection of the sys- B
tem against phase faults. If there is no separate C
R R R
scheme for earth fault protection, the overcur-
rent relays used in this scheme will also sense
earth faults but they will be less sensitive. Fig. 5.19 Three overcurrent relays

5.12 DIRECTIONAL EARTH FAULT RELAY

For the protection against ground faults, only one directional overcurrent relay is
required. Its operating principle and construction is similar to the directional over-
current relays discussed earlier. It contains two elements, a directional element and
an I.D.M.T. element. The directional element has two coils. One coil is energised
by current and the other by voltage. The current coil of the directional element is
energised by residual current and the potential coil by residual voltage, as shown in
Fig. 5.20(a). This connection is suitable for a place where the neutral point is not
available. If the neutral of an alternator or transformer is grounded, connections are
 Overcurrent Protection 241
CTs CTs
A
B
C
PT

Ires
Vres
Voltage Directional earth
Directional earth fault relay
coil fault relay
(a) (b)

Fig. 5.20 Connection of a directional earth fault relay

made as shown in Fig. 5.20(b). If the neutral point is

grounded through a VT, the voltage coil of the direc-
tional earth fault relay may be connected to the sec-
ondary of the VT. The I.D.M.T. element has a plug
setting of 20% to 80%.
A special five limbs VT which can energise both
the earth fault relay as well as the phase fault relays,
as shown in Fig. 5.21, may be used. To earth
fault relay

5.13 STATIC OVERCURRENT

RELAYS
To overcurrent
The general expression for the operating time of a
relay
time-current relay is
Fig. 5.21 Five limb VT
K
t = _____
In – 1
Inverse time electromagnetic relays produce time-current curves according to this
law only up to a few times the CT rating because of magnetic saturation. The time-
current characteristic does not follow a simple mathematical equation and it is very
difficult to obtain consistency between the characteristics of individual relays. The
time-current characteristic of static relays depends on the R-C circuit which can be
precisely controlled. In the static relays circuit, components are linear, thereby it
becomes easier to produce characteristics according to the above law. With an elec-
tromagnetic unit, the maximum value of n which is the index of I may be only up
to 2. With static relay time-current characteristic with higher values of n can easily
be realised. The characteristic of the form t = K/I n can be realised which will give
straight line characteristic on log t/log I graph. Since the time-current characteristics,
given by t = K/In are not asymptotic to the pick-up value of the current, a separate
device to control pick-up is required. Similarly, for an I.D.M.T. relay, a separate unit
will provide the definite time portion of the characteristic. With straight line curves
there is a great saving in computing relay time settings.
242 Power System Protection and Switchgear

At present most overcurrent relays are of electromagnetic type. So static relays

with time-current characteristics to match those of existing induction disc relays can
be used. But for new lines it would be better to employ static relays with straight line
characteristics.
With static relays it is possible to realise any one of the three most common time-
current characteristics, i.e. inverse, very inverse or extremely inverse characteristic
using three different plug-in R-C timing circuits or by a switching device.

5.13.1 Advantages of Static Relays

The main advantages of static relays over electromagnetic relays are:
(i) CT burden is about one tenth, thereby a smaller CT can be employed.
(ii) The space required for a single-phase relay is half and that for a three-phase
relay is about one third. Consequently, the panel space and overall cost of
installation are reduced. This helps in miniaturization of control equipment.
(iii) Instantaneous reset can easily be achieved. This allows the application of
automatic reclosing of circuit breaker.
(iv) Accuracy in time-current characteristics.
(v) Fast operation, absence of mechanical inertia and bouncing of contacts.
(vi) Long life and less maintenance, immunity to vibration, dust and polluted
atmosphere.
5.13.2 Instantaneous Overcurrent Relay
The block schematic diagram of the static instantaneous overcurrent relay is shown
in Fig. 5.22. The current derived from the main CT is fed to the input transformer
which gives a proportional output voltage. The input transformer has an air gap in the
iron core to give linearity in the current/voltage relationship up to the highest value
of current expected, and is provided with tappings on its secondary winding to obtain
different current settings. The output voltage of the transformer is rectified through a
rectifier and then filtered at a single stage to avoid undesirable time delay in filtering
so as to ensure high speed of operation. A limiter made of a zener diode is also incor-
porated in the circuit to limit the rectified voltage to safe values even when the input
current is very high under fault conditions. A fixed portion of the rectified and fil-
tered voltage (through a potential divider) is compared against a preset pick-up value
by a level detector and if it exceeds the pick-up value, a signal through an amplifier is
given to the output device which issues the trip signal. The output device may either
be a static thyristor circuit or an electromagnetic slave relay.

Input Trip
current Input Rectifier, Level Output signal
Amplifier
transformer filter detector device

Fig. 5.22 Block diagram of static instantaneous overcurrent relay

5.13.3 De inite Time Overcurrent Relay

The operating time of a definite time overcurrent relay is constant, irrespective of the
level of the fault current. In this case, an intentional time delay is introduced through
 Overcurrent Protection 243

a timing circuit. Figure 5.23 shows the simplified block diagram of a definite time
overcurrent relay. The input current signal derived from the main CT is converted
to a proportional voltage signal by the input transformer and then rectified, filtered
and compared with the preset threshold value of the level detector (1). If the voltage
exceeds the preset threshold value, the level detector gives an output voltage, thereby
the charging of the capacitor C of the RC timing circuit starts. As soon as the voltage
across the capacitor exceeds the preset threshold value (VT) of level detector (2), a
signal through the amplifier is given to the output device which issues the trip signal.
Potentiometers P1 and P2 are used for current setting and time setting, respectively.

Input Input Level

current Level
transformer Rectifier, Timing detector (2)
detector
potentiometer filter circuit potentiometer
(1)
(P1) (P 2 )

Trip Output Amplifier

signal device

Fig. 5.23 Block diagram of de inite time overcurrent relay

If VT is the threshold value of the level detector, the time TC required to reach this
voltage depends upon the charging time of the capacitor C of the RC timing circuit,
given by,

[
TC = RC loge ______
V
V – VT ]
where V is the voltage applied to the capacitor. If V, R and C are constant, the charg-
ing time for a given value of VT will be constant. The time TC can be varied by vary-
ing R-C combinations and VT. In this case since the capacitor charging is done from
a fixed d.c. output voltage of level detector (1), the operating time of the relay for
particular values of R and C of the timing circuit and VT of the level detector (2) will
be constant for different values of the fault current.
5.13.4 Inverse-time Overcurrent Relay
The operating time of the inverse-time overcurrent relay decreases with increas-
ing fault current. For this relay with inverse-time characteristic, the charging of the
capacitor of timing circuit takes place from a voltage proportional to current.
The block diagram of the inverse-time overcurrent relay is shown in Fig. 5.24. The
current signal is converted to a proportional voltage signal by the input transformer
and then rectified, filtered and compared with a reference voltage of the level detector
(1) set by the potentiometer P1. Under normal conditions, i.e. when the input current
is low, switch S1 is ON, shortcircuiting the capacitor C of the RC timing circuit and
switch S2 is OFF. As soon as the input voltage exceeds the preset reference voltage of
the level detector (1), switch S1 is switched OFF and switch S2 is switched ON and
the charging of capacitor C of the timing circuit starts from a voltage proportional
to the current. Switches S1 and S2 are made of static components. When the voltage
244 Power System Protection and Switchgear

Switch S2

Input Level
current Timing ckt,
Input Rectifier, detector (1),
Switch S1 potentiometer
transformer filter potentiometer
(P2)
(P1)

Level
Trip Output Amplifier detector (2),
signal device
potentiometer
(P 3 )

Fig. 5.24 Block diagram of inverse-time overcurrent relay

across the capacitor C of the timing circuit exceeds the reference voltage of the
level detector (2) as set by potentiometer P3, a signal is given to the output device
through an amplifier. Finally, the output device issues the trip signal. Here the
plug setting multiplier is given by the transformer secondary tap and potentiom-
eter P1 and the time multiplier setting is determined by potentiometers P2 and P3.

5.13.5 Directional Overcurrent Relay

The directional overcurrent relay incorporates a directional unit which responds to
power flow in a specified direction. The directional relay senses the direction of
power flow by means of a phase difference (f) between voltage (V) and current (I).
When f exceeds a certain predetermined value and the current is above the pick-up
value, the directional overcurrent relay operates. The directional relay is a double
actuating quantity relay with one input as current I from CT and the other input as
voltage V from VT.
In case of electromagnetic directional overcurrent relays, discrimination is
affected when voltage drops down to very low values under fault conditions. In static
directional relays, this problem is less serious because the static comparators used in
these relays are inherently very sensitive and they can give reliable performance up
to 1% of system voltage which is well within the minimum fault voltage.
Figure 5.25 shows the simplified block diagram of the directional overcurrent
relay. The inputs V and I are applied to phase comparator. A phase shifter is added in
voltage input circuit before applying it to the phase comparator to achieve the maxi-
mum output of the phase comparator under fault conditions. The output of the phase
comparator is given to the level detector and then to the output device through an
amplifier. If the output of the phase comparator exceeds the preset reference voltage
of the level detector, the output device issues the trip signal.
There are two main types of phase comparators used for the purpose. One of these
is the Hall effect types comparator which has been used in USSR, whereas all other
countries have preferred the rectifier bridge type of comparator due to its lower cost
and the higher outputs obtainable as compared to the Hall elements.
 Overcurrent Protection 245

Level
Auxiliary Phase
I detector Output Trip
CT current comparator
Timer, device signal
selector I ~ V cos f
Amplifier

V Auxiliary VT
phase shifter V cosf

Fig. 5.25 Simplif ed block diagram of static directional overcurrent relay

5.14 NUMERICAL OVERCURRENT RELAYS

Numerical overcurrent relays are the latest development in the area of protection.
These relays have been developed because of tremendous advancement in VLSI and
computer hardware technology. A numerical overcurrent relay acquires sequential
samples of the current signal (i.e., proportional voltage signal) in numeric (digital)
data form through the data acquisition system (DAS) and processes the data numeri-
cally using a numerical filtering algorithm to extract the fundamental frequency com-
ponent of the current and make trip decisions. Depending on the processor and pro-
cessing tool used for processing of the current signal, numerical overcurrent relays
are of the following types:
(i) Microprocessor-based overcurrent relays
(ii) Microcontroller-based overcurrent relays
(iii) Digital Signal Processor (DSP)-based overcurrent relays
(iv) Field Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGA)-based overcurrent relays.
(v) Artificial Neural Network (ANN) based numerical relays.
A protection scheme which incorporates numerical overcurrent relays for the pro-
tection of an element of a power system, is known as a numerical overcurrent protec-
tion scheme or numerical overcurrent protection.

5.14.1 Microprocessor-based Overcurrent Relays

Modern power networks require faster, more accurate and reliable protective schemes.
Microprocessor-based protective schemes are capable of fulfilling these require-
ments. They are superior to electromechanical and static relays. These schemes have
more flexibility due to their programmable approach when compared with static
relays which have hardwired circuitry. With the same interfacing circuitry, a number
of characteristics can be realised using different programs. Microprocessor-based
schemes are more compact, accurate, reliable and fast.
There are two methods to realise overcurrent characteristics. One method employs
a precision rectifier to convert ac signals to dc signals. Since the microprocessor-
based system cannot process current signals, a voltage signal proportional to load
current is obtained. The ac voltage signal is rectified and then converted to a digital
246 Power System Protection and Switchgear

quantity. The mircoprocessor compares this with a fixed reference (pick-up value)
and takes decision for tripping. If the digital quantity, which is proportional to the
load current, exceeds the pick-up value, the microprocessor sends a tripping signal
to the circuit breaker after a preset delay. Definite-time or any type of time-current
characteristic can be realised in this manner, very easily. If the delay time is a fixed
one, the relay acts as a definite-time relay. If a table is provided to select preset time,
depending on the magnitude of the load current, the desired time-current character-
istic is obtained.
In the second method, a number of samples of ac signals over one cycle or half
cycle can be taken. From these samples rms values can be computed. The computed
rms values of the load current are individually compared with the pick-up value and
the desired definite-time or time-current characteristic is realised.
More details have been provided in Chapter 12.
5.14.2 Microcontroller-based Overcurrent Relays
Microcontrollers are single chip microcomputers in which the microprocessor (CPU),
memory and I/O ports are all fabricated on a single chip. In a microcontroller based
overcurrent relay, a microcontroller is used to perform all the functions of the relay. It
measures the current by acquiring them in numeric (digital) data form through a data
acquisition system, processes the data numerically and makes trip decisions.
5.14.3 DSP-based Overcurrent Relay
In this relay, a dedicated digital signal processor (DSP) is used to perform all the
functions of the relay, e.g. data acquisition, data processing, calculation of fault dis-
criminants and making trip decisions.

5.14.4 FPGA-based Overcurrent Relay

In this relay a Field Programmable Gate Array (FPGA) is used to perform the func-
tions of the overcurrent relay.

5.14.5 ANN-based Overcurrent Relay

In this relay, a properly trained and tested artificial neural network (ANN) is used for
processing of the acquired digital signal and making the trip decisions.

EXERCISES
1. What are the various types of overcurrent relays? Discuss their area of
applications.
2. Explain current setting and time setting.
The current rating of an overcurrent relay is 5 A. PSM = 2, TMS = 0.3,
CT ratio = 400/5, Fault current = 4000 A. Determine the operating time of
the relay. At TMS = 1, operating time at various PSM are:
 Overcurrent Protection 247

PSM 2 4 5 8 10 20
Operating time in seconds 10 5 4 3 2.8 2.4

3. An overcurrent relay of current rating 5 A and setting 150% is connected to

the secondary of CT of ratio 400/5. Calculate the current in lines for which
the relay picks up. (Ans. 600 A)
4. An earth-fault starting relay has a setting of 30%, and a current rating of 5 A.
It is connected to a CT of ratio 500/5. Calculate pick-up current in primary
for which the earth fault relay operates (Ans. 150 A)
5. The time-current (PSM) characteristic of an overcurrent relay for TMS of 1
is given in the Table 5.4.

Table 5.4
PSM 2 3 5 7 10 13 15 18 20
Operating time in seconds 10 6.8 4.4 3.4 2.8 2.5 2.4 2.3 2.2

If the current plug setting is adjusted to 50% and the time multiplier is adjusted
to, 0.75, calculate the time of operation of the relay when the fault current is
3000 A and the relay is connected to a CT ratio 400/5. (Ans. 1.8 sec.)
6. Under what circumstances are overcurrent relays having very inverse and
extremely inverse characteristics used?
7. Compare the time-current characteristics of inverse, very inverse and extremely
inverse overcurrent relays. Discuss their area of applications.
8. Describe the techniques used to realise various time-current characteristics
using electromechanical relays.
9. Can a relay, having a time-current characteristic steeper than extermely inverse
relay, be realised using electromechanical construction?
10. What are the various overcurrent protective schemes? Discuss their merits,
demerits and field of applications.
11. Two relays R1 and R2 are connected in two sections fo a feeder as shown in
Fig. 5.26.
Relay R1 : CT ratio = 300/5, plug setting = 50%, TMS = 0.3
Relay R2 : CT ratio = 500/5, plug setting = 75%.
A fault at F results in a fault current of 3000 A. Find TMS of R2 to give
time-grading margin of 0.5 sec between the relays.

500/5 A 300/5 A F

R2 R1 3000 A

Fig. 5.26
248 Power System Protection and Switchgear

The operating time characteristic of relays is given in the Table 5.3 of Exam-
ple 5.1. (Ans. 0.4)
12. Explain what is meant by transient over-reach as applied to high set instan-
taneous overcurrent relays. What measures are taken to overcome this dif-
ficulty?
13. Why IDMT relays are widely used for overcurrent protection.
14. Describe the operating principle, constructional features and area of applica-
tions of reverse power or directional relay. What is a directional overcurrent
relay?
15. Discuss a protective scheme for parallel feeders.
16. Distinguish between an earth fault relay and an overcurret relay. Discuss vari-
ous methods to energise an earth fault relay.
17. How is a directional earth fault relay energise?
18. What are the advantages of static relays over electromechanical relays.
19. What are the advantages of numerical overcurrent relays over converntional
Overcurrent relays?
20. What are the various types of numerical overcurrent relay? How can numerical
overcurreont relay be realised?
21. What do you mean by numerical overcurrent protection scheme? How can a
numerical protection scheme be developed using an ANN?
 Distance Protection
6
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Distance protection is a widely used protective scheme for the protection of high
and extra high voltage (EHV) transmission and sub-transmission lines. This scheme
employs a number of distance relays which measure the impedance or some com-
ponents of the line impedance at the relay location. The measured quantity is pro-
portional to the line-length between the location of the relay and the point where the
fault has occurred. As the measured quantity is proportional to the distance along
the line, the measuring relay is called a distance relay. Overcurrent relays have been
found unsuitable for the protection of transmission lines because of their inherent
drawbacks of variable reach and variable operating time due to changes in source
impedance and fault type. Distance relays have been developed to overcome the
problems associated with the use of overcurrent relays for the protection of transmis-
sion lines.
Modern distance relays provide high speed fault clearance. They are used where
overcurrent relays become slow, and there is difficulty in grading time-overcurrent
relays for complicated networks. They are used for the protection of transmission
and subtransmission lines at 220 kV, 132 kV, 66 kV, and 33 kV. Sometimes, they are
also used at 11 kV. For 132 kV and 220 kV systems, the recent trend is to use carrier
current protection. The relaying units used in carrier current protection are distance
relays. They operate under the control of carrier signals. In case of the failure of car-
rier signal, they act as back-up protection.
A distance protection scheme is a non-unit system of protection. A single scheme
provides both primary and back-up protection.
The most important and versatile family of relays is the distance-relay group. It
includes the following types:
(i) Impedance relays
(ii) Reactance relays
(iii) MHO relays
(iv) Angle impedance relays
(v) Quadrilateral relays
(vi) Elliptical and other conic section relays
250 Power System Protection and Switchgear

6.2 IMPEDANCE RELAY

An impedance relay measures the importance of the line at the relay location. When a
fault occurs on the protected line section, the measured impedance is the impedance
of the line section between the relay location and the point of fault. It is proportional
to the length of the line and hence, to the distance along the line. In general, the term
impedance can be applied to a resistance alone, a reactance alone or a combination
of the two. But in distance relaying terminology the term impedance includes both
resistance as well as reactance.

6.2.1 Operating Principle of an Impedance Relay

To realise the characteristics of an impedance relay, current is compared with volt-
age at the relay location. The current produces a positive torque (operating torque)
and the voltage produces a negative torque (restraining torque). The equation for the
operating torque of an electromagnetic relay can be written as
T = K1I2 – K2V2 – K3
where K1, K2 and K3 are constants, K3 being the torque due to the control-spring
effect.
Neglecting the effect of the spring used, which is very small, the torque equation
can be written as
T = K1I2 – K2V2
For the operation of the relay, the following condition should be satisfied.
K1I2 > K2V2 or K2 V2 < K1I2
V2 ___
___ K1
or <
I 2 K2
V
__
or < K where K is a constant
I
or Z<K
For static and microprocessor-based relays, I is compared with V. For the opera-
tion of the relay, the following condition should be satisfied.
K1I > K2V or K2V < K1I
V ___
__ K1
or < or Z<K
I K2
The above expression explains that the relay is on the verge of operation when the
ratio of V to I, i.e. the measured value of line impedance is equal to a given constant.
The relay operates if the measured impedance Z is less than the given constant.

6.2.2 Impedance Relay Characteristic

Figure 6.1 shows the operating characteristic of an impedance relay in terms of volt-
age and current. In case of an electromagnetic relay, the characteristic is slightly bent
near the origin due to the effect of the control spring. In case of microprocessor-
based or static relay, the characteristic will be a straight line.
 Distance Protection 251

+ve Torque
X
region Operating
characteristic
Z
I Block
– ve Torque f
region Trip R
F

V
Fig. 6.1 Operating characteristic of an Fig. 6.2 Operating characteristic of an
impedance relay impedance relay on the R-X diagram

A more useful way is to draw a distance relay characteristic on the R-X diagram.
Figure 6.2 shows an impedance relay characteristic on the R-X diagram, where Z =
K represents a circle and Z < K indicates the area within the circle. Thus, it is seen
that the zone within the circle is the operating zone of the relay. Its radius is Z = K,
which is the setting of the relay. K is equal to the impedance of the line which is to be
protected. f is the phase angle between V and I. As the operating characteristic is a
circle, the relay operation is independent of the phase angle f. The operation depends
on the magnitude of Z. If a fault point is on the protected section of the line, it will
lie within the circle. For this condition, the relay will operate and send a tripping
signal to the circuit breaker. The region
outside the circle is the blocking zone. If a
fault point lies in this zone, i.e. it is beyond
Operating time

the protected section of the line, the relay

will not respond. In such a situation, the
fault point may lie in the protection zone
of some other relay.
The operating time of the relay is con-
Distance
stant, irrespective of the fault location
within the protected section, as shown in Fig. 6.3 Operating time characteristic
Fig. 6.3. of an impedance relay

6.2.3 Directional Units Used with Impedance Relays

It is evident from the impedance relay characteristic on the R-X diagram that an
impedance relay is a non-directional relay. As its characteristic is a circle, the relay
will trip for a fault point lying within the circle, irrespective of the fact that the fault
point lies either in the forward direction or in the reverse direction. For example,
the relay will trip for a fault point F which is behind the relay location, i.e. in the
reverse direction as shown in Fig. 6.2. It is always desired that a relay should operate
for faults lying only in the forward direction. It should never operate for fault points
lying in the reverse direction. To restrict the tripping zone in the forward direction
only, a directional unit is included in the protective scheme. At any location, three
252 Power System Protection and Switchgear

impedance relays and a directional unit are employed. Their characteristics are shown
in Fig. 6.4. The directional unit is connected in series with the impedance relays as
shown in Fig. 6.5(a). Figure 6.5(b) shows connections if only one measuring unit is
employed. In such a scheme zone II and zone III are set by adjusting ohmic reach of
the relay after appropriate delay.

Z3
e
Zon
+ve Torque III Z2
one t3
IIZ e Z1 t t2
Z on 1
I a

–ve Torque

Directional
relay

Fig. 6.4 Characteristics of three-zone impedance relays with directional unit

+
Directional unit Directional unit Zone 2
ohmic
Seal-in Z2 Seal-in reach
relay Z1 T2 relay Z1 T2
Z3 Zone 3
ohmic
reach
Seal-in T3 Seal-in T3
relay coil relay coil
Flags Timing Flags
Timing
Trip coil unit Trip coil unit

Circuit breaker Circuit breaker

auxiliary switch auxiliary switch
– –
(a)

Fig. 6.5 (a) Connections of impedance relays (b) Connections of one measuring unit

The directional unit has a straight line characteristic as shown in the figure. It
allows impedance relays to see only in the forward direction. The torque equation of
the directional unit is given by T = KVI cos (f – a), neglecting spring-effect. Here, f
is the angle between V and I, and a is the angle of maximum torque. For the opera-
tion of the relay, T should be positive and hence,
KVI cos (f – a) > 0
or cos (f – a) > 0 or (f – a) < ± 90°
 Distance Protection 253

The directional relay employs two pairs of contacts, one pair is placed in series
with the contacts of the impedance relay. The other pair is connected to energise an
auxiliary relay. The contacts of the auxiliary relay, when deenergised, short circuit
the current coil of the impedance relay. The contacts of the auxiliary relay are opened
when a fault occurs in the forward direction. This type of a control is essential to
avoid a contact race between the impedance relay and the directional relay in inter-
connected or double circuit lines. See details in Ref. 5.

6.2.4 Protective Scheme Using Impedance Relays

Three units of impedance relays are required at a particular location for three zones of
protection. It is normal practice to adjust the first unit to protect only up to 80%-90%
of the protected line. The protected zone of the first unit is called the first zone of pro-
tection. It is a high speed unit and is used for the primary protection of the protected
line. Its operation is instantaneous; about 1 to 2 cycles. This unit is not set to protect
the entire line to avoid undesired tripping due to overreach. If the relay operates for a
fault beyond the protected line, this phenomenon is called overreach. Overreach may
occur due to transients during the fault condition.
The main purpose of the second unit is to protect the rest of the protected line,
which is beyond the reach of the first unit. The setting of the second unit is so adjusted
that it operates the relay even for arcing faults at the end of the line. To achieve this,
the unit must reach beyond the end of the line. In other words, its setting must take
care of underreach caused by arc resistance. Underreach is also caused by intermedi-
ate current sources, errors in data available for initial setting of the relay and errors
in CT, VT and measurements performed by the relay. To take into account the under-
reaching tendency caused by these factors, the normal practice is to set the second
zone reach up to 50% of the shortest adjoining line section. The protective zone of
the second unit is known as the second zone of protection. The second zone unit
operates after a certain time delay. Its operating time is usually 0.2 s to 0.5 s.
The third zone of protection is provided for back-up protection of the adjoining
line. Its reach should extend beyond the end of the adjoining line under the maximum
underreach which may be caused by arcs, intermediate current sources and errors in
CT, VT and measuring units. The protective zone of the third stage is known as the
third zone of protection. The setting of the third zone covers the first line, i.e. the
protected line plus the longest second line plus 25% of the third line. The time-delay
for the third unit is usually 0.4 s
to 1 s. Figure 6.6 shows the oper-
ating time of impedance relays A3
and is known as the stepped time-
Operating time

distance characteristic. A1, A2 and A2 B2

A3 are operating times for the I, II,
and III zone relays (placed at A) A1 B1
respectively. Similarly, B1, B2, B3 A B C
are operating times for the I, II,
and III zone relays, placed at B, Distance
respectively. Because of the cost Fig. 6.6 Stepped time-distance characteristics
factor and the panel space, it is not of impedance relays
254 Power System Protection and Switchgear

possible to use three measuring units for the 3 zones of protection. In a modern dis-
tance protective system, only one measuring unit is employed for all the three zones
of protection. The ohmic reach is progressively increased by the timing unit to obtain
the distance settings for the II and III zones. Sometimes two units can be employed,
one unit for the I and II zone and a separate unit for the III zone. The distance setting
for the II zone is done by the timing unit.

6.2.5 Connections of Impedance Relays

The circuit connections for circuit breaker trip coil, the contacts of directional and
impedance relays, flags, timer, etc. are shown in Fig. 6.5(a). Z1, Z2 and Z3 represent
impedance relays. T2 and T3 are contacts of the timer for the second and the third
unit, respectively. Figure 6.4 shows the characteristics of directional and impedance
relays, where t1, t2 and t3 are the-operating time of the impedance relays. The char-
acteristic circle for Z1 is the smallest, the circle for Z3 is the largest and the circle for
Z2 is intermediate. If any fault point lies within the circle Z1 and it is in the forward
direction, the directional relay and all the three impedance relays operate. Due to
the operation of the first unit and the directional unit, the circuit breaker trips in a
very short time period of t1. A timer is energised whenever the directional unit and
Z3 operate. After a definite time-delay, the timer closes the contact T2 first and then
after some more delay, the contact T3 also closes. The delay times for T2 and T3 are
independently adjustable. Therefore, if a fault point lies in the characteristic circle
Z2 but outside the circle Z1, the circuit breaker trips after the closure of the contact
T2, in time t2. If a fault point lies within the characteristic circle Z3 but outside the
circles Z1 and Z2, the circuit breaker trips after the closure of the contact T3, in time t3.
Whenever a relay operates, its flag indicates its operation. A seal-in relay is used
to bypass the contacts of the main relays to save their costly and delicate contacts.
Once the contacts of the main relay are closed and the current passes through the trip
coil, the coil of the seal-in relay is energised and its contacts are closed. The circuit
breaker auxiliary switch is a normally closed switch. When the circuit breaker trips,
the auxiliary switch is opened to prevent unnecessary drainage of the battery. If only
one measuring unit is employed, the circuit connection can be modified, as shown
in Fig. 6.5(b).
6.2.6 Special Cases of Zone II and Zone III Settings
With the II zone relaying units, transient overreach need not be considered if the
relays have a high ratio of reset to pick-up because any transients causing overreach
die out before the II zone tripping time elapses. If relays with a low ratio of reset to
pick-up are used, the II zone relay must be set to have a reach short enough so that its
overreach does not go beyond the reach of the I zone relaying unit of the adjoining
line section. In other words, the II zone reach must be short enough to be selective
with the II zone relaying unit of the adjoining line section under maximum over-
reach conditions as shown in Fig. 6.6. In the case of short adjoining line sections,
the setting of the II zone unit, based on this principle becomes difficult. To tackle the
problem, the II zone delay-time is made long enough to be selective with the II zone
time of the adjoining line section, as shown in Fig. 6.7.
 Distance Protection 255

The third zone unit is pro-

vided for the back-up protection
of the adjoining line section. It
A2

Operating time
should be set to reach beyond
the end of the longest adjoining B2
line section under the conditions
of maximum underreach which A1 B1
may arise due to arcs, interme- A B C
diate current sources and errors
Distance
in CT, VT and measuring units.
This is achieved with addi- Fig. 6.7 Second zone adjustment with additional
tional time delay, as shown in time for selectivity with relay of a very
Fig. 6.8. Compare Fig. 6.8 with short adjoining line
Fig. 6.6 which is for normal
selectivity of the III zone unit.
The reach of any unit should not A3
be so long as to cause the relay
Operating time

to operate under any load con- B3

dition or fail to reset if operated A2
previously due to any reason. B2

A1 B1
6.2.7 Electromechanical
A B
Impedance Relay
Induction cup type construc-
tion is used to realise an imped- Distance
ance relay characteristic. This Fig. 6.8 Third zone adjustment with additional
construction is compact and time to provide back-up protection for
robust. It produces nonvibrat- adjoining line
ing torque. It is less affected
by dc transients and possesses high speed and sensitivity. It gives a perfect circular
V
characteristic. For such an impedance relay, __ £ K. IZr is to be compared with V if
I
an amplitude comparator is used. But the induction
cup construction is a phase comparator and hence, Zr
(I + V) and (I – V) are used as the actuating quanti-
ties, as shown in Fig. 6.9. With the introduction of (I – V )
V
Zr in the voltage circuit, the current flowing in this
circuit is VZr.
S

( ) V
Therefore, I + __ is the polarising quantity and
Zr
(I + V )
I
(I – V/Zr) is the operating quantity. The polarising
quantity produces one of the fluxes. In case of Fig. 6.9 Induction cup type
phase comparators it provides reference for phase impedence relay
angle measurement.
256 Power System Protection and Switchgear

6.2.8 Static Impedance Relay I0 Ir

Using an Amplitude
Comparator R

Rectifier bridge comparator is used to

realise an impedance relay characteristic.
I0 Ir
Since it is an amplitude comparator, I is
compared with V. I is an operating quan-
tity and V the restraining quantity. As the
rectifier bridge arrangement is a current I
V
comparator, it is supplied with the operat-
ing current I0 and restraining current Ir, as Fig. 6.10 Static impedance relay unit
shown in Fig. 6.10. I0 is proportional to the using amplitude comparator
load current I, and Ir is proportional to the system voltage V.

6.2.9 Static Impedance Relays Using a Phase Comparator

An impedance relay characteristic can also be realised using a phase comparator. The
radius of the circle is Zr. Figure 6.11(a) shows a phasor diagram showing V, I, IRr,
IXr and IZr. In this diagram, I has been taken as the reference. The IR drop will be in
phase with I. The IX drop will be at 90° to I. If we divide all phasors by I, the result-
ing phasor diagram will be as shown in Fig. 6.11(b).

IX X
Zr
IXr IZr (IZr – V )
(Zr – Z)

V Z

IRr I IR R
(a) (b)

Fig. 6.11 (a) Phasor diagram showing V, I and voltage drops (b) Impedance diagram

Now, a circle with radius Zr is drawn, as shown in Fig. 6.12. Since NM is the
diameter of the circle, NO = Zr and phasor NP = Zr + Z. The angle between (Zr + Z)
(Zr – Z) is q. If the point P lies within the circle, q is less than 90°. If P falls outside
the circle, q is greater than 90°. Thus, to realise an impedance characteristic, the
phase angle between (Zr + Z) and (Zr – Z) is to be compared with ± 90°. If we multi-
ply these impedance phasors by I the resulting phasors are
I(Zr + Z) and I(Zr – Z)
or (IZr + IZ) and (IZr – IZ)
or (IZr + V) and (IZr – V)
Therefore, to realise an impedance relay characteristic using a phase comparator,
the phase angle q between (IZr + V) and (IZr – V) is compared with ± 90°. If q is less than
± 90°, the point lies within the characteristic circle. (IZr + V) is the polarising input and
(IZr – V) is the operating input.
 Distance Protection 257
X

Block M
Zr (Zr – Z )

q
Z P
Trip

Z)
+
R

r
(Z
0

Fig. 6.12 Impedance relay

6.2.10 Microprocessor-based Impedance Relay

The microprocessor computes line impedance at relay locations using Irms and Vrms.
There are a number of techniques which can be used for this type of computation.
One of the techniques uses Idc and Vdc for computation as these are proportional to
Irms and Vrms. Vac and Iac are rectified using rectifiers to obtain Vdc and Idc. These recti-
fiers employ ICs and diodes. Now line impedance is computed and the microproces-
sor issues a trip signal to the circuit breaker if the fault point lies within its protected
section.
In another method, the microprocessor takes samples of the voltage and current
signals over half a cycle or one full cycle to compute Vrms and Irms. Then the line
impedance is computed from these quantities. If the fault point lies within the pro-
tected section, a trip signal is issued.
After taking samples, the microprocessor may use digital filter techniques to com-
pute R and X at the relay location and take a decision to trip the circuit breaker if the
fault point lies within the protected section. See details of microprocessor impedance
relay in Chap. 12.
X Modified
Impedance impedance
6.2.11 Modi ied Impedance relay ZL
relay
Relay
Figure 6.13 shows the characteris- RA
tics of a modified impedance relay. Its
characteristic is a circle on the R-X dia- R
gram. It is similar to that of an imped-
ance relay but has a shifted character-
istic. To realise a modified impedance
characteristic, the standard impedance
characteristic is shifted outwards along
the R-axis by a current bias. This is Fig. 6.13 Modi ied impedance relay
258 Power System Protection and Switchgear

achieved by introducing an additional voltage into the voltage supply circuit of the
relay. The torque equation of a modified impedance relay is as follows.
T = K1I2 – K2 (V + IR)2
where R is a resistance.
The modified impedance relay has a greater tolerance for fault resistance as com-
pared to the impedance relay, as shown in Fig. 6.13. Such a characteristic is not as
effective or accurate as the reactance relay characteristic explained in the next sec-
tion. Moreover, they are more affected by power surges.

6.3 REACTANCE RELAY

A reactance relay measures the reactance of the line at the relay location, and is not
affected by variations in resistance. Hence, its performance remains unaffected by
arc resistance during the occurrence of fault. In case of a fault on the protected line,
the measured reactance is the reactance of the line between the relay location and the
fault point. Its characteristic on the R-X diagram is a straight line, parallel to R-axis
as shown in Fig. 6.14(a).
X MHO starter
25%
X
Zone III
Block
Xr C
X2
50%
Trip Zone II
Operating B X1 P2
characteristic 80%
–R R Line Zone I
–X P1
R

(a) (b)

Fig. 6.14 (a) Operating characteristic of a reactance relay

(b) Reactance relay with starting unit

6.3.1 Electromechanical Reactance Relay

An induction cup structure, as shown in
I
Fig. 6.15, is used to realise a reactance
relay characteristic. The torque equa-
tion of the relay is given by
T = K1I2 – K2VI cos (90 – f) – K3
V
= K1I2 – K2VI sin f – K3
The current produces polarising flux
in the upper and lower poles. Also, cur- Phase-angle Phase-shifting
adjustment circuit
rent is the operating quantity which
produces flux in the right-hand side Fig. 6.15 Induction cup type reactance relay
 Distance Protection 259

pole. The flux in the right-hand side pole is out of phase with that in the upper and
lower poles because of the secondary winding which is closed through a phase shift-
ing circuit and is placed on the right-hand side pole. The interaction of the polarising
flux and the flux in the right-hand side pole produces an operating torque K1I2. The
winding placed on the left-hand side pole produces a flux which interacts with the
polarising flux to produce a restraining torque. There is a phase-angle adjustment
circuit connected in series with the voltage coil. The restraining torque is propor-
tional to VI cos (90 – f). The angle between the actuating quantities which are pro-
portional to V and I can be changed to realise the desired characteristic. In this case,
the angle between the actuating quantities is kept (90 – f). The relay operates when
K1I2 > K2VI sin f, neglecting K3 which is a constant for the spring’s torque. Thus, we
have
V
__ K1
sin f < ___
I K2
or Z sin f < K or X < K
The characteristic of the reactance relay on the R-X diagram is shown in
Fig. 6.14(a). It will operate when the measured value of the reactance is less than
the predetermined value K. It is a non directional relay as it will also operate for the
negative values of X. The negative value of X means that the fault is behind the relay
location, i.e. in the reverse direction. A directional unit, having a circular character-
istic is used in conjunction with reactance relays. The directional unit also acts as
the III unit of the distance scheme. The I and II units are reactance units as shown in
Fig. 6.14(b). The I unit is a high speed unit to protect 80% to 90% of the protected
line. The II unit protects up to 50% of the adjacent line. The III unit is a back-up unit
to protect the whole of the adjacent line. The time-distance characteristic is a stepped
characteristic, as shown in Fig 6.6
Why the directional unit used with reactance relays should have a circular char-
acteristic needs further explanation. Under normal conditions, with a load of high
power factor, the reactance measured by the reactance relay may be less than its
setting. Such points have been shown in Fig. 6.14(b) by P1 lying in the I zone of
protection and P2 in the II zone of protection. To prevent false trippings under such
conditions, the reactance relay should be +
supervised by a fault-detecting unit (start- M Starting unit
ing unit) which limits its area on the R-X Seal-in X2
relay X1 T2
diagram. Hence, its characteristic should
be a circular one. A directional unit with
a straight line characteristic, as used with Seal-in T3
an impedance relay cannot be used in this relay coil
case. With this type of a directional unit, Flags Timing
Trip coil unit
the reactance relay will not trip under con-
ditions of a high power factor load. CB Auxiliary
switch
The starting unit detects faults and also –
serves the function of the III zone unit. Its Fig. 6.16 Connections of reactance relay
connection is shown in Fig. 6.16.
260 Power System Protection and Switchgear

6.3.2 Static Reactance Relay Using an Amplitude Comparator

Figure 6.17 shows a rectifier bridge
type amplitude comparator to realise a
reactance relay. The actuating quanti- VT CT
ties to be compared are (I – V/2Xr) and V I
V/2Xr. The relay operates when 2Xr
V

| || |V V
I – ___ > ___
2Xr 2Xr
Multiplying both sides by 2Xr, we
2Xr

+
get,
+
|2IXr – V| > |V| R
Dividing both sides by I, we get

| V
||| V
2Xr – __ > __ or |2Xr – Z| > |Z|
I I +

where Xr is the reactance of the line to Fig. 6.17 Static reactance relay
be protected.
When the above condition is satisfied, the characteristic realised is a reactance
relay characteristic. Proof of this will be given later on while discussing the angle
impedance relay as the reactance relay is a special case of an angle impedance
relay.

6.3.3 Static Reactance Relay Using a Phase Comparator

Figure 6.18(a) shows a phasor diagram showing voltage, current and voltage drops.
If we divide all vectors by I, the vectors of Fig. 6.18(b) are obtained. A perpendicular
line MK is drawn from the point M. A horizontal line LN is drawn through the point
M. As MK is parallel to IXr the phase angle between IXr and (IZr – V) is equal to the
angle between MK and (IZr – V), i.e. q. If the point P is below the horizontal line LN,
q is less than ± 90°. If P is above LN, q is greater than ± 90°. Therefore, a reactance
relay characteristic can be realised by comparing the phase angle between IXr and
(IZr – V) with ± 90°.

M
IXr L N
(IZr – V ) Zr (Zr – Z)
r
IZ

q q
V P
Z

IRr I IR K R
(a) (b)

Fig. 6.18 (a) Phasor diagrams showing V, I and voltage drop

(b) Phasor diagram for reactance relay
 Distance Protection 261

The reactance relay char- IX X

acteristic can also be realised
IXr (IXr – V ) Xr (Xr – Z)
if the phase angle between IXr
and (IXr – V) is compared with q q
± 90°. The vector diagram for V Z
this condition has been shown
in Fig 6.19
I R
6.3.4 Microprocessor-
(a) (b)
based Reactance
Relay Fig. 6.19 Realisation of reactance relay by
A reactance relay can be rea- comparing IXr and (IXr Ð V)
lised using a microprocessor by
comparing Idc with V sin f. Alternatively, X can be measured at the relay location
using differential equations, Fast Fourier transforms, walsh functions or any other
digital technique and it may be compared with the preset value of X. More details are
given in Chap. 12.

6.4 MHO (ADMITTANCE OR ANGLE ADMITTANCE)

RELAY
A MHO relay measures a component of admit- X
tance |Y| –q. But its characteristic, when plotted t3
on the impedance diagram (R-X diagram) is a
circle, passing through the origin. It is inherently t2
a directional relays as it detects the fault only
M3
in the forward direction. This is obvious from M2
M1
its circular characteristic passing through the
origin, as shown in Fig. 6.20. It is also called t1
an admittance or angle admittance relay. It is a
called a MHO relay because its characteristic R
is a straight line when plotted on an admittance Fig. 6.20 Characteristics of
diagram (G-B axes). MHO relay
6.4.1 Electromechanical MHO Relay
An induction cup structure, as shown in Fig. 6.21
is used to realise a MHO characteristic. The torque
equation is given by
T = K1VI cos (f – a) – K2V2 – K3

The upper and lower poles are energised by a volt-

I
age V to produce a polarising flux. The series capaci-
tor provides memory action which will be explained
later on. The left pole is energised by a current which V
is the operating quantity. The flux produced by I Fig. 6.21 Induction cup type
interacts with the polarising flux to give an operating MHO relay
262 Power System Protection and Switchgear

torque K1VI cos (f – a). The angle a can be adjusted by varying resistance in the
phase shifting circuit placed on the left pole (not shown in the figure). The right-hand
side pole is energised by voltage. The flux produced by the right side pole interacts
with the polarising flux to produce a restraining torque K2V2.
The relay will operate when
1 K2
K1VI cos (f – a) > K2 V2 or __ cos (f – a) > ___
V K1
K2 1
or Y cos (f – a) > ___ or ___________ <K
K1 Y cos (f – a)
Z
_________
or <K or M<K
cos (f – a)

Three units of MHO relays are used +

for the protection of a section of the line. M1 M2
The I unit is a high speed unit to protect
Seal-in
80%–90% of the line section. The II unit relay T2 M3
protects the rest of the line section, and its
reach extends up to 50% of the adjacent line
section. The III unit is meant for back-up
Seal-in T3
protection of the adjacent line section. Relay coil
The II and III units operate after a preset Flags Timing
delay, usually 0.2 s to 0.5 s and 0.4 s to Trip coil unit
1 s respectively. The time-distance char-
acteristic is a stepped characteristic, as CB auxiliary
switch
shown in Fig. 6.6. Figure 6.22 shows –
the connection diagram for MHO units
Fig. 6.22 Connections of MHO relays
placed at one location.

6.4.2 Static MHO Relay Using

an Amplitude Comparator
Figure 6.23 shows a rectifier bridge
VT CT
type amplitude comparator to realise
I
a MHO characteristic. The actuat- Zr
ing quantities to be compared are I
and (V/Zr – I). The relay will operate,
when
+

| |
V
I > __ – I
Zr
R
+

Multiplying both sides by Zr, we

get

|IZr| > |V – IZr| +

Fig. 6.23 Schematic diagram of a static

Dividing both sides by I, we get
MHO relay
 Distance Protection 263

| | V
|Zr| > __ – Zr or |Zr| > |Z – Zr|
I
X

When the above condition is satisfied, the Z1

B
characteristic obtained will be a MHO charac- P
0.8 ZI
teristic, as shown in Fig. 6.24. Zr is the radius Z
of the MHO circle, which is equal to the imped-
ance of the voltage circuit. If a fault point Z
lies within the circle, |Zr| > |Z – Zr|. If a fault (Z – Z r )
point lies on the circumference of the circle, Zr
|Zr| = |Z – Zr|. If the fault point is outside the cir- f
cle, |Zr| < |Z – Zr|. The above conditions are also a R
true if the point P is anywhere on AB. When the A
fault point is very close to the relay location
Fig. 6.24 MHO characteristic
(close-up fault), the relay may fail to operate.
To overcome this difficulty, a voltage called the polarising voltage, which is obtained
from a pair of healthy phases is added to the actuating quantities. The operating
input of the modified actuating quantities corresponds to Vp/Zp – I + Vr/Zr and the
restraining input corresponds Vp/Zp + I – Vr/Zr, where Zr is equal to the impedance of
the relay restraining circuit and Zp is equal to the impedance of the relay polarising
circuit. Vp is the polarising voltage. A relay using polarising voltage is known as a
polarised MHO relay. But the word polarised is frequently omitted and the relay is
simply called a MHO relay. The details of a polarised MHO relay can be seen in Ref.
2, vol. I, page 385.

6.4.3 Static MHO Relay Using a Phase Comparator

Figure 6.25(a) shows a phasor diagram showing voltage, current and voltage drops.
If we divide all phasors of this diagram by I, the resulting phasor diagram will be as
shown in Fig. 6.25(b). The phase angle between V and (IZr – V) is q. Now draw a cir-
cle with Zr as diameter, as shown in Fig. 6.25(c). If the point P lies within the circle,
q is less than ± 90°. If P lies outside the circle, q is greater than ± 90°. Therefore, to
realise a MHO characteristic, the phase angle q between (IZr – V) and V is compared
with ± 90°.
X
X
Zr
(IZr – V ) Zr (Zr – Z) (Z r – Z )
IXr
r
IZ

q q
P
V Z
Z
R
IRr I IR R

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 6.25 (a) Phasor diagram showing V, I and voltage drop

(b) Impedance diagram (c) MHO characteristic
264 Power System Protection and Switchgear

A rectifier bridge phase com-

parator, as shown in Fig. 6.26 can be
employed to realise a MHO charac- IZr

Output
teristic. The inputs to the phase com-
parator are (IZr – V) and V. A phase –V
comparator circuit using an opera-
tional amplifier has been shown in
Fig. 6.27. Its operating principle has
already been explained in the Section
2.3.5(c), Fig. 2.29. V
6.4.4 Polarising Quantity
Fig. 6.26 Recti ier bridge phase comparator
For MHO and reactance relays, three
inputs are used, though the comparator employed is a two-input comparator. These
are (i) operating input (current I), (ii) restraining input (voltage V) and (iii) polarising
input. The polarising input is current in the case of a reactance relay, and voltage in
the case of a MHO relay. The relay uses the first two quantities for impedance (or a
component of the impedance) measurement, which are derived from the current and
voltage associated with the fault. The third quantity, i.e. the polarising quantity is a
reference for determining the phase-sense of the operating current. If a terminal fault
occurs, the voltage at the relay location becomes zero. In case of a reactance relay,
the polarising input is current and hence, the relay operates even though the terminal
voltage is zero. The restraining quantity V is zero. This will not prevent the operation
of the relay. On the other hand, in case of a MHO relay, the polarising input is V. If
it is derived from the faulty phase, it will become zero in case of a terminal fault.
Therefore, the MHO relay will fail to operate for terminal faults. To overcome this
difficulty, the polarising input may be derived from the healthy phases, as discussed
in the next section.

op-amp
IZr – V

Sine to square
Coincidence op-amp Level
wave converter
circuit detector Trip

op-amp Integrator
V

Sine to square
wave converter

Fig. 6.27 Phase comparator circuit using op-amps

The essential requirements for the polarising input are:

(i) The polarising quantity should have a fixed phase angle relative to the restraint
voltage.
 Distance Protection 265

(ii) The magnitude of the polarising quantity is of no importance. But in no case

should it be zero. In case of terminal faults, when the restraint voltage is zero,
the polarising input should not be zero.
The polarising voltage Vp can be related to the restraint voltage Vr by an angle q,
such that
V
___p = C–q, where C can have any value
Vr
The polarising quantities are also used with directional relays. While discussing
the directional relays, methods to derive a polarising voltage have been discussed.

6.4.5 Polarised MHO Relay

In a polarised MHO relay, the inputs to the phase comparator are (IZr – V) and Vp,
where
V = voltage at the relay point. During a fault, it becomes the fault voltage.
I = Current at the relay point. During a fault, it is the fault current.
Zr = MHO relay setting
Vp = polarising voltage.
IZr is the operating quantity and V is the restraint voltage. Vp is the polarising input
which exists even if V is zero as in the case of terminal faults. Therefore, a polarised
MHO relay operates when terminal faults occur, as the phase comparison is made
between (IZr – V) and Vp, though V = 0 or is negligibly small. For a self-polarised
MHO relay in which memory has not been used, the input quantities are (IZr – V)
and V. For such a simple MHO relay, when V becomes zero, phase comparison is not
possible and the relay fails to operate.
If Vp and V, applied to the measuring unit are in phase, the diameter of the MHO
circle will be equal to Zr. If the polarising and restraint currents are displaced by an
angle b, the characteristic will remain a circle but Zr becomes a chord of the circle,
as shown in Fig. 6.28.
In case of an amplitude comparator, if the polarising voltage is to be used, the
inputs are (Vp/Zp – I + V/Zr) and (Vp/Zp – I – V/Zr).
The following methods are used in practice X
to obtain a polarising voltage for a polarised
MHO relay.
(i) Vp can be derived from the fault voltage (Z r – Z )
through a resonant circuit tuned to the 90 + b
Zr
system frequency (i.e. faulty phase volt-
age with memory).
90 – b
(ii) It may be derived from the healthy
phases through a suitable phase-shifting Z
circuit. R
(iii) It may be a combination of the faulty
phase voltage and the healthy phase volt- Fig. 6.28 General case of
age. polarised MHO relay
266 Power System Protection and Switchgear

In the last two methods, when Vp is derived either fully or partly from the healthy
phases, the relay fails to operate if a three-phase terminal fault occurs. In such a situ-
ation, the fault is cleared by an offset MHO relay which is used as a back-up relay.
An offset MHO relay, which has current bias in the voltage circuit, operates even in
case of three-phase terminal faults, (see Section 6.4.6). In a number of cases, high-
set overcurrent relays have been used to clear three-phase terminal faults at a high
speed.
If Vp is derived from the faulty phase, the relay is said to be a self-polarised relay.
If it is derived from the healthy phases, it is called a cross-polarised relay. Fully
cross-polarised means that Vp is fully derived from the healthy phases.
In the first method in which Vp is derived from the faulty phase, it is possible, by
using memory, to maintain the polarising input for a short time even after the occur-
rence of the fault. Therefore, when a terminal fault occurs, the polarising input is
maintained sufficiently long to cause the operation of the relay. In this method, the
polarising current does not maintain the constant phase relation with respect to the
faulty phase voltage. The phase angle of the faulty phase voltage changes when a
fault occurs but the phase angle of the current of the memory circuit is maintained
at the original value. The change in the phase-shift is negligible. The phase-angle
shift also occurs due to the variation in the supply frequency. The supply frequency
may vary from 47 c/s to 51 c/s but the resonant circuit resonates at a fixed frequency.
To minimise the error, the memory is restricted to about three cycles at the most.
Therefore, the relay must be very fast. The most serious drawback of this method
is that this method is not effective when the line is energised. This drawback can be
removed by the supply using voltage from the busbar instead of the line.
6.4.6 Offset MHO Relay
Figure 6.29 shows an offset MHO characteristic. A rectifier bridge type amplitude
comparator, as shown in Fig. 6.23 can be used to realise the offset MHO characteris-
tic. The actuating quantities to be compared are I and (V/Zr – nI). Only a fraction of
the CT output current is injected into the restraint circuit. Thus n is fraction, i.e. n <
1. The relay operates when

| |
V
|I| > __ – nI or |IZr| > |V – nIZr|
Zr
X

or
|V
|Zr| > __ – nZr
I | or |Zr| > |Z – nZr| Z

The offset MHO relay has more toler-

ance to arc resistance. It can also see a (Z – nZr )
close-up fault and a fault which lies behind
the busbar. Hence, it is able to clear bus- nZr
bar faults. A typical value of offset is 10%
of the protected line length. It will oper- R
ate for close-up faults resulting in V = 0.
When V = 0, the relay operates because
|I| > |0 – nI| condition is satisfied, n being Fig. 6.29 Offset MHO characteristic
less than 1.
 Distance Protection 267

In a distance protective scheme employ- X

ing MHO relays, the third unit may be an Line
offset MHO, as shown in Fig. 6.30. The 25%
III zone unit provides busbar zone back-up C
50%
protection in such a scheme. The main B
80%
applications of offset MHO relays are:
(i) busbar zone back-up M1 M2 M3
f
(ii) carrier starting unit in distance/carrier a
blocking schemes Offset R
A
(iii) power swing blocking. (1 – nZr )

The second and third applications will

Fig. 6.30 MHO relays scheme with
be discussed later. When a fault occurs, the
III unit an offset MHO
voltage, current and phase angle change
instantaneously, whereas in case of power swings, they change slowly. This property
is utilised for the out of step blocking relay. The III zone offset unit operates with
some time-delay. When a fault occurs in the zone of the II unit, it operates first and
its tripping is not blocked. In case of power swings, the III zone unit operates first
and blocks the tripping of the II zone unit. The offset characteristic gives a sufficient
time-delay for the III zone unit for this purpose.

6.5 ANGLE IMPEDANCE (OHM) RELAY

An angle impedance relay measures a component of the impedance of the line at the
relay location. It is also called an ohm relay. Its characteristic on the R-X diagram is a
straight line and it is inclined to the
X
R-axis at any angle, as shown in M
Fig. 6.31. The reactance relay is a Block
particular case of an angle imped-
ance relay. The angle impedance Trip B
relay is used in conjunction with ZI P (2Zr – Z )
other relays, for example it is Z
used to limit the area of the MHO C
90°
relay on the R-X diagram to make 2Zr
it less sensitive to power surges. Zr N
a
In this particular application, the R
angle impedance relay is called a A
blinder. This concept will be dis- Fig. 6.31 Characteristic of angle-impedance relay
cussed later on.

6.5.1 Electromechanical Angle Impedance Relay

For this kind of a relay, an induction cup construction, as shown in Fig. 6.15 is used.
The torque equation of the relay is given by

T = K1I2 – K2VI cos (f – a) – K3

268 Power System Protection and Switchgear

In case of a reactance relay, a = 90°. But in the case of an angle impedance relay,
it may have any value which governs the inclination of the characteristic with respect
to the R-axis (see Fig. 6.31).

6.5.2 Static Angle Impedance Relay Using an Amplitude Comparator

An angle impedance characteristic can be realised by comparing (I – V/2Zr) and
V/2Zr by an amplitude comparator as shown in Fig. 6.17, except that the restraint
impedance 2Xr is replaced by 2Zr. The relay operates when

| || |
V V
I – ___ > ___
2Zr 2Zr
or |2IZr – V| > |V|

or
| V V
2Zr – __ > __
I I||| or |2Zr – Z| > |Z|

Figure 6.31 shows the characteristic of an angle impedance relay. P represents

any point and the phasor AP = Z. The angle impedance characteristic is represented
by MN, which is the perpendicular bisector of 2Zr. If the point P is on the left hand
side of MN, then PC > AP, i.e. |2Zr – Z| > |Z|. If the point P lies on MN, PC = AP,
i.e. |2Zr – Z| = |Z|. If the point P lies on the right hand side of MN, PC < AP, i.e.
|2Zr – Z| < |Z|.

6.5.3 Static Angle Impedance Relay Using a Phase Comparator

Figure 6.32(a) shows a phasor diagram showing voltage, current and voltage drops.
If we divide the phasors by I, the phasors of Fig. 6.32(b) are obtained. A line perpen-
dicular to phasor Zr is drawn. q is the angle between Zr and (Zr – Z). Tripping and
blocking zones are as shown in the figure. If the point P lies in the tripping zone, q
is less than ± 90°. If q lies in the blocking zone, it is greater than ± 90°. Therefore,
an angle impedance characteristic can be relaised by comparing the phase angle
between IZr and (IZr – V) with ± 90°.
X
IX
(IZr – V ) (Z r – Z )
IXr 90°
Zr
r
IZ

Block

V
P
Z
Trip
IRr I IR R
(a) (b)

Fig. 6.32 (a) Phasor diagram showing V, I and voltage drops

(b) Angle-impedance characteristic using phase comparator

6.5.4 Microprocessor-based Angle Impedance Relay

A microprocessor can compare the amplitude of (2IZr – V) and V very conveniently
to realise an angle impedance relay.
 Distance Protection 269

6.6 INPUT QUANTITIES FOR VARIOUS TYPES OF

DISTANCE RELAYS
Static relays employ either voltage comparator or current comparator. Table 6.1
shows voltage inputs for different types of distance relays. Table 6.2 shows current
inputs to realise various distance relay characteristics. The directional relay is not a
distance relay. It has been included in these tables as it is used in conjunction with
impedance relays. Its characteristic is a straight line passing through the origin.

Table 6.1 Voltage inputs for different types of distance relays

Types of Relays Amplitude Comparator Phase Comparator (90°)
Operating Restraining Operation Polarising
quantity quantity quantity quantity
Impedance IZr V IZr – V IZr + V
Directional IZr + V V – IZr IZr V
Reactance 2IXr – V V (IZr – V) or IXr
(IXr – V)
MHO IZr 2V – IZr IZr – V V
Offset MHO I(Zr –Z0) 2V – I(Zr + Z0) IZr – V V – IZ0
Angle Impedance 2IZr – V V IZr – V IZr

Table 6.2 Current inputs for different types of distance relays

Types of Relays Amplitude Comparator Phase Comparator (90°)
Operating Restraining Operating Polorising
quantity quantity quantity quantity

V
__ V V
Impedance I I – __ I + __
Zr Zr Zr
V V V
Directional I + __ __ –I I __
Zr Zr Zr
V V V
Reactance I – ___ ___ I I – __
2Xr 2Xr Xr
2V
___ V V
MHO I –I I – __ __
Zr Zr Zr

Offset MHO (
V
Zr Z0
V
2I – __ + __ ) V __
__ –
Zr Z0
V V
I – __
Zr
V
__
Zo
–I

V V V
Angle Impedance 2I – __ __ I I – __
Zr Zr Zr
270 Power System Protection and Switchgear

6.7 SAMPLING COMPARATOR

A sampling comparator compares the amplitudes of input quantities. So it is a kind of
an amplitude comparator. One or both input signals are sampled and compared by the
comparator. When one signal is sampled, it is compared with the average value of the
other signal. Sampling of input signals can be carried out once every cycle or once
every half cycle. If sampling is carried out once every cycle, the scheme is a slower
one but its circuit is simpler and less expensive. If sampling is to be carried out every
half cycle, the scheme is a faster one but its circuit is complex and more expensive.
6.7.1 Realisation of Reactance Relay Using Sampling Comparator
A reactance relay characteristic is realised by comparing the instantaneous value of
the voltage at the moment when current is zero with the rectified current. Figure 6.33
shows the instantaneous value of the voltage at the moment when current is zero. It

V I
V sin f

Fig. 6.33 Instantaneous value of voltage at the moment of current zero

is equal to V sin f. For the operation of the relay, the condition to be satisfied is as
follows.
V sin f
K1Idc > V sin f or ______ < K1
Idc
V sin f
______
or < K, as Irms is proportional to Idc
Irms
or Z sin f < K or X<K
6.7.2 Realisation of MHO Relay Using a Sampling Comparator
A MHO relay characteristic can be realised by comparing the instantaneous values
of the current at the moment of voltage peak with the rectified voltage. Figure 6.34
shows the instantaneous value of the current at the moment of voltage maximum. It
is equal to I cos f. For the operation of the relay, the condition to be satisfied is as
follows.
I
I cos f > K1 Vdc or ___ cos f > K1
Vdc
I
____
or cos f > K2, as Vdc is proportional to Vrms
Vrms
1
______ 1
or Y cos f > K2 or < ___
Y cos f K2
 Distance Protection 271
V
I

I cos f
f 90 – f

Fig. 6.34 Instantaneous value of current at the moment of voltage peak

or M<K
If a design angle a is introduced while feeding the voltage and current signals to
the relay, the above expression is modified and is given by
1
___________ <K
Y cos (f – a)
By changing a, a MHO characteristic can be shifted towards the R-axis to make it
more tolerant to arc resistance
Other relaying characteristics can also be realised using a sampling comparator.
See details in Ref. 8.

6.8 EFFECT OF ARC RESISTANCE ON THE

PERFORMANCE OF DISTANCE RELAYS
If a flashover from phase to phase or phase to ground occurs, an arc resistance is
introduced into the fault path. The arc resistance is appreciable at higher voltages.
The arc resistance is added to the impedance of the line and hence, the resultant
impedance which is seen by distance relays is increased. In case of ground faults,
the resistance of the earth is also introduced into the fault path. The earth resistance
includes the resistance of the tower, tower footing resistance and earth return path.
Earth resistance and arc resistance combined together are known as fault resistance.
In case of phase to phase faults, the fault resistance consists of only arc resistance as
there is no earth resistance in this case.
The arc resistance is given by the Warrington formula:
29 × 103 ◊ l
Rarc = __________ W
I1.4
where l = length of arc in metres in still air and I = fault current in amperes.
Initially, l will be equal to the conductor spacing for phase faults, and the distance
from phase conductor to the tower for ground faults. The arc length is increased by
the cross winds which usually accompany a lightning storm.
The arc resistance, taking into account the wind velocity and time is given by
16300 (1.75 S + vt)
Rarc = ________________ W
I1.4
272 Power System Protection and Switchgear

where S = conductor spacing in metres,

V = wind velocity in km per hour,
t = time in seconds and
I = fault current in amperes.
The arc resistance is treated as pure resistance in series with the line impedance.
When the line is fed from both ends, the current flowing in the fault is fed from both
sides. In this situation, the arc contains a very small fictitious reactive component
which is negligible. For details, see Ref. 1.
Figure 6.35(a) shows the effect of arc resistance on an impedance relay. The relay
has been set to protect a line of impedance Zl. If a fault occurs at the point F and an
arc resistance R is introduced, the relay will measure (ZF + R). ZF is the impedance
of the line up to the point F. If the value of the arc resistance is greater than R, the
impedance measured by the relay will be greater than the radius of the circle, and
the relay will fail to operate. Thus, with arc resistance R, the relay just operates. The
maximum length of the line which can be protected is OF when arc resistance is R.
It is seen that the arc resistance causes the relay to underreach.
Figure 6.35(b) shows the effect of arc resistance on a MHO relay. The characteris-
tic angle of the relay is the same as the characteristic angle f of the line. For a fault at
the point F, the actual line impedance is ZF but the impedance measured by the relay
is (ZF + R) which is less than Zl. This shows that arc resistance causes underreach.
X
X
ZI ZI
R
F
+R F
R
ZF R
0
+R
ZF
f
R

(a) (b)
X
ZI
B
F R
Diameter
R
+
F
Z

a
f
0 R

(c)

Fig. 6.35 (a) Effect of arc resistance on impedance relay (b) Effect of arc resistance
on MHO relay (c) MHO circle shifted towards R-axis
 Distance Protection 273

If the MHO circle is shifted towards the R-axis by making the characteristic angle
of MHO circle a less than the characteristic angle of the line f, the resulting char-
acteristic will tolerate a greater value of arc resistance. Figure 6.35(c) shows such a
characteristic. In this case, (ZF + R) may be even greater than Zl, but it is less than
the diameter of the circle. In such a case, the relay will operate so long as the point
(ZF + R) remains within the characteristic circle. In this case, the relay setting is equal
to the diameter of the MHO circle. The maximum length of the line which can be
protected is given by Zl = OB cos (f – a) where OB is the diameter of the circle. The
values of a which are used for different system voltages are as follows:

System voltage in kV 400 275 132 66 33 11

75 75 60 60 45 45

The inclination of the relay characteristic towards R-axis for lower voltage lines is
more and such characteristics have a greater tolerance for arc resistance. When line
impedance angle is more than 60°, the inclination towards the R-axis is also reduced,
otherwise the accuracy of the relay is affected. In other words, with lower values of
a arc tolerance is greater but relay accuracy is reduced. Thus, with longer values of
a, arc tolerance is less but relay accuracy is higher.
The arc resistance affects the performance of different types of distance relays
to different extents. Figure 6.36 shows the characteristics of a MHO, reactance and
impedance relays on the R-X diagram to protect the same line. If a fault occurs at the
point F with arc resistance R1, the MHO relay fails to operate but the impedance and
reactance relays will operate. If the values of the arc resistance is R2, the MHO and
impedance relays fail to operate but the reactance relay will operate. This shows that
the MHO relay is most affected, the impedance relay is moderately affected and the
reactance relay is least affected by arc resistance. As the reactance relay measures
only reactance it is not at all affected by arc resistance.

X Reactance
characteristic

Impedance
characteristic Arc resistance

MHO F R2
characteristic R1
R
O

Fig. 6.36 Effect of arc resistance on distance relays

6.8.1 Fault Area on Impedance Diagram

Figure 6.37 shows the effect of fault resistance on the impedance diagram vectori-
ally. If a fault occurs at B, without resistance, the relay located at A will measure the
274 Power System Protection and Switchgear

impedance as AB. If there is an arc resistance RF, X

it will be added to AB, vectorially. Now the relay
at A will measure the impedance AC. The hori- B RF C
zontal lines show the values of fault resistance for
faults at different points of the line AB. The area
ABCD is called the fault area.
If the line is fed at only one end, the horizon-
tal lines representing arc resistance are of equal
length. If the line is fed at both end BC will be
R
greater than AD. The fault resistance is more A D
when a fault occurs at the remote end. It is due to
Fig. 6.37 Fault area on an
the fact that only a part of the total fault current
impedance diagram
flows through the relay. The other part of the fault
current is fed from the other end of the line.

6.9 REACH OF DISTANCE RELAYS

A distance relay operates when the impedance (or a component of the impedance)
as seen by the relay is less than a preset value. This preset impedance (or a compo-
nent of the impedance) or corresponding distance is called the reach of the relay. In
other words, it is the maximum length of the line up to which the relay can protect.
Distance relays have underreaching and over-reaching tendencies depending on the
fault conditions. When a distance relay fails to operate even when the fault point is
within its reach, but it is at the far end of the protected line; it is called under-reach.
The main reason for under-reach is the presence of arc resistance in the fault. Due to
presence of arc resistance, the impedance seen by the relay is more than the actual
impedance of the line up to the fault point. Hence are resistance causes underreach
of the distance relay. The tendency of a distance relay to operate even when a fault
point is beyond its preset reach (i.e., its protected length) is known as over-reach.
The important reason for overreach of the distance relay is the presence of dc offset
in the fault current wave. Because of presence of the dc offset in the fault current,
the impedance seen by the relay is smaller than the actual impedance of the line up
to the fault point.

6.9.1 Under-reach of Distance Relays Zl

The tendency of the distance relay to restrain (not
F R
to operate) at the preset value of the impedance or ZF F¢
impedances less than the preset value is known as
under-reach. It has been shown in Section 6.8 that the R
O ZF + R
arc resistance causes the distance relay to under-reach.
Due to presence of arc resistance, the impedance seen
by the relay appears to be more than the actual value
of the impedance up to the fault point and the relay
tends to underreach. Figure 6.38 shows the effect of Fig. 6.38 Under-reach of
arc resistance on reach of the distance relay. distance relay
 Distance Protection 275

The relay at O has been set to protect a line of impedance Z1. If a fault occurs at
the point F and an arc resistance R is introduced, the impedance seen by the relay
will be (ZF + R). ZF is the impedance of the line upto the fault point F. In this case
the impedance seen by the relay, i.e., (ZF + R) is equal to the radius of the circle, i.e.,
Zl which is more than the actual value of the impedance upto the fault point, i.e., ZF.
If the arc resistance as shown by FF¢ is greater than R the impedance OF¢ as seen
by the relay will be greater than the radius of the circle such that F¢ lies outside the
operating region of the relay and the relay will fail to operate. Though the actual
impedance of the line upto the fault point (i.e., ZF) is less than Zl, but the relay fails
to operate as the impedance seen by the relay appears to be more than Zl due to pres-
ence of arc resistance. This shows that the arc resistance causes the distance relay to
underreach.
The arc resistance causes the underreach of distance relays to different extents.
The extents of underreach of different relays are summarized below:

Relay Under-reach due to arc resistance

Impedance relay Moderate
Reactance relay None
MHO relay Maximum
Quadrilateral relay None

6.9.2 Overreach of Distance Relays

The tendency of a distance relay to operate at impedances larger than its preset value,
i.e., when the fault point is beyond its preset reach, is known as overreach. The main
reason for overreach is the presence of dc offset in the fault current wave. The dis-
tance relay is prone to overreach on a transient fault consisting of a dc offset. All
high-speed distance relays tend to see more current due to the presence of dc offset.
The rms value of the fault current with and without dc offset is as follows:
_______
I = ÷I2ac + I2dc with dc offset

I = Iac without dc offset

Since the rms value of fault current with a dc offset is greater than the rms value
of a pure alternating current having symmetrical wave, the impedance seen by the
relay appears to be less than the actual value, and the relay tends to overreach. The
impedance seen by the relay with and without dc offset are given by
V V
Zoff = __ = ________
_______ with offset
I 2
÷ ac
I + I2 dc

V V
Zno-off = __ = ___ without dc offset
I Iac
Zoff < Zno-off
276 Power System Protection and Switchgear

The transient overreach is defined as

Zoff(m) – Zno-off(m)
Percent transient overreach = ______________ × 100
Zno-off(m)
where
Zoff(m) = the maximum impedance for which the relay will operate with an
offset current wave, for a given adjustment.
Zno-off(m) = the maximum impedance for which the relay will operate for a pure
symmetrical ac for the same adjustment.
The transient overreach increases as the system angle tan–1 X/R increases.
Figure 6.39 shows the overreach of a distance relay located at A. The source
impedance is neglected. The distance relay has been adjusted to reach point
F = 11.00 ohms under no-offset fault current as shown in Fig. 6.39(a). The output of
the VT is 110 V. The fault current for a fault at F is
110 V
Ino-offset = ________ = 10 A
11 ohms
where Zst = 11.00 ohms is the setting or steady-state reach of the relay.
Now, suppose that the fault point F is moved to a new point F¢ = 13.75 ohms as
shown in Fig. 6.39(b) and let the fault current has a dc offset of 6.0 A. Thus,
110 V
Iac = __________ = 8.0 A
13.75 ohms

Setting = j 11.0 Ohms

j 11.0 Ohms
Eg A
CB CT F

VT
V = 110 V No offset
in fault current
Distance
relay

(a)

j 13.75 Ohms
Eg A
CB CT F¢

VT
V = 110 V DC offset
in fault current
Distance
relay

(b)

Fig. 6.39 Transient overreach of distance relay

 Distance Protection 277

Since Idc = 6.0 A,

_______ ____________
I = ÷I2ac + Idc
2
= ÷(8.0)2 + (6.0)2 = 10.0 A
Therefore,
110 V
Zfictitious = ______ = 11.0 ohms
10.0 A
Since the fictitious impedance due to the dc offset now equals the setting, the relay
operates. Though, the fault point is beyond the steady-state reach of the relay, but the
relay operates as the fictitious impedance due to the dc offset equals the setting of the
relay. This is the case of overreach of the distance relay. The percentage overreach in
this case is
13.75 – 11.00
Percentage overreach = ____________ × 100 = 25%
11.00
Therefore, in order to minimise the transient overreach, the distance relay should
have better design. Relay designers have not been able to reduce the overreach of the
distance relay to less than 10% of its setting (i.e., steady-state reach). In practice, the
percentage overreach is taken between 10% and 20%. Therefore, the distance relays
cannot be set 100% of the line length to provide high-speed primary protection to
the entire line. The high-speed distance relay of zone-1 is adjusted to 80% to 90%
of the line length. The margin of 10% to 20% is left for transient overreach, error in
calculation of line impedance and errors in transducers (CTs and VTs).

6.10 EFFECT OF POWER SURGES (POWER SWINGS)

ON THE PERFORMANCE OF DISTANCE RELAYS
Consider a transmission line which connects two generating stations, as shown in
Fig. 6.41. The current flowing through the transmission line depends upon the phase
difference between the voltage generated at the two ends of the line. The phase dif-
ference is equal to the rotor angle. The phase angle between the generated voltages
changes during disturbances which may arise because of the removal of a fault or a
sudden change in the load. During disturbances, the rotor of the generator swings
around the final steady state value. When the rotor swings, the rotor angle changes
and the current flowing through the line also changes. Such currents are heavy and
they are known as power surges. So long as the phase angle between the generated
voltages goes on changing, the current ‘seen’ by the relay is also changing. Therefore,
the impedance measured by the relay also varies during power swings. Thus, a power
surge ‘seen’ by the relay appears like a fault which is changing its distance from the
relay location. The characteristic of some important distance relays and power surge
are shown on the R-X diagram, Fig. 6.40. It is evident from the figure that the relay
characteristic occupying greater area on the R-X diagram remains under the influence
of the power surges. The MHO relay having the least area on the R-X diagram is least
affected. The impedance relay characteristic has more area than the MHO relay but
lesser area than a reactance relay. Therefore, while it is more affected than the MHO
relay, it is affected less than the reactance relay. In other words, it is moderately
affected. The reactance relay occupying the largest area is most affected.
278 Power System Protection and Switchgear
X

s
Starting unit for

e
urg
reactance relay

er s
Pow
Impedance
relay
Reactance
Directional relay
unit for
impedance relay MHO relay
R

Fig. 6.40 Effect of power surges on distance relays

6.10.1 Power Swing Analysis

Figure 6.41 shows a section of a transmission line with generating stations beyond
either end of the line section. The generated voltages are EA and EB, respectively. The
voltage at the relay location is V. Impedances are as shown in the figure. The current
flowing through the line is given by
EA – EB
I = ___________
ZA + ZL + ZB

EA – EB
= _______ (where ZT = ZA + ZL + ZB)
ZT
V = EA – IZA
The impedance ‘seen’ by the relay is given by
V EA – IZA EA
Z = __ = _______ = ___ – ZA
I I I
EAZT
= _______ – ZA
EA – EB

A Relay B
ZA ZL ZB

EA V EB

Fig. 6.41 One line diagram of a system to illustrate loss of synchronism

 Distance Protection 279

If EA leads EB by an angle d and EA/EB = n, the above expression is written as

neid
Z = ______ ZT – ZA
neid – 1

B
n = PA
PB 1
n>
d P

90°
R
n=1
A n
<
1

Fig. 6.42 General loss of synchronism characteristics

This equation represents a family of circles with n as parameter and d as variable,

as shown in Fig. 6.42. With n = 1, the power swing locus is a straight line perpendicu-
lar to AB (AB = ZT). With n > 1 and n < 1, the power swing loci are circles, as shown
in the figure.
The centres of the circles lie on the extension of the line ZT, as shown in Fig. 6.43.
For n >1, the distance from B to the centre of circle = ZT /(n2 – 1)
nZT
Radius of circle = _____ X Loss of synchronism
n2 – 1 characteristic

These are shown in Fig. 6.43.

For n < 1, the circles are symmetrical
to those for n > 1, but with their centres
n ZT
beyond A, as shown in Fig. 6.42. The 2
B n –1
same formulae can be used for the radius
and the distance of the centre of the circle ZT
2
by putting 1/n in place of n. So long as the n –1
power swing locus remains in the char- ZT
acteristic zone of a distance relay on the R
R-X diagram, the relay will see a fault and
A
it will have a tendency to trip. Whether
the relay will trip or not depends on the Fig. 6.43 Graphical construction of loss
period for which the swing locus influ- of synchronism characteristic
280 Power System Protection and Switchgear

ences the relay characteristic. This has been explained in the previous section (Sec.
6.10)

6.10.2 Out of Step Tripping and Blocking Relays

When generators of a power system lose synchronism, all ties between them are
opened to maintain supply and to resynchronise them. The separation of the system
is made at certain selected location so that the generating capacity and the loads on
either side of the point of separation are properly matched to maintain the supply.
Figure 6.44 shows a simple case of two interconnected power stations.

A 50 MW 50 MW 50 MW 50 MW B
1 2 3 4 5 6

200 MW 50 MW 50 MW 100 MW

Fig. 6.44 Two interconnected system with out of step tripping relay at point 4

Station A has a generating capacity of 200 MW. It can supply loads up to points
4. Station B has a generating capacity of 100 MW. It can supply loads at point 6 and
5. So, if the system loses synchronism, there should be relaying equipment at point 4
for separation and resynchronisation. Out of step tripping relays are used at this point
for the separation of the system. At all other locations, out of step blocking relays are
used to prevent the tripping of distance relays due to power swings.

6.10.3 Principle of Out of Step Blocking Relay

When a fault occurs on a system, the voltage, current and the phase angle change
instantly, whereas during power swings, these quantities change more slowly. This
fact is utilised to cause blocking of the distance relay on power swings without pre-
venting tripping under fault conditions.
In a MHO distance scheme, the I and II units are MHO relays and the III unit is
an offset MHO relay, as shown in Fig. 6.45. During a power swing, the III zone unit
OM3 operates before the II zone unit M2. OM3 picks up a blocking relay B with a
small time delay. Figure 6.46 shows the connection of the blocking relay. The block-
ing relay B opens the contact B so that the operation of the relay M2 is prevented dur-
ing a power swing. In case of faults, M2 operates first and trips the circuit breaker. A
fault may occur during a swing and it must be cleared. From this consideration, OM3
is not blocked and it takes care of such faults.
6.10.4 Principle of Out of Step Tripping Relay
Two blinders (angle impedance relays) are employed for out of step tripping, as
shown in Fig. 6.46. An auxiliary relay is used with each blinder. These blinders are
arranged to cause operation of one of the auxiliary relays if the impedance crosses
the operating characteristic of one of them before the other, in either direction. The
auxiliary relay can send out a signal to an alarm, trip a circuit breaker or initiate some
other form of control.
 Distance Protection 281
X
ZI

+
OM3

M2 B OM3

M1
M 1 & M2 B Timing
unit

R –

Power swing locus

Fig. 6.45 Offset III zone characteristic Fig. 6.46 Connection of out of step
for power swing blocking blocking relay

6.11 EFFECT OF LINE LENGTH AND SOURCE

IMPEDANCE ON DISTANCE RELAYS
Figure 6.48(a) shows a one-line diagram of the system during fault condition. Zs is
the source impedance behind the relay. ZL is the line impedance from the relaying
point to the fault point F. The current flowing through the relay is given by
E
I = _______
ZS + ZL
The voltage at the relay location which is applied to the distance relay is
EZL E
V = IZL = _______ = _____
ZS + ZL ___
ZS
+1
ZL

Locus of X
B
power surge Line

A R

Blinders used as out of

tripping relays

Fig. 6.47 Out of step tripping relays

282 Power System Protection and Switchgear

Relaying
point ZS ZL
ZS ZL F
E
E V V

V = Voltage at relay location

(a) (b)

Fig. 6.48 (a) One-line diagram of the system during fault condition
(b) Voltage at the relaying point

Relay manufactures specify the minimum voltage for the relay operation. For
example an induction cup MHO relay can operate down to 8 volts within 5% accu-
racy. We can find the limiting value of Zs/ZL for V = 8 V.
E
8 = ______
Z
___ + 1
S
ZL
E can be taken equal to the normal secondary CT voltage, which is 110 V
110
8 = ______
Z
___S + 1
ZL
ZS ____
___ 110
= – 1 = 13.75 – 1 @ 13
ZL 8
If the value of ZS/ZL is less than 13, the voltage at the relay point is more than 8
volts and the relay will operate. If the ratio ZS/ZL is more than 13, the voltage at the
relay point is less than 8 volts and the relay will fail to operate. ZS is constant for
the system under consideration. The value of ZL depends on the position of the fault
point. The relay will fail to operate if
ZS
___ > 13
ZL
ZS
or ZL < ___
13
Thus, there is a minimum length of the line, below which the relay cannot protect
the line. If the fault point is too close to the relay location, such that ZL is less than
ZS/13, the relay will fail to operate.
Modern induction cup relays can operate down to 3 volts. Corresponding to this
value of voltage, ZS/ZL = 36 V. The relay will fail to operate if
ZS
ZL < ___
36
For a rectifier bridge comparator with a sensitive polarised relay, the minimum
operating voltage is 3.5 V, and correspondingly, ZS/ZL @ 30.
 Distance Protection 283

6.12 SELECTION OF DISTANCE RELAYS

The effect of arc resistance and power surges plays an important role in the selec-
tion of distance relays for a particular distance protective scheme. As the reactance
relay remains unaffected by arc resistance, it is preferred for ground fault relaying.
A reactance relay is also used for phase fault relaying in case of a short line. As the
impedance of a short line is small, the value of arc resistance is comparable to the
line impedance and it may cause an appreciable error. Therefore, a relaying unit inde-
pedent of arc resistance, i.e. a reactance relay is suitable for the protection of short
lines against phase faults. But the reactance relay is more affected by power surges
than the MHO and impedance relays. In case of short lines, power surges remain for
a shorter period and hence their effect is unimportant. The predominating factor is
therefore, the effect of arc resistance.
A conductance relay is more tolerant to arc resistance than the MHO and imped-
ance relays. It is also more economical than a reactance relay as it does not require a
directional unit. It can be used where the problem of arc resistance is moderate. It is
applicable to both distribution lines, overhead and cables.
As reactance relays are affected by power surges more than impedance and MHO
relays, they are not suitable for longer lines. The effect of power surges stays for a
longer period in case of long lines and hence, a relay which is least affected by power
surges is preferred for the protection of long lines. The MHO unit is less affected by
power surges than the impedance and reactance relays and hence, it is best suited
for the protection of long lines against phase faults. But it is most affected by arc
resistance. As the impedance of a long line is large, the arc resistance will not cause
appreciable error and its effect can be neglected. Thus, the predominating factor for
the selection of a distance relay for long lines is the effect of power surges. In case
of very long line, elliptical or quadrilateral relays are best suited as they occupy the
least area on the R-X diagram and hence are least affected by power surges.
An impedance relay is moderately affected by both power surges as well as arc
resistance. So it is better suited for medium lines for phase fault relaying. There is
no sharp dividing line which can decide the choice of a distance relay for a particular
application. Actually there is a lot of overlapping between the areas of application
where one or another type of distance relay is best suited. The above discussions sim-
ply describe the basic principles. Practical experience also plays an important role in
the selection of distance relays for a particular situation.

6.13 MHO RELAY WITH BLINDERS

Though a MHO relay is quite suitable for the protection of long lines, for the pro-
tection of extra long lines (ELD), its area on the R-X diagram may be too large to
trip under power swing conditions. Hence, further reduction in the area of a MHO
characteristic is necessary to make the relay suitable for ELD lines. In the case of
electromagnetic relays, two blinders have been used to reduce the characteristic area
of a MHO relay, as shown in Fig. 6.49. These blinders are angle impedance relays
which are connected in series with the MHO relay. Each of them allows the MHO
relay to see only in a particular direction.
284 Power System Protection and Switchgear
X

Blinders
Block

Tri
p MHO

Tri Block
p

Fig. 6.49 MHO relay with blinders

6.14 QUADRILATERAL RELAY

A quadrilateral characteristic is best suited to ELD lines. It possesses an ideal dis-
tance relay characteristic. Its characteristic can be designed to just enclose the fault
area of the line to be protected, see the explanation of the term fault area in Sec. 6.8.1.
Such a characteristic is least affected by power surges, fault resistance and overloads.
Thus, it is seen that a quadrilateral characteristic is an ideal characteristic for the
protection of ELD lines. It is also quite suitable for short and medium lines. A static
relay gives a better quadrilateral characteristic than a combination of electromagnetic
relays.
To realise a quadrilateral or any other multilateral characteristic a multi-input
phase comparator is employed. The term multi-input comparator is used for a com-
parator which has more than two inputs.
If more than one two-input comparators are used to realise a complex character-
istic, the relay will be faster than a single multi-input comparator. But the drawback
of the combination of two-input comparators is that the outputs of each comparator
do not go active at the same time. To overcome this difficulty, the output of each
comparator has to be prolonged for a short time which sometimes leads to erratic
tripping.

6.14.1 Realisation of Quadrilateral Characteristic

To realise a quadrilateral characteristic, a multi-input phase comparator, as shown in
Fig. 6.50, is employed. In a multi-input comparator, all the input signals are com-
pared with each other. The resultant characteristic is the area enclosed by the lines
and circles resulting from all these comparsions.

(IZr – V )
IXr
And Delay And Trip
IRr
V

Fig. 6.50 Multi-input phase comparator for quadrilateral characteristic

 Distance Protection 285

The phase comparison between IXr and V gives a straight line characteristic, as
shown in Fig. 6.51(a). The characteristics resulting from the phase comparison of
other inputs are shown in Fig. 6.51(b), (c), (d) and (e). The proof for the charac-
teristics shown in Fig. 6.51(d) and (e) has already been given in section 6.3.3 and
6.4.3, respectively. The proofs for the other characteristics are given at the end of
this chapter in the appendix. The resultant characteristic is shown in Fig. 6.51(f). The
MHO circle will not interfere with the rectangular characteristic as the diameter of
the circle passes through the corners of the rectangle.
The desired characteristic is shown in Fig. 6.51(g). In this case, the MHO circle
is an undesired element, which can be eliminated if at least one of the quantities
(IZr – V) and V is pulsed. To take care of the resistance fault near the bus, a charac-
teristic shown in Fig. 6.51(h) is obtained giving a 10° shift in the characteristic. This
is obtained by shifting IXr and IRr by 10°. For this, Xr is replaced by an impedance
having a phase angle of 80°. A capacitor is placed in parallel with Rr for 10° shift
in IRr.

X X
X
Trip Trip
Block Block

Trip
–R R –R R

–R R
Block
–X –X –X
(a) IXr and V (b) IRr and V (c) IRr and (IZr – V )

X Block Block
X X

Trip Trip

–R R
R R
–X
(d) IXr and (IZr –V ) (e) V and (IZr –V ) (f) Composite characteristic

X X

R R
(g) Parallelogram (h) Inclined characteristic

Fig. 6.51 Various characteristics resulting from the phase comparison of inputs
indicated in Fig. 6.50
286 Power System Protection and Switchgear

Tripping occurs when all conditions resulting from the comparison of all inputs
in pairs are simultaneously fulfilled during a certain length of time as decided by the
delay unit.

6.15 ELLIPTICAL RELAY

An elliptical characteristic is less affected by power surges as it occupies less area on
the R-X diagram compared to other types of distance relays, as shown in Fig. 6.52. To
realise an elliptical relay, a three input amplitude comparator, as shown in Fig. 6.53
is employed. The inputs are (V – IZr), (V – IKZr) and MI as shown in figure. The
V – IZr V – IKZr
corresponding bridge currents are ______, ________ and MI. M is a constant which is
R R
Zr + KZr
made equal to _______. X ZL
R
For the operation of the relay, the following
Fault area
condition should be satisfied.
Powe
r su

or
| ||
V – IZr
______
R
V – KIZr
||
(Zr + KZr)
+ ________ < I _________
R R
|V – IZr| + |V – KIZr| < |I(Zr + KZr)|
| rge

or |Z – Zr| + |Z – KZr| < |Zr + KZr|

This is an equation for an ellipse passing Fig. 6.52 Ellipse less affected by
through the origin as shown in Fig. 6.54(a). power surges
The sum of the distance of any point on the
ellipse from the foci is constant and it is equal to the length of the major-axis. The
first two terms of the above equation represent the distance of two foci from the
curve. The third term, i.e. (Zr + KZr) is the major diameter of the ellipse. In the
figure F1 and F2 are foci of the ellipse. OP = Z, OF1 = Zr, F1P = Z – Zr, F2P
= Z – KZr and OF2 = KZr.
V – IZr V – KIZr
R R MI
Relay

1:1
VT V R
KZr MI
Zr

CT

Fig. 6.53 Three-input amplitude comparator to realise elliptical characteristic

 Distance Protection 287

To take care of the resistance fault close to the bus, an offset elliptical characteris-
tic which overlaps the origin as shown in Fig. 6.54(b) is used. The offset characteris-
tic, having one focus i.e., F2 at the origin is given by the equation.
| Z – Zr | + | Z | < | Zr + 2KZr |
X X

F1
F2 Zr (Z – Zr) Zr (Z – Zr)
KZr KZr
P Z
R R
O
Z
(a) (b)

Fig. 6.54 (a) Ellipse passing through origin (b) Offset ellipse with one focus at the origin

Due to its rounded characteristic, it is only suitable for III zone of protection as a
back-up relay.

6.16 RESTRICTED MHO RELAY

To realise a MHO characteristic, the phase angle q between (IZr – V) and V is com-
pared with ± 90°. If q is compared with some other angle less than ± 90°, the result-
ing characteristics are as shown in Fig. 6.55(a). The equation for relay operation is
written as
– (90° – e) £ q £ (90° – e)
or –l£q £l
where l is an angle less than 90° i.e., l = 90° – e.
The restricted MHO characteristic can also be realised using an amplitude com-
parator. The inputs are
(2V – IZ¢r) and IZ¢r where,
Z¢r = Zr cosec y, arc Z¢r = q ± (p/2 – y),
l = 180° – y,
Zr = diameter of the MHO circle,
Z¢r = chord of restricted MHO, and
q = angle of Zr.
For operating conditions,
(2V – IZr) < IZ¢r
Restricted MHO characteristic is shown in Fig. 6.56(a). Restricted offset MHO
characteristic is shown in Fig. 6.56(b).
288 Power System Protection and Switchgear
X

MHO

e = 0, l = 90° Restricted MHO

e = 15°, l = 75°
Zr
e = 30°, l = 60°

(a)
X

Offset MHO

Restricted offset e = 0, l = 90°

Zr
MHO e = 15°, l = 75°
e = 30°, l = 60°

Zo R

Compare phase angle q between (IZr – V ) and (V – IZo) with (90° – e)

(b)

Fig. 6.55 (a) MHO and restricted MHO characteristics

(b) Offset MHO and restricted offset MHO

X
X

Block
Z ¢r Zr
y Z ¢r
Trip

Trip Block
Zr Z r¢
Z r¢ R
f Z
R
q

(a) (b)

Fig. 6.56 (a) Restricted MHO characteristics using an amplitude comparator

(b) Restricted offset MHO relay
 Distance Protection 289

6.17 RESTRICTED IMPEDANCE RELAY

To realise an impedance relay characteristic, the phase angle q between (IZr + V) and
(IZr – V) is compared with ± 90°. If q is compared with some other angle less than
± 90°, the resulting characteristic is the restricted impedance characteristic, as shown
in Fig. 6.57. The operating equation is written as
– (90° – e) £ q £ (90° – e)
or –l£q£l
Impedance
X
Restricted
Impedance

–R R

e = 30°, l = 60°
e = 15°, l = 75°
–X
e = 0°, l = 90°

Fig. 6.57 Impedance and restricted impedance characteristics

6.18 RESTRICTED DIRECTIONAL RELAY

The directional relay has a straight line characteristic passing through the origin, as
shown in Fig. 6.58. It is realised by comparing the phase angle (q – b) with ± 90°,
where q is the phase angle between IZr and V. If (q – b) is compared with an angle
less than 90°, the restricted directional characteristics, as shown in Fig. 6.58 are
obtained. The relay trips when the following X
condition is satisfied.
– (90° – e) £ (q – b) £ (90° – e)
Zr
– l £ (q – b) £ l
The restricted directional relay can also
be realised using an amplitude comparator. 90°
For a simple directional relay, the inputs to b
R
the amplitude comparator are (IZr + V) and
(IZr – V). For restricted directional character- e = 30 °
istic, the inputs are K (IZr + V) and (IZr – V). e = 15°
The relay operates when e = 0°
|K (IZr + V)| > |(IZr – V)|
Fig. 6.58 Restricted directional relay
290 Power System Protection and Switchgear

or |K (Zr + Z)| > |(Zr – Z)|

_________________

÷
Z2r +Z2 – 2ZZr cos l
where, K = _________________
Z2r + Z2 + 2ZZr cos l

6.19 RESTRICTED REACTANCE RELAY

An angle impedance relay is realised by comparing the phase angle q between IZr
and (IZr – V) with ± 90°. If q is compared with an angle l which is less than 90° as
shown in Fig. 6.59, the restricted reactance relay characteristic is obtained. The relay
operates when the following condition is satisfied.
–l£q£l

Angle-impedance
characteristic
X
Block
90°
Zr
Z ¢r
l
Trip
l
q
Zr – Z

a Trip

Restricted Block
reactance
characteristic 2a Z¢r

Fig. 6.59 Restricted reactance relay

The restricted reactance characteristic can also be realised using an amplitude

comparator. In an amplitude comparator, the inputs are V and (2IZr – V) to realise an
angle impedance relay characteristic. For restricted reactance relay, the inputs are V
and (2IZ¢r – V). Tripping occurs when
|V| < |(2IZ¢r – V)| or |Z| < |(2Z¢r – Z)|

6.20 SOME OTHER DISTANCE RELAY

CHARACTERISTICS
Many other distance relay characteristics have been realised and discussed in texts.
A few of them will be simply introduced in this section to make the reader familiar
with these characteristics.
 Distance Protection 291

X
6.20.1 Hyperbola
A hyperbola characteristic as shown in ZL
Fig. 6.60 can be realised using a multi-input
comparator. For the operation of the relay, the
following condition should be satisfied.
|Z – Zr| – |Z – KZr| < |Zr + KZr|
This expression is similar to that for an R
elliptical characteristic, except that the second
term is negative. Hyperbolic characteristics
can be used as blinders.
Fig. 6.60 Hyperbolic characteristic
6.20.2 Parabola
A parabolic characteristic, as shown in Fig. 6.61, can also be realised. Such a char-
acteristic can be used as a blinder, i.e., to limit the area of another relay on the R-X
diagram.

6.20.3 Limacons
Limacons are also used as blinders. Their characteristic is shown in Fig. 6.62.
X
X
ZL
ZL

R
R

Fig. 6.61 Parabolic characteristic Fig. 6.62 Limacons

6.20.4 Specially Shaped Characteristics

From the relay performance point of view, specially shaped characteristics, other
than circular ones, have been developed. These include some well-known curves
also. A multi-input comparator is employed to realise specially shaped character-
istics to provide greater immunity to power swings and heavy system loading. The
characteristic curve shown in Fig. 6.63(a) comprises of intersecting circular charac-
teristics. This characteristic has a reduced area on the R-X diagram and hence is less
suceptible to power surges. It is suitable for the protection of very long line. This can
be realised using a scheme shown in Fig. 6.63(b). Figure 6.64 and 6.65 show some
typical characteristics.
292 Power System Protection and Switchgear
X

Zr Offset MHO
characteristic MHO Output
relay
OR
Offset Trip
MHO characteristic MHO
Output
relay
R
(a) (b)

Fig. 6.63 (a) Resultant of MHO and offset MHO characteristics

(b) Scheme to realise characteristic shown in Fig. 6.63(a)

X
X

R
60°
R

Fig. 6.64 A typical offset characteristic Fig. 6.65 A typical characteristic

Where very long starter or back-up reach is required, shaped characteristics as

shown in Fig. 6.66 can be employed. An asymmetrical shaped characteristic, as
shown in Fig. 6.67 is also very useful. The upper-half of the characteristic is to
provide a reasonably broad coverage to allow for errors due to fault resistance, power
X

60°
R R

Fig. 6.66 Specially shaped Fig. 6.67 An asymmetrically shaped

characteristics characteristic
 Distance Protection 293

system data, etc. and the lower half of the characteristic is chosen to be a narrow
one to give good discrimination with load impedance. This characteristic gives very
good performance where only one measuring unit is employed in a switched distance
scheme.
Specially shaped characteristics can also be realised using multi-relay schemes.
But such schemes become complex and expensive. There is also a time-coordination
problem in a multi-relay scheme. A multi-input relay is superior to the multi-relay
scheme. It is capable of producing a wide variety of complex and specially shaped
characteristics. Multi-input phase comparators are commonly used. Sometimes
multi-input amplitude comparator or hybrid (combination of amplitude and phase
comparator) comparators are also employed.

6.21 SWIVELLING CHARACTERISTICS

We have already discussed that a reactance X
relay is suitable for short lines and MHO
relay for long lines. It will be better if a Zs
=•
relay changes its characteristic when the line Z L

impedance ZL changes. The fault resistance Zs

ZL =0
increases when the source impedance ZS ZL
increases. So it will be still better if the relay
characteristic changes with changing ZS/ZL. R
Zs
A circular relay characteristic is desirable =1
ZL
for low ZS/ZL and a straight line character-
istic for high ZS/ZL. For intermediate values
of ZS/ZL intermediate characteristic is desir-
able. Figure 6.68 shows such characteris- Fig. 6.68 Swivelling characteristic
tics. To realise such characteristics, a fully
cross-polarised MHO relay is used. The polarising voltage is taken from the
healthy phases. A phase comparator is employed to compare (IZr – V) and Vpol,
where Vpol = polarizing voltage derived from the healthy pahses, V = fault voltage,
I = fault current, and Zr = distance relay setting.
Such a relay also operates reliably when a close-up fault occurs. It has the ability
to operate on a large arc resistance and high resistance faults. But it may overreach in
case of high resistance faults for low values of ZS/ZL. This problem can be overcome
by introducing non-linearity in the impedance of the cross-polarising circuit, i.e. the
circuit to realise voltage from the unfaulted phase pair.
With single-line to ground faults, ZS/ZL ratio is reduced due to high ground resis-
tance. For such a situation, a reactance characteristic is desirable but the relay under
discussion will give a MHO characteristic. Thus, we see that the swivelling is not so
effective with single-phase to ground faults. However, its performance for L-G faults
will be quite satisfactory on lines with ground wires with metal supports, i.e. with
lines with good earthing (i.e. low value of earth resistance).
294 Power System Protection and Switchgear

6.22 CHOICE OF CHARACTERISTICS FOR DIFFERENT

ZONES OF PROTECTION
For the protection of lines against line to line faults, MHO relays are used for I zone
and II zone. For III zone, offset MHO type of a relay is used. The third zone unit is
an offset unit and is placed at station A if the line section to be protected is not too
long. It can also be used for initiating power swing blocking. Such an arrangement
is shown in Fig. 6.69(a). The offset unit is set with the backward reach of about 10%
of the full forward reach. An offset MHO characteristic takes care of close-up faults,
including 3-phase faults. In case of long line section, the III zone unit is placed at the
remote end of the line so that its characteristic circle is smaller and hence it is less
affected by power swings. The arrangement is shown in Fig. 6.69(b). In this position,
it has better discrimination between faults and loads.
X X
III Zone
C C III Zone
II Zone
I Zone II Zone
B B
Power swing
Power swing
locus
R I Zone locus
A R
A

(a) III Zone unit placed at A (b) III Zone unit placed at remote end B

Fig. 6.69 Three-step MHO characteristic

For ground faults and short lines a reactance relay is preferable though it is more
expensive. A quadrilateral relay is suitable for long as well as short lines. For I
and II zones, quadrilateral relays passing through the origin are used, as shown in
Fig. 6.70(a). The third unit is an offset unit. For a long line section, the third unit is
placed at the remote end of the line, as shown in Fig. 6.70(b).

X X

C III Zone C III Zone

II Zone II Zone
B B
Power swing
I Zo locus
ne I Zone
R R
A
A
(a) III zone unit placed at A (b) III zone unit placed at B

Fig. 6.70 Three-step quadrilateral characteristic

 Distance Protection 295

6.23 COMPENSATION FOR CORRECT

DISTANCE MEASUREMENT
If only one measuring unit is used for all types of phase and ground faults, a com-
plex switching arrangement is required to switch on the corresponding voltage and
current. Detailed analysis is given below. Different types of switching systems will
be discussed later [Link] impedance measured by a protective relay depends on the
type of fault. If a distance relay is energised by line to line voltage and line
__ current,
the impedance seen by the relay will be 2Z1 for phase to phase fault, and ÷3 Z1 –30°
for a three-phase fault. If the relay is fed with phase voltage and phase current, the
impedance seen is (Z1 + Z2 + Z3)/3 for a line to ground fault. But it is not true for all
positions of the fault point. It depends on the number of sources and the number of
earthed neutrals available at the time. It is the usual practice to provide separate mea-
suring units for phase to phase faults and phase to ground faults. The distance relay
which protects the system against phase to phase faults is also supposed to protect
against three-phase faults. To measure the same impedance for phase to phase and
three-phase faults, the measuring unit is energised by line to line voltage and the dif-
ference between the currents in the corresponding two phases, as given bleow.
Relay Voltage Current
A – B phase-pair VAB IA – IB
B – C phase-pair VBC I B – IC
C – A phase-pair VCA IC – IA
If only one measuring unit is used for all the phase-pairs, the corresponding volt-
age and difference in currents of the involved phases is supplied by a switching
system.
For phase to ground faults, the measuring units are energised by phase to neutral
voltage and corresponding phase current, plus a fraction of the residual current, as
shown on the next page.
Relay Voltage Currents
1
A-phase VA IA + __ (K – 1)Ires
3
1
B-phase VB IB + __ (K – 1)Ires
3
1
C-phase VC IC + __ (K – 1)Ires
3
where, K = Z0/Z1 and Ires = IA + IB + IC = 3I0.
If only one unit of distance relay is used for all the three phases, corresponding
voltage and current are supplied from a switching system.
6.23.1 Phase-fault Compensation
Although the same relays are employed for both phase to phase and three-phase
faults, they do not measure the same impedance between the fault point and the relay
location for each type of fault unless proper compensation is provided. Let us first
examine a case of a distance relay which is used for phase fault protection and it is
296 Power System Protection and Switchgear

supplied with line to line voltage, say VBC and line current IB. The impedance seen
by the relay is given by
VBC VB – VC
Z = ____ = _______
IB IB
VB = VB1 + VB2 + VB0 = a2VA1 + aVA2 + VA0
It can also be written as
VB = a2V1 + aV2 + V0
Similarly VC = aV1 + a2V2 + V0
Writing the sequence voltage drops as
V1 = I1Z1, V2 = I2Z2 and V0 = I0Z0 we get

VB – VC = (a2I1Z1 + aI2Z2 + I0Z0) – (aI1Z1 + a2I2Z2 + I0Z0)

VBC (a2 – a) (I1Z1 – I2Z2)

Z = ____ = _________________
IB a2I + aI + I
1 2 0
2
Z1 (a – a) (I1 – I2)
or Z = ________________ (as Z2 = Z1 for a feeder)
a2I1 + aI2 + I0
For a phase to phase fault, I2 = – I1 and I0 = 0,

2I1Z1 (a2 – a)
\ Z = ___________ = 2Z1
I1 (a2 – a)
for a three-phase fault, I2 = I0 = 0,
I1Z1 (a2 – a) __
\ Z = __________ = Z 1 (1 – a 2
) = ÷3 Z1 –30°
a2I1
From the above analysis it is clear that the impedance seen by the relay is not same
for phase to phase and three-phase faults. Therefore, it is necessary to provide some
form of compensation so that the relay measures the same impedance for both types
of fault. Now consider the case where the relay is energised by VBC and (IB – IC).
IB – IC = (a2I1 + aI2 + I0) – (aI1 + a2I2 + I0)
= (a2 – a) (I1 – I2)
The impedance seen by the relay is CTs
VBC
Z = ______ A B C
IB – IC
Current
Z1 (a2 – a) (I1 – I2)
Relays

coils of
= ________________ = Z1 relays
(a2 – a) (I1 – I2)
We see that the impedance measu- Potential
red by the relay is independent of the coils of
relays VCA VAB VBC
sequence components of current. So the
relay is fully compensated. It measures the Fig. 6.71 Compensated phase-fault
same impedance for both phase to phase connections
 Distance Protection 297

and three-phase faults, including the case where these faults also involve ground. To
implement this type of compensation, the CTs are connected in delta and relays in
star configuration, as shown in Fig. 6.71.

6.23.2 Earth-fault Compensation

An uncompensated earth-fault relay is energised by VA and IA. The impedance seen
by such a relay is
VA V1 + V2 + V0
Z = ___ = ___________
IA I1 + I2 + I0
I1Z1 + I2Z2 + I0Z0
= ______________
I1 + I2 + I0
For a line to ground fault, I1 = I2 = I0. This relation is true for the phase-sequence
component in the fault as well as in the line. Also Z1 = Z2.
Z = (2Z1 + Z0)/3 = ZE, where ZE is the earth-fault loop impedance.
If the system has a number of sources connected to it or has multiple earthing, or
when both of these conditions exist, as in the case of the 132 kV transmission system,
there will be a number of paths to the fault. In such a situation, I1 = I2 = I0 relation no
longer holds for the line currents, although it still holds for the current in the fault.
Consequently, the impedance seen by an uncompensated relay depends on a number
of sources and earthed neutrals available at the time.
As the sequence components of current in the faulty phase are no longer equal, it
shows that currents are present in the
healthy phases as well as the faulty
CTs

phase. For the compensation of the

relay, this condition can be utilised,
The voltage applied to the relay is
VA = I1Z1 + I2Z2 + I0Z0
By adding and subtracting I0Z1, we
get Compen-
VA = (I1 + I2 + I0) Z1 + I0 (Z0 – Z1) sating
transformer
as Z1 = Z2
= IAZ1 + I0 (Z0 – Z1)

[ (Z0 – Z1)
= Z1 IA + I0 ________
Z1 ] Earth-fault
relays
If a relay has a voltage VA applied to
it and carries the current IA + (Z0 – Z1) I0/
Z1, the impedance seen by the relay is
Z1. This is known as residual current Phase-fault
compensation. relays

I0 = (IA + IB + IC)/3
(IA + IB + IC) is known as residual Fig. 6.72 Method of applying compensation
for phase-fault relays and residual
current. Figure 6.72 shows residual compensation for earth-fault relays
298 Power System Protection and Switchgear

compensation for earth-fault relays. This figure shows the combined connections for
phase-fault and earth-fault relays. Voltage coils of relays are not shown in the figure.
The voltage coils of earth fault relays are energised by the phase voltage and those of
the phase fault relays by line voltage.

6.23.3 Sound-Phase Compensation

Z0
If we put __ = K, VA is given by
Z1
(IA + IB + IC)
VA = Z1IA + ___________ (Z0 – Z1)
3

[ (K – 1)
= Z1 IA + (IA + IB + IC) ______
3 ]
This equation can be re-written as

[ ( K–1
)(K – 1) (K – 1)
VA = Z1 IA 1 + _____ + IB ______ + IC ______
3 3 3 ]
( K–1
= Z1 1 + _____
3 ) [ I + I ( _____
A B
K + 2)
K–1
+ I ( _____ ) ]
C
K–1
K+2
If the relays has a voltage VA applied to it and carries a current equal to [IA + IB (K – 1)/
(K + 2) + IC (K1 – 1)/(K + 2)] i.e. faulty phase current together with a fraction (K – 1)/
(K + 2) or (Z0 – Z1)/(2Z1 + Z0) of the current in each of the healthy phases, it will see
the impedance
(2 + K) 2Z1 + Z0
Z = Z1 ______ = _______ = ZE
3 3
For details and connections of this type of compensation, see Ref. 2.

6.24 REDUCTION OF MEASURING UNITS

Distance relays are used for the protection of transmission or subtransmission lines
against phase to phase and phase to ground faults. For phase to phase faults, one set
consisting of 3 distance relays is required for each pair of lines (A – B, B – C and
C – A). Thus, 9 distance relays are required. Each set requires 3 units as there are
3 zones of protection; one relay being necessary for each zone. Similarly, 9 relays
are required for phase to ground faults; III units for each phase. Thus, 18 relays are
required for providing three time-distance steps for the protection of a feeder against
phase to phase and phase to ground faults. Besides 18 distance relays, some auxil-
iary relays, fault detectors and flag indicators are also required. This type of scheme
will be very costly and complex. In practice an effort is made to reduce the num-
ber of relays employed. In modern distance relaying schemes, only one measuring
unit is provided for all the three protective zones. The ohmic reach is progressively
increased by a timing unit, to obtain the distance settings for the II and III zones; the
I zone being instantaneous. Sometimes two MHO measuring units are used for III
zones of protection. One MHO unit is used for the I and II zone, and a separate unit
for the III zone which is an offset MHO unit.
 Distance Protection 299

There are different types of distance protection schemes which reduce the number
of measuring relays (i.e. distance relays in the schemes under discussion) to reduce
the cost of protection. The number of measuring units depends upon the technical
requirements but in selecting a particular scheme the economic consideration also
must be taken into account. Some important schemes have been described below.
6.24.1 Scheme Using Six Measuring Units
In this scheme, one measuring unit is used for all the III zones through a timer unit.
Three units are used for phase to ground faults; one unit for each phase. Three units
are used for phase to phase faults; one unit for each pair of phases.
6.24.2 Scheme Using Twelve Measuring Units
In this scheme, only one unit is employed for the I and II zone. A timing unit sets
their reach. A separate unit is employed for the III zone. Separate relaying units are
provided for phase to phase and phase to ground faults. Thus, 12 relaying units are
employed in this scheme.

6.25 SWITCHED SCHEMES

A switched scheme may employ only one, two or three measuring units. Such
schemes are less costly and hence they can be used for lines operating at compara-
tively lower voltages such as 66 kV, 33 kV or 11 kV.
In a switched scheme, an appropriate switching arrangement is necessary to
switch on the corresponding voltage and current for the measuring units. The various
types of switched schemes have been discussed below.

6.25.1 Delta-Wye Switching

In this scheme, 3 measuring units are employed. The same unit is used for phase
as well as ground faults. Normally the units are connected for phase faults. They
are enerised by delta voltage and delta current. When ground faults occur they are
switched to Y connections. Thus, phase faults are cleared instantaneously but ground
faults after a small delay. The tripping time is about one cycle for phase faults and
about five cycles for ground faults.
The measuring units may be impedance, MHO or reactance units depending on
the technical requirements of the system in a particular situation. Polyphase overcur-
rent or MHO type fault detectors can be used to start the timing unit on phase fault
in the case of impedance or MHO type measuring units. For ground faults residual
current or power relays are employed as fault detectors.
When the measuring units are reactance type distance relays, switching to Y
connection is done only for single line to ground faults. For double line to ground
faults switching to Y connection is prevented by a suitable arrangement in the switch-
ing system and the delta connection is retained in this situation. On double line to
ground fault, the current in the leading of the two fault phases may be almost in phase
with the corresponding Y voltage, and because of this fact, the relay may measure
zero or negative reactance, which could cause an undesired tripping of the circuit
breaker.
300 Power System Protection and Switchgear

This scheme has been in use in Europe but the large number of contacts required
make the system complex and costly. Hence, most manufacturers employ six reac-
tance units where high speed operation (0.03) is required. Only one reactance unit is
employed where 0.15 s operating time can be accepted.

6.25.2 Interphase Switching

Only two measuring units are employed in this scheme, one unit for phase faults and
the other for ground faults. These units are switched to appropriate phase or phase
pair by fault detectors.
For phase to phase faults, a MHO type measuring unit and instantaneous over-
current fault detectors are employed. On a phase to phase fault the measuring unit
is energised by phase to phase voltage such as VAB or VBC or VCA, depending on the
phase pair involved in the fault. The current coils are energised by the difference
of currents of the two phases involved in the fault, such as (IA – IB) or (IB – IC) or
(IC – IA). With these actuating quantities, the relay measures the same Z1 for both
phase to phase and three-phase faults. Figure 6.73 shows a schematic diagram for
this scheme.

Fault
detectors

A I A – IB VAB A
or or
To Switching MHO V Switching To
B
CTs B circuit
IB – I C BC
relay or circuit VTs
or
C IC – I A VCA C

Fig. 6.73 Single MHO unit for phase faults

For ground faults, a reactance type measuring unit and under-voltage relays as
fault detectors are employed. A MHO type starting unit is also included for the reac-
tance relay. For correct measurement of Z1 under all types of fault conditions, resid-
ual current compensation is used, (see Sec. 6.23.2). The energising current is phase
current plus (Z0 – Z1) I0/Z1. For fault on phase A, the current is IA + (Z0 – Z1) I0/Z1 =
IA + KI0. VA is applied to the voltage coils. A switching circuit is employed to switch
on the appropriate phase voltage and phase current to the measuring unit. Figure 6.74
shows a schematic diagram for this scheme.

UV fault
detectors
A A
Switching Reactance Switching
B relay B
circuit circuit
C C
N

Compensating
N
transformer

Fig. 6.74 Single reactance relay for ground faults

 Distance Protection 301

A cheaper alternative of interphase switching scheme is to employ a switched

distance scheme only for phase to phase faults and to employ residual current relays
for ground faults.

6.25.3 Switch Scheme Using Only One Measuring Unit

For voltage of 33 kV and below, only one distance relay can be employed for the
protection of the system against all types of faults. The measuring unit may be MHO,
reactance or impedance type, depending upon the technical requirements of the sys-
tem. If a reactance relay is used as a measuring unit, a MHO type directional unit is
also used. The operating and restraining coils of the directional unit receive the same
actuating quantities which is switched for the measuring unit. The polarising coil of
the directional unit uses the same voltage as the restraining coil. But to ensure the
operation for close up faults, 5% of the voltage from the phase or phase pair leading
to the faulty phase is added to the polarising voltage. In England, France and the
USA, a reactance relay is preferred in the switched scheme which employs a single
measuring unit. In Germany, impedance relays have been used. In some schemes
MHO units have also been employed.
Fault detectors are used in each phase to detect faults. In case of phase to phase
faults, phase to phase voltage and difference of the current of the faulty phases are
applied to the measuring unit. In case of ground faults, phase voltage and phase cur-
rent are switched on.

6.26 AUTO-RECLOSING
About 80-90% of faults on overhead transmission and distribution lines are transient
in nature. These faults disappear if the line circuit breakers are tripped momentarily
to isolate the line. The disconnection of the line from the system permits the arc to
extinguish. The line is re-energised again by reclosing circuit breakers to restore
normal supply after the arc path becomes sufficiently de-ionised. Automatic reclos-
ing of circuit breakers is known as auto-reclosing. The flashover across an insulator
due to lightning is the most common cause of transient faults. Other possible causes
of such faults are swinging of line conductors and temporary contact with external
conducting objects.
The remaining 10-20% of faults are either semi-permanent or permanent. The
most common cause of semi-permanent fault is a small tree branch falling on the
line. It requires one or more reclosures to burn the tree branch. Permanent faults are
caused by broken conductor, broken insulator or a wire falling on tower or ground.
A permanent fault must be located and repaired before the supply is restored. Auto-
reclosing is not recommended in case of cable breakdowns because the breakdown
of the insulation in cables causes a permanent defect.
The radial lines are most benefited by automatic reclosure because they are con-
nected to the power supply only at one end. The quicker the power supply is restored,
the better. If a line is fed at both ends, breakers at both ends trip simultaneously on
the occurrence of a fault. The separate generators at the two ends of the line drift
apart in their phase relationship. Therefore, the automatic reclosure of breakers must
302 Power System Protection and Switchgear

be done before the generators drift too apart to maintain synchronism. Thus, we see
that a further benefit, particularly to the EHV system is the maintenance of system
stability and synchronism.
In the case of interconnected system, loss of a line is not important and automatic
reclosure is not very essential. There is more than one power source and hence no
area is deprived of supply due to the loss of a line. If there is only one important line
connecting two networks and it is to be kept in at all costs, then an automatic reclo-
sure is necessary.
6.26.1 Single-shot Auto-reclosing
Most of the faults on EHV transmission lines are due to flashover across insulators
caused by lightning. Because of the height of EHV lines, tree branches are unlikely to
cause faults. If some physical conducting objects are dropped on EHV lines by birds,
they are vaporised instantly due to large amount of power in the arc. Consequently,
there is no need for more than one reclosure in case of EHV transmission lines. In a
single-shot auto-reclosing scheme, only one reclosure is made. The reclosure should
be made as quickly as possible so that there should not be an appreciable drift in
phase angle between the voltages at the two ends of the open line.
If there are circuit breakers at both ends of an EHV line, they should be tripped
and reclosed simultaneously. For simultaneous tripping, a carrier channel, micro-
wave, radio link or a temporary extension of zone 1 can be employed. If one circuit
breaker trips before the other, there will be an effective reduction in the dead time.
It may jeopardize the chances of a successful reclosure. The arc path takes a certain
period of time to become sufficiently deionised. Therefore, before reclosing the cir-
cuit breakers, the line must remain de-energised for a certain period for de-ionisation
of the arc path which depends on the system voltage. The time for de-ionisation is
equal to the dead time of the circuit breaker, which is defined as the time between
the fault arc being extinguished and the circuit breaker contacts remaking. Table 6.3
shows de-energisation time for different lines.

Table 6.3 De-energisation time required for automatic reclosing

Line Voltage in kV 66 132 220 400
Minimum de-energisation (time in seconds) 0.1 0.17 0.28 0.5

6.26.2 Multi-shot Auto-reclosing

On lines at a voltage of 33 kV or below, the faults might be caused by external
objects, such as tree-branches, vines, etc. falling on the line. Tree-branches fall on the
lines because their height may be less than that of nearby trees. Such objects may not
be burnt clear at the first reclosure, and hence, subsequent reclosures are required.
A multi-shot auto-reclosing scheme provides more than one automatic reclosures.
On radial lines, one instantaneous reclosure is provided, followed by 2 or 3 more
delayed reclosures if necessary. The statistical fig. show that 80% of the faults are
cleared after the first reclosure. The second reclosure is made after a delay of 15 to
45 seconds. About 10% of the remaining faults are cleared after the second reclosure.
 Distance Protection 303

The third reclosure is made after 60 to 120 s. Less than 2% of faults require the
third reclosure. If a fault is not cleared after three reclosures, there is an automatic
lock-out of the reclosing relay. The usual practice is to reclose the circuit breakers
three-times. The fourth reclosure, if required, can be made by hand. If the fourth
reclosure fails, there is clear indication of a permanent fault. The remaining faults
are permanent faults which require detection and repair by the maintenance staff. A
multi-shot scheme is often recommended in forest areas. If several trip and reclose
operations are performed, the maintenance of circuit breaker increases. The vacuum
circuit breakers are almost maintenance-free and hence are more suitable for multi-
shot reclosing.

6.26.3 Single-phase (Single-pole) Auto-reclosing

If two systems are interconnected by a single tie line, the tripping of all three phases
on a fault causes an immediate drift in phase angle of the voltages of the two systems.
On the other hand, if only the faulty phase is tripped during earth fault conditions,
the synchronising power still flows through the healthy phases. In a single-phase
auto-reclosing (single-pole auto-reclosing) scheme, only the faulty phase pole of
the circuit breaker is tripped and reclosed. For any multi-phase fault, all the three
phases are simultaneously tripped and reclosed. In a single-phase auto-reclosing,
each phase of the circuit breaker is segregated and provided with its own closing and
tripping mechanism. The main disadvantage is a longer de-ionsiation time. When a
faulty phase is disconnected, a capacitive coupling between the healthy phases and
the faulty phase tends to maintain the arc, resulting in a longer de-ionisation time.
This may cause interference with communication circuits.
A complex relaying scheme is required to detect and select the faulty phase in
case of single phase auto-reclosing scheme. Therefore, this scheme is more complex
and expensive as compared to the three-phase auto-reclosing scheme.
6.26.4 Three-phase Auto-reclosing
In a three-phase auto-reclosing scheme, all the three phases are tripped and reclosed
when a fault occurs on the system, irrespective of types of the fault. Its relaying
scheme is simpler and less expensive than the single phase auto-reclosing scheme. It
is faster because of less de-ionising time.
6.26.5 Delayed Auto-reclosing Scheme
When two sections of a power system are connected through a number of transmis-
sion systems, there is little chance of drifting them apart in phase and losing syn-
chronism. On such a system, delayed auto-reclosing can be employed. The C.E.G.B.
employs delayed auto-reclosing with dead times of the order of 5-6 s. The fault arc
de-ionisation times and circuit breaker operating characteristics do not present prob-
lems in such a scheme. Before reclosing, power swings are allowed to settle down.
All tripping and reclosing schemes may be three-phase only, simplifying the control
circuits compared to single-phase schemes. An analysis of their relative performance
on the C.E.G.B. EHV system shows that high-speed auto-reclosings are successful in
68% of reclosure attempts, whereas delayed reclosings in 77.5%.