Epistemology–Faceted

Exhibition Design

Lee H. Skolnick
Dan Marwit
Jo Ann Secor
Lee H. Skolnick Architecture + Design Partnership, New York, New York, U.S.A.

Abstract
Exhibition design, sometimes called exhibit design, is the conceptualizing, planning, and creating of
exhibitions—built, spatial environments that communicate with audiences moving through them. As a
feld of practice, exhibition design has only recently begun gaining defnition and standards. Meanwhile, it
is fourishing worldwide, as exposition attendance soars, retail environments reinvent themselves, and
cultural institutions increasingly appeal to tourism and promote themselves as centers of entertainment, as
well as education. Bringing together a constellation of disciplines, exhibitions are designed by teams
working through a phased process that translates a script into an immersive experience. Audiences
engaging with the experiences interpret them through interactions with their elements, including their
architecture, colors, lighting, graphics, artifacts, and media. Design teams continually develop understand-
ings of their audiences as they plan and arrange exhibitions’ elements in context. As exhibition design
expands in the beginning of the twenty-frst century, it turns up new challenges, but as with all design
felds, exhibition design views challenges as opportunities.

INTRODUCTION However, in order to create a total design, subteams, who

together determine the story that guides the design, give
Exhibition design, sometimes called exhibit design, is the the design its shape and tone, plan and create vital ele-
conceptualizing, planning, and creating of exhibitions— ments, and build and install the actual components.
built, spatial environments that communicate with audi- Because the feld of exhibition design is quite young,
ences moving through them. Broadly, any exhibition can few exhibition designers, or design team members for that
be categorized as either cultural or commercial, but more matter, have come to their titles through a course of exhi-
commonalities than differences are shared across this bor- bition design study. Rather, most approached the feld
der. Really it is the permutation of many particularities, through one of several avenues: designers through archi-
including content, intention, size, setting, duration, exp- tecture, industrial design, commercial package design, and
ected audience, and experience type that determine what furniture design; and other team members through educa-
an exhibition can be and how it gets designed. tion, anthropology, and creative writing. Each of these has
In the world of museums, there are those that use arti- some bearing in exhibition design, but also requires
facts, archival images, and text to document events for designers and team members to think beyond their felds
visitors with preexisting knowledge, and those that engage and work cooperatively, as none address all of an exhibi-
wide audiences in explorations of phenomena, ideas, and tion’s needs.
themes through interactivity and play. Among visitor cen- Like all processes, the exhibition design process fol-
ters, many attract year-round tourism to civic icons, while lows a sequence of phases, moving from concept design
others showcase corporate accomplishments to employees to schematic design, into design development, and fnally
and invited guests only. From trade shows to international fabrication documents and fabrication and installation.
expos, independent environments compete on the same Each of these phases, often referred to differently by dif-
foor for the attention of industry associates or the general ferent designers, can be further delineated into smaller
public, whose interests in a new product, brand, or philos- steps, and are typically completed in a reiterative fashion.
ophy can translate into investment. Any of these exhibi- Culminating in the production of documents that signify
tions can be open for a matter of days or decades, and milestones and transitions, the phases keep team members
designing them requires attending to their distinct natures working toward common goals in a shared time frame, and
appropriately. enable ongoing assessment of a project’s progress that is
All exhibitions are designed by teams. To be sure, captured and presented. A truer exploration of exhibition
the exhibition designer’s contribution is the core of the design would require quite a bit more space, and a few
work, as the fnal product is inevitably a physical environ- exceptional books have been written for that purpose,
ment that functions and directs people in intended ways. including David Dernie’s Exhibition Design, Larry

Encyclopedia of Library and Information Sciences, Fourth Edition DOI: 10.1081/E-ELIS4-120044031

Copyright © 2017 by Taylor & Francis. All rights reserved. 1523
 1524 Exhibition Design
Epistemology–Faceted

Klein’s Exhibits: Planning and Design, Kathleen like thematically arranged foor plans and inclusion of
McLean’s Planning for People in Museum Exhibitions, interpretive text.[8,9]
and Jan Lorenc, Lee Skolnick, and Craig Berger’s What
Is Exhibition Design? Also, because the feld is one that Transition to Planned Experiences
is constantly reinventing itself, a richer understanding
of exhibition design can be had with some continual In 1786, Charles Willson Peale brought museums to the
study. Periodicals, like Exhibitor and Exhibitionist would public, opening Peale’s American Museum in Philadel-
encourage this, as would attendance at conferences, like phia, PA.[10] While Peale’s museum set a new precedent
the annual American Association of Museums confer- for curation, that of collecting and displaying culturally
ence. Finally, the best way to discover the burgeoning representative objects for the beneft of its visitors, its
feld of exhibition design is to visit exhibitions. Each displays followed from the wunderkammern, voluminous,
one is so different from the next that comparisons made and somewhat indiscriminate. This style would hold sway
between them would awaken any curious person to the until the Museum of Modern Art in New York shifted the
craft invested in them. paradigm in the 1940s with minimally displayed arrange-
A last note: The background shared by the writers is ments of “empathetic” pieces.[1]
mostly of cultural exhibition design in American settings. Meanwhile, in the commercial sphere, exhibition
Much has been done to reach outside this limited scope, design took a leap forward in 1851 with The Great Exhi-
but the history of exhibition design in Europe, and the bition of the Works of Industry of All Nations.[11] Planned
excitingly expanding feld in both Europe and Asia are by Prince Albert and Henry Cole of England, the Great
topics that easily warrant entire articles all their own. Exhibition was the frst truly international exhibition.
Exhibition design has unquestionably become a world- Bringing 13,000 exhibitors and 6,000,000 visitors together
wide phenomenon, and its ubiquitous trends are reaching under the roof of Joseph Paxton’s Crystal Palace, the
into other felds everywhere. While this entry is reliable in Great Exhibition set the standard for future expositions,
its overview of exhibition design, there is much more to and led to the formation of formal oversight organizations,
explore, and readers are enthusiastically encouraged to do like the Bureau International des Expositions. In the com-
so. ing years, expos grew increasingly impressive, with per-
manent structures designed by reputable engineers and
architects, including the Eiffel Tower by Gustave Eiffel
HISTORY for the 1889 Universal Exhibition, the current Museum of
Science and Industry for the 1893 World’s Columbian
The origins of exhibition design are at once self-evident Exposition in Chicago, and the German Pavillion by
and evasive. Humans naturally arrange objects for the Ludwig Mies van der Rohe for the 1929 Barcelona Inter-
communication of particular statements. We do it in our national Exposition.[12–14] Also in the nineteenth century’s
homes and other environments. Arguably, creating exhibi- latter half, department stores began appearing worldwide.
tions is innate, and people have been doing it since the day Their competition for an emerging spending culture led
they realized they could manipulate their surroundings.[1] them to install exhibitions of power and branding in their
entrances and main foors.[15] Wanamakers in Philadelphia
European Roots built a Grand Court with a commanding bald eagle as
its dome.
Appearing in biblical passages and Roman history, trade
fairs are as ancient as trade, itself, but trade fair exhibi- Toward a Contemporary Vision
tions as they appear today have their roots in European
history, as do exhibitions in museums.[2,3] The frst of the In 1939, expositions moved into a new era. With the New
known major fairs, which has continued since at least York World’s Fair’s theme Tomorrow’s World, expos
1165, was the Leipziger Messe in Leipzig, Germany.[4] began addressing humanity and cultural issues, rather than
Meanwhile, the origins of museums has been traced to technology and inventions.[16] Amusement rides and stage
the European Age of Enlightenment, when proponents of set architecture set the scene for designers to begin creat-
the Age’s interest in making sense of the world, cultivated ing entire environments at fairs, one more exciting than
the frst natural history collections in wunderkammern, the last. Following this course, the 1964 New York
or cabinets of curiosity.[5] Essentially the province of World’s Fair marked a seminal moment with 140 full
royalty and the Church, several wunderkammern grew pavilions, four designed by the Walt Disney Corporation,
into renowned institutions, the Modern Museums of and one by Charles and Ray Eames. Disney, equipped
Copenhagen and the Louvre among them.[6,7] While most with a team of Imagineers and a list of Mickey’s Ten
wunderkammern, overfowing with collectibles and Commandments, had by this time opened Disneyland in
exotic rarities, were meant to impress onlookers with their California, 1955.[17] The Eames team, with their chairs
owner’s prestige, a number showed early signs of design, that both broke and set the mold, had already opened a
Exhibition Design 1525

Epistemology–Faceted
number of exhibitions, including the American Pavilion in about. It is developed from a body of knowledge, a corpo-
Moscow, 1959, and Mathematica in 1961, which rem- rate philosophy, a set of ideas, concepts or messages or a
ained open at the Los Angeles Museum of Science and promotion of a brand, and subsequently completed with
Industry until 1998, and has since been duplicated at sev- additional research as necessary. Structuring the informa-
eral institutions.[18] tion to be presented in the exhibition, the narrative also
Also at this time, many larger American institutions, suggests how the information should be accessed
like the National Museum of American History and the and interpreted. Thus, it sets the foundation for decisions
Field Museum of Natural History, created exhibition plan- about how the environment will communicate with its
ning departments, shifting power away from curators. visitors.[24]
These departments created blockbuster exhibitions, like
the Field’s Tut, that drew enormous crowds and set a new Context: Physical and Cultural
pace for museum exhibition design. In this atmosphere,
museums began rethinking the purpose of exhibitions and An exhibition set inside a building not yet constructed,
the structures of the departments responsible for them. allows opportunities to work with an architect in tailoring
Michael Spock of the feld museum advocated for including important features to the exhibition’s needs. These can
into design teams educators and content developers who include circulation, ceiling heights, natural lighting, and
could translate scholarship into stories for general audi- access to mechanical, electrical, and plumbing systems.
ences. Frank Oppenheimer of the Exploratorium in San However, more often designers plan exhibitions for existing
Francisco challenged the nature of museum exhibitions buildings, working either with or around the context’s fea-
altogether, populating them with interactive experiences tures.[23] Meanwhile, the situation of an exhibition in a
from which visitors derived their own interpretations. A surrounding culture determines who might attend it, and
series of workshops at the Field in 1982, sponsored by the how it might be interpreted by attendees, as well as by press
W. K. Kellogg Foundation demonstrated the effectiveness outlets, schools, various communities, and other groups.
of a team approach to designing museum exhibitions, an Depending on its reach, an exhibition’s cultural context
approach that has been adopted and adapted by museums can require wrestling with every detail of its narrative and
far and wide.[19] design, especially in the handling of controversial topics.
Today, at the onset of a new century, fairs, trade shows,
and expos around the world draw attendance rates rivaling Space
those of the Olympic Games.[20] Museums and visitor cen-
ters fnd themselves competing for expanding tourism and Space is the volumetric area that the exhibition organizes
audiences looking for entertainment as much as educa- and thematically conditions. It is usually contained by
tion.[21] Design frms are increasingly contracted to plan structural walls, a foor and a ceiling within an interior, or
both cultural and commercial exhibitions, and the resulting imaginarily assigned within a larger interior, as with the
cross-pollination is benefting both arenas.[22] Undoubt- space designated to a trade show booth. An exhibition can
edly, exhibition design is fourishing, and work by frms in also be outside, but its space is still limited and its organi-
Japan, Korea, and other Asian nations is inspiring exciting zation is still in the designer’s hands. To organize space,
movement worldwide.[22] designers consider aesthetic and experiential properties,
including scale, proportion and balance, site line, and vis-
itor fow, among others. All together, these properties cho-
ELEMENTS reograph the positioning of exhibition elements in
relationship to one another.[25]
All exhibitions are compositions of space, architectural
elements, materials, graphics, color, lighting, and acous- Architectural Elements
tics. Most also include objects, artifacts and images, and
increasingly media components. The available variety of Architectural elements are those that are constructed to
materials and methods is remarkably vast, and expanding defne the exhibition’s space and display its feature ele-
rapidly with technological advances. The possible uses of ments. Walls built to partition spaces, ramps pitched to
them in shaping immersive, transcendent experiences for steer visitor fow, platforms created to elevate experiences,
visitors are as many as the needs of each individual exhi- and built forms inserted for interpretive effect are just a few
bition, and those needs are governed by the exhibition’s examples. In interactive exhibitions, these elements also
narrative and context.[23] serve a second purpose of housing and protecting mechan-
ics and audio/visual and computer equipment. Furniture
Narrative built for comfort or as part of an experience, and cases that
contain collection items or display products are also archi-
The narrative, also variably known as the script, messag- tectural elements that have design qualities all their own,
ing, or storyline, is in plain terms what the exhibition is and whose appearance in the space further defnes it.
 1526 Exhibition Design
Epistemology–Faceted

Materials: Construction and Finishes business becomes known to the public. They can be small
enough to require a microscope, or large enough to ft
Materials are used to build the exhibition’s architecture, groups of people inside; sensitive enough to warrant con-
enable the mounting and presentation of other elements, trolled conditions, or best experienced through touch and
and evoke particular associations and sensations. Con- manipulation. Exhibition designers create environments
struction materials, often hidden from view, are usually that both highlight these elements as attractions and story-
generic, like wood, steel, drywall, and fberboard. Finishes telling elements, and protect them as necessary.
are materials that exhibition visitors see, or that support
the other elements that visitors see, like affxed graphics Media
and painted colors. Traditionally, these materials have
been fnished woods and different grades of glass, as in Media in exhibitions commonly refers to on-screen media,
the display cases of object-based exhibitions.[26] Recently, which includes flm, video, and interactive virtual experi-
technological advances have opened an expansive reper- ences. Increasingly, media is becoming a standard expec-
toire of materials to designers, including ranges of new tation. A handful of exhibitions have even been designed
metals, plastics, and laminates, making it easier to evoke with media as their central themes, or with media pieces
emotions and interpret information and themes through serving as pinnacle experiences. Media has become highly
shape and texture. New materials also aid in placing sophisticated, able to respond to users in surprising ways,
graphics and colors in desired locations, as their proper- and to perform ever more complex functions. Fully
ties make them lightweight and receptive to paint and immersive media experiences are now not only possible,
adhesives.[27] but are even becoming commonplace. Balancing these
powerful experiences with the rest of an exhibition has
Graphics become an important challenge for designers.

Graphics are two-dimensional designs applied to surfaces.

In some instances, they are painted directly onto fnishes. PROCESS
More often, they are created with computer software,
printed on substrates with adhesive backings, and applied From start to fnish, the creation of an exhibition can take
to surfaces prior to their installation. Featuring text, dia- several weeks to several years, depending on its size and
grams, and images, graphics are used to deliver information the complications of its content, context, and physical
and suggest context. Composed of typefaces, color palettes, requirements. Certainly, every designer has his or her
patterns, and illustrations, graphics are also used to set an own approach to bringing an exhibition from nonexistent
exhibition’s tone, and unify its interpretive and navigational to open to the public, but all create through a process that
systems. As computer and printing technology advances, advances through a series of work phases.[31] Referring to
graphics are increasingly designed to cover large exhibition the phases, designers often use different terminology, but
surfaces, like entire walls, foors, and ceilings.[28,29] commonly they are known in sequence as concept, sche-
matic, design development, fabrication documents, and
Color, Lighting, and Acoustics fabrication and installation.
From here, the process appears step-by-step and
Color, lighting, and acoustics can be grouped together as direct. However, the progression of an exhibition’s
environmentally interpretive tools. They are often the design is rarely so simple and linear. Rather, designers
most effective tools in transporting visitors to believable work in what is called a reiterative fashion, meaning that
places, or immersing them in convincing ideas. Colors within each phase iterations of designs are completed,
conjure emotions and psychological associations, espe- reviewed, and revised until satisfactory. On a macro
cially in juxtaposition or cooperation with one another. level, whole phases can be reiterated until complete; on
Lighting both makes things visible and sets a range of a micro level, single drawings or written descriptions can
moods. Acoustics control sound, dampening it in some cycle in their own reiterative processes. Further empha-
places, and allowing it to escalate in others. Together, sizing the process’ reiterative direction, exhibition des-
these elements make a richly interpretive exhibition expe- igners typically allow for returns to previous process
rience possible, and also strongly infuence its feeling.[30] phases either to complete unfnished steps, or to revise
designs as new information and insights emerge. In map-
Objects, Artifacts, and Images ping a process at a project’s outset, designers try to plan
ahead for these motions, doing their best to keep to
Objects, artifacts, and images are often a client or institu- schedule and within budget.
tion’s reason for creating an exhibition, in the frst place. In Throughout the exhibition design process, a succession
many cases, the display of one or more of these elements is of document sets, or packages is produced. Each set signifes
intended to create a brand by which an institution or a benchmark, simultaneously presenting the culmination of
Exhibition Design 1527

Epistemology–Faceted
the designer’s work up to that point, and establishing the • Floor plans.
new foundation from which the work will continue. Titled • Sketches of vignettes and component elevations.
after the process phases they complete, the document sets • Foam core spatial models and mock-ups, or photo-
are typically known as concept, schematic, design devel- graphs of them.
opment, and fabrication documents. In the fabrication and
installation phase, there are no benchmark documents, as
Design Development
the culmination of this phase is the opening of the exhibi-
tion itself.
While the body of the exhibition has been made imagin-
able by the schematic designs, its details still need to be
Concept
elaborated. The goal of the design development phase is
to specify the exhibition’s details. The thrust of the phase
The concept phase marks the initiation of an exhibition
is in making defnite choices about the tangible things
design project. Its primary goal is the establishment of
that will compose the three-dimensional environment,
the exhibition’s foundations, and its principal work is
including materials, colors, graphics, text, equipment,
characterized by research, brainstorming, and exploration.
lighting schemes, A/V scripts, and computer software.
To determine what the exhibition will be about, initial
The decision-based character of design development
research into its topic is conducted, structured into a hier-
shifts the focus of the exhibition design process from
archy or framework, and developed into a preliminary
imagining possibilities to making the chosen possibilities
script. The script determines the exhibition’s perspective
work.
or approach to the topic, and with it in place, the exhibi-
The design development document set can include:
tion’s general look, feel, and function begin to bloom
through a series of brainstorming sessions. From the ses- • Plan, elevation, and sectional drawings of all exhibi-
sions, designers make explorations, sketching architec-
tion components.
ture, and exhibit ideas that could appropriately translate • Written descriptions of all exhibition components.
the script into an experience. • Preliminary schedules, lists of materials, graphics, A/V
The concept document set can include:
equipment, and hardware and descriptions of their
•
uses.
Concept outline, exhibition criteria, preliminary script. •
•
Updated project budget and schedule.
Sketches or diagrams of the whole space and its
components.
• Analyses of projected attendance and circulation. Fabrication Documents
• Initial rough budget projections.
• Preliminary schedule. In the fabrication documents phase, the decisions made in
• Suggestions of graphic style, copy style, and object and the design development phase are incorporated into a set
artifact placements. of technical drawings and specifcations. The goal of the
• Suggestions for marketing and outreach. fabrication documents phase is twofold: frst, to produce
documents so highly detailed that they can serve as
Schematic instructions for fabricating the exhibition; second, to iden-
tify a fabricator. Every detail of the exhibition, down to its
During the schematic phase, the approved concept is literal nuts and bolts, is specifed, recorded in schedules
used to create a preliminary design for the entire exhibi- and indicated in hard-line drawings. Once this is done,
tion. The goal of the schematic phase is to identify the designers open a competitive bidding process, unless a
exhibition’s components and make them imaginable, trusted fabricator is already known. Designers also open
while leaving room for their details to be developed and bidding for other contractors, including media producers,
debated. Extending from the preceding phase, script writ- graphics producers, and copywriters, if they have not yet
ing, brainstorming, and exploration continue until the been chosen.
concept is fully feshed out, and a design for the entire The fabrication document set can include:
exhibition can be proposed and discussed. Making this
possible, designers begin seriously assessing the physical • Hard-line, dimensioned plan, elevation, section, and
context in which the exhibition will be installed, as “exploded” drawings of every exhibition component
well as the host’s resources for marketing, outreach, and with close-ups of important details and specifcations
staffng. of materials and hardware.
The schematic document set can include: • Finalized schedules.
• Plans for lighting, electricity, A/V connections,
• Finished preliminary script. mechanics, and plumbing.
• Revised project budget and schedule. • Final project budget and schedule.
 1528 Exhibition Design
Epistemology–Faceted

Fabrication and Installation Informed Understanding: Formative

The fnal phase, fabrication and installation, takes the Arguably, the most useful evaluation, formative evalua-
exhibition from drawing and study to actuality. The goal tion, can be conducted in the schematic design phase,
of this phase is a successful opening, and to get there takes when it becomes possible to gauge audience reactions
meticulous decisions on behalf of clients. First, the fabri- accurately before moving into the latter decision-making
cation drawings are delivered to the chosen fabricator. The phases.[38] By providing them with drawings, designers
fabricator reviews them and returns them as shop draw- can ask evaluation participants direct questions about a
ings with suggestions of necessary, and sometimes crea- fairly imaginable exhibition. By presenting them with
tive revisions. The designer then reviews the revisions, foam-core mock-ups, designers can observe participants’
and either approves them or makes further suggestions. interactions with their designs, often adjusting the mock-
This back and forth shuttling continues until the fabricator ups to test various possibilities. Follow-up interviews and
is confdent he or she can build precisely what the designer questionnaires provide insights into what audiences are
wants. Ensuring the fabrication meets the design’s intents, deriving from their experiences. Results and recommen-
the designer makes frequent visits to the fabricator’s shop dations from these tests are used to fnalize schematic
during this phase, as well as to the studios of other con- plans and prepare for making determined design decisions
tractors. Present at the exhibition’s installation, designers in the next phase.
watch over details to the very end.
No documents are delivered during the fabrication and Specific Understanding: Prototyping
installation phase. The culmination of the phase is the
exhibition’s opening. During the design development phase, concerns about the
operations of particular exhibit components arise. Because
the level of detail is so specifc in this phase, it becomes
UNDERSTANDING AUDIENCE possible to build full-scale prototypes of these compo-
nents. If the budget allows, designers can try variations of
Throughout the process, designers strive to understand actual materials and mechanics until the component works
their audience as best they can, and get ideas from them exactly as intended. Including audiences in prototype test-
about how to better the exhibition’s design.[32] To reiter- ing can be extremely informative, as very reliable obser-
ate the point: Any exhibition is a medium for communi- vations can be made from their engagements with and
cation. Its very purpose for being built rests on the reactions to the exhibition.
fact that people will visit it.[33] Who those people are—
children, adults, scholars, the general public, etc.—deter- Final Understanding: Summative
mines the verbal, visual, and experiential language most
appropriate for the dialog.[34–36] Cultivating an under- No better reaction to an exhibition can be gauged than that
standing of the audience not only encourages an exhibi- of an actual audience in the actual space. Often, designers
tion’s success, it recognizes its responsibility. To this add a postopening phase to the exhibition design process
end, many designers conduct formal studies of their audi- during which modifcations can be made to exhibit com-
ences at different phases of the process. Often, contracted ponents that for all their planning do not result as
evaluators are hired to perform these studies more sys- intended. Formal studies of audiences during this phase,
tematically and objectively.[37] known as summative evaluations, time and observe inter-
actions and behaviors, and gather audience responses
Initial Understanding: Front-End through interviews. The fndings of these studies can often
point to simple solutions to apparent issues, or lessons for
During the concept phase, or even prior to it, many desi- the next project.
gners conduct front-end evaluations. Learning what an
audience already knows and feels about an exhibition’s
topic can help set the parameters of its script and infuence DESIGNERS AND DESIGN TEAMS
its possible presentation and tone. Considering an audi-
ence’s abilities and learning styles helps produce exhibits Because by their nature, exhibitions are cross-disciplinary
that are suitable for them. Certainly, fair generalizations experiences, they are designed by teams. Depending on
about an exhibition’s intended audience can be made with the size of the exhibition, teams can be comprised of
demographics, learning theories, and past precedents, but individuals, or entire departments. In many cases, coordi-
many designers prefer to “meet” their audiences, or repre- nation of the players’ contributions, and assurance of their
sentatives thereof, through formal studies, such as ques- mutual understanding of a shared process are as crucial for
tionnaires, focus groups, and interviews. a project’s success as any individual’s talent.
Exhibition Design 1529

Epistemology–Faceted
The assembling of a team can be the task of a lead team of available collections and external sources. Sometimes,
member, or a manager who serves a more supervisory entire stories are constructed around the showing of a
role. In most design frms and museum exhibition depart- single item. Other times, it is through categorizing items
ments, team members are chosen from full-time staff. and selecting the most totemic ones that a story emerges.
Meanwhile, it is not uncommon for frms and departments Knowing what is obtainable, and understanding how the
to complete teams by hiring freelance workers. In some inclusion and omission of particular objects and artifacts
cases, teams are formed solely for the project at hand. In will affect a story is the job of content team members.
still other cases, teams can include a core team surrounded Once a compelling story has been developed, the col-
by peripheral ones, made up of hired experts, volunteer lective role of content team members becomes that of
advisors, interested community members, and so on. In ensuring that the design expresses it, and that the expres-
any instance, when assembling a team, the goal is to select sion is appropriate to the intended visitors. Often, this calls
compatible team members, whose talents and interests for responses to evaluation fndings, and additional
match the needs of the exhibition, some of which will research and development to inform the details of the story
unfold as the project develops.[39,40] as its translation manifests.
Making decisions together, and communicating in gen-
eral, are critical tasks for exhibition design teams, espe- Design Team
cially those working on large projects that take years to
complete. Many models exist for structuring teams and Determining how to tell the story, the design side of
enabling their collective efforts.[41] They range on a spec- the team can comprise a variety of designers from various
trum from linear hierarchies, with one chief decision disciplines, including graphics, media, lighting, and
maker, to egalitarian committees that strive for consensus. acoustics, all of whose work is coordinated by a lead
Similar to teams working in other felds of design and exhibit designer, typically also supervising the efforts of
communications media, exhibition design teams generally junior exhibit designers. Oftentimes, draftspeople, model
divide their responsibilities into at least two sides (not a makers, illustrators, and other talents are added to the
technical term, but one commonly used), one to handle the design side to aid its diverse disciplines. All together,
development of the story, content, and the other to handle design team members give the exhibition dimensionality
its telling, design. Often, teams also include a third side, that people can enter, navigate, use, and share.
project management, to coordinate the actions of the Beginning with rough sketches, designers’ transition to
whole team and supervise the production of the entire drawings, and fnally hard-line drawings as they reitera-
project. tively conceptualize, plan, and detail the visual and expe-
Within their sides, individual team members work riential communication of the content. Inevitably, the act
toward common goals, but it is through the collaboration of drawing reveals problems in the exhibition’s function-
between sides that an exhibition is fully designed. Both ality and challenges to its proper expressions. Solving
content and design bring their work to the table, and man- these problems is part of designing exhibits, and doing so
agement ensures that the story and its telling remain often requires invention. Most designers welcome such
within the project’s feasibility. Thus, some permeability detours, viewing their pursuit as opportunities to make
between sides is usually important for best practice. A their designs unique and successful.
team whose members respect each other’s roles, but can As the exhibition develops, the various designers’ work
think in each other’s terms is the most likely to succeed affects each other. Graphics infuence the exhibition’s
with greatest ease. look, light refects on graphic surfaces in unexpected
ways, audio from media transforms acoustic spaces.
Content Team Meanwhile, each of the design contributions carries mate-
rial concerns. Lighting grids need to be suspended and
Responsible for the story itself, team members on the electrically wired, graphics need substrates that adhere to
content side can include curators, educators, exhibit devel- surfaces, and acoustics call for very specifc fnishes. Each
opers, interpretive planners, content developers, content of these is researched, sized, and specifed by the design
coordinators, researchers, and writers. Collectively, their side, and the responsibility for all of it ftting together,
role is to cultivate the ideas, topics, and information to be both conceptually and tangibly, resides with design team
conveyed in the exhibition, and articulate them in a man- members.
ner that visitors will be able to grasp. The process of
doing so typically follows a reiterative course of accu- Project Management Side
mulating, editing and arranging knowledge that relies on
research, organization, analysis, association, and story- Responsible for the exhibition’s opening on time and
writing skills. within budget, the management side of the team usually
In the design of exhibitions that are rich in objects and includes one project manager. Typically the liaison
artifacts, content team members also maintain knowledge between the team and the project’s client, the project
 1530 Exhibition Design
Epistemology–Faceted

manager drafts a scope and a schedule and budget for its design has become a proving ground for many new tech-
completion, and communicates progress, delays, and nologies, materials, and strategies.[47]
changes between parties. Because the project manager More and more frequently, these new technologies,
remains aware of time, money, and the client’s concerns, materials, and strategies are also being incorporated into
design teams frequently look to him or her to remind them cultural exhibition design. One possible reason is that
of parameters on their creativity. While this can be a most exhibition design frms work in both arenas, often
politically sensitive position, it is a critical one. Not only supplementing their abilities in the cultural sphere with
does it help the team accomplish the job properly, but it earnings from the commercial sphere. Another is the
also protects team members from investing beyond the recently emergent phenomenon of in-house teams collab-
project’s bounds, keeping them from overworking and orating with contracted designers, who give shape to
making sure they’ll be available when needed for the next expertly researched content in institutions whose staff
project. knows the audience quite well.
Because bringing an exhibition to its fruition involves
the weaving together of so many efforts over time, coordi-
New Perspectives of Interpretation
nation is the project manager’s principal and constant
task.[42] With the many team members working indepen-
In years past, knowing an audience was less valued by
dently on their ends of the project, the project manager
cultural institutions who viewed themselves as having a
resides at the center, keeping everyone apprised of each
more authoritative role. The shift toward gauging visitor
other’s progress, and helping maintain the team’s camara-
expectations and interests, often through focus groups,
derie and morale. At times, this can require great tact, as
surveys, and other tools familiar to the commercial sector,
any one team member’s progress can easily infuence
is a recent one that is swiftly setting a new paradigm.
changes, or even pose diffculties in that of another.
Responding to visitors, cultural institutions have learned
how to maintain and expand their public reach. Enabling
this response, designers increasingly plan exhibitions that
CONCLUSION: CONTEMPORARY TRENDS AND
are more able to communicate with particular audiences.
CHALLENGES
To do so, many design teams have added educators to their
talent and educational theory to their tool kits.[48] Not
The current state of exhibition design is an effervescent
limited to cultural exhibitions, commercial designers have
one. Still relatively young, and certainly younger than the
also begun to consider experiential learning, constructiv-
museums and expos it services, its movement toward
ism, multiple intelligence theory, theories of intrinsic
becoming a formalized feld has accelerated in recent
motivation, and others as helpful guides in creating com-
years, but its standards of practice have yet to be codifed.
municative environments.[49–52]
Only a handful of design schools teach it as a subject, and
only in rare instances is it offered as a full course or
major.[43–45] Professionals of various types are flling its Universal Access
positions, and their writings about their own experiences
are some of the frst. Meanwhile, exhibition design is Along the same lines, a recent phenomenon is the require-
growing by leaps and bounds, and gaining momentum ment of planning for people with disabilities. While
around the world, as cultural institutions, corporations, designers have always taken this into consideration, as
businesses, public awareness campaigns, city govern- one goal has always been to reach as many people as
ments, and more call upon the unique mode of communi- possible, allowing for universal access has in many places
cation that only exhibitions can offer. become enforceable by law. In the United States, title III,
section 36.101 of the Americans with Disabilities Act
The Next Big Way to Present the Next Big Thing (ADA) of 1990 “prohibits discrimination on the basis
of disability. . . and requires places of public accommoda-
Over the last few decades, attendance rates at international tion and commercial facilities to be designed. . .in compli-
expos have skyrocketed into the tens of millions. Mean- ance with the accessibility standards established” by
while, casinos like New York, New York, and retail chains the ADA.[53,54] As stated in explicit terms, exhibition
like Apple, Niketown, and IKEA have realized the power designers, like the designers of any nonresidential facility,
of reshaping their stores into total, experiential environ- are now legally obligated to plan environments that do not
ments.[46] In both arenas, the goal of communication is to exclude physically impaired people. The ramifcations
present the next big thing, be it a product, brand, lifestyle, of this are enormous, as are the opportunities. On one hand
or philosophy. Competition in the commercial sphere a suite of new constraints are imposed; on the other hand,
has become intense and fast-paced, and designers are con- implementing standards like the ADA’s positions des-
stantly looking for the next big way to present the next big igners to revolutionize communities by creating wholly
thing. As a result, in many ways, commercial exhibition inclusive environments.
Exhibition Design 1531

Epistemology–Faceted
New Narratives a location for idea-exchange forums hosted by design
communities, like the Association of Science-Technology
The trend in museums to respond to visitors’ interests has Center’s Exhibit Files Web site and blog.[61] E-mail and
engendered the rise in popularity of issue-based exhibi- FTP’s have expedited communications between teams and
tions, made possible by a popular push away from object- clients, and also made it possible to easily collaborate
based exhibitions and towards concept-based ones. As across oceans. The effect of this sweeping change of tools
race, death, health, fear, and other conceptual explorations is not only immeasurable, but also hardly complete.
become crowd-draws for museums, exhibitions are chang-
ing shape to suit a very different genre of narrative.
Accounting for Sustainability
Designers increasingly plan environments that embody
questions and journeys, rather than simply representations
All exhibitions are made of materials whose processing
of topical times and places.[55]
and transportation extracts natural resources and emits
greenhouse gasses.[23,62] Lighting, video projections, and
New Technology
other electrically powered elements drain large amounts
of energy and produce pollution when sources of power
One undeniable force that has transformed exhibition
are fossil-fuel-burning power plants. Publicly supported
design in just the last few years is digital technology and
regulations and institutions like the World Green Building
the hurrying pace of its advances. Computers are now
Council are setting standards for designers to follow, and
small enough and powerful enough to easily be hidden
making those standards achievable by helping grow an
from view, while providing incredibly rich experiences.
economy for them. As these concerns swell in the public
Video and screen-based interactivity can deliver massive
conscience, designers have an opportunity to serve as van-
amounts of self-discovered information without consum-
guards by creating sustainable exhibitions visited by mil-
ing much space. The temptation to fll an exhibition with
lions of people.
digital experiences is a pressing one for many designers,
and often something close to that is requested by a client.
Meanwhile, computers’ shrinking dimensions and Looking Forward
escalating abilities are placing more of them in more peo-
ple’s homes and pockets, equipping people with rich expe- In any feld of design, the root of the practice is in
riences that require no environmental contexts. The need presenting information and emotion in new and more
to create digital experiences that are unique, or more effective fashions. Responsively, designers view the chal-
sophisticated than what is available to consumers, has lenges of the day as abundances of promising opportuni-
become demanding for exhibition designers. Likewise, ties. As today’s exhibition designers plan environments
the challenge of designing real environments equally that engage people in experiences in compelling new
or more exciting than virtual ones has become an actual ways, they raise the feld from its youth to its fruition. As
pressure.[56] they stay aware of trends and plan one step ahead of them,
One emerging solution is the design of digital experi- they raise the bar.
ences that are integrated into exhibition environments.[57]
As technologies like motion tracking and multitouch fat
screens become more accessible, this solution has grown REFERENCES
more viable. Another emerging solution is the invention of
new technologies and varieties of interfaces. Speaking 1. Dernie, D. Introduction. Exhibition Design; Laurence King
to both solutions, a new industry is burgeoning.[58–60] Dig- Publishing Ltd: London, U.K., 2006; 6–19.
ital designers contracting with exhibition designers are 2. Ezekiel 27:10. In The Oxford Study Bible; Suggs, J.M.,
gaining popularity, often winning bids for jobs as collabo- Sakenfeld, K.D., Mueller, J.R., Eds.; Oxford University
rative teams. Press: New York, 1992; 885–886.
3. Europe and India. In Teaching World History; Roupp, H.,
New Technology Backstage Ed.; M.E. Sharpe: Amonk, NY, 1997; 171–172.
4. [Link]
The infuence of technology’s innovations is also revolu- NSF/pages/messeeng?OpenDocument.
5. Impey, O. MacGregor, A. Introduction. The Origins of
tionizing exhibition design behind the scenes. Software
Museums; House of Stratus: North Yorkshire, U.K., 2001;
applications, like Photoshop, Illustrator, AutoCAD, 3D xvii–xx.
Studio Max, Sketch Up, Revit, and Vectorworks, have 6. Lorenc, J. Skolnick, L. Berger, C. A brief history of exhi-
nearly rendered obsolete traditional design tools, like bition design. What Is Exhibition Design?, Rotovision:
compasses, shape palettes, drafting tables, and pencils. At Hove, U.K., 2007; 12–17.
the same time, the Internet has become an indispensable 7. Gundestrup, B. From the royal Kunstkammer to the mod-
resource for content developers and researchers, as well as ern museums of Copenhagen. In The Origins of Museums;
 1532 Exhibition Design
Epistemology–Faceted

Impey, O., MacGregor, A., Eds.; House of Stratus: North 32. [Link]
Yorkshire, U.K., 2001; 177–188. 33. Dean, D. Audiences and learning. Museum Exhibition:
8. Olmi, G. Science—honour—metaphor: Italian cabinets Theory and Practice; Routledge: London, U.K., 1994;
of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. In The Origins 19–32.
of Museums; Impey, O., MacGregor, A., Eds.; House of 34. Hooper-Greenhill, E. Communication in theory and practice.
Stratus: North Yorkshire, U.K., 2001; 1–18. Museums and Their Visitors, Routledge: London, U.K.,
9. Laurencich-Minelli, L. Museography and ethnographical 1994; 35–53.
collections in Bologna during the sixteenth and seventeenth 35. Panero, J. Zelnik, M. Introduction. Human Dimension &
centuries. In The Origins of Museums; Impey, Interior Space: A Source Book of Design Reference Stan-
O., MacGregor, A., Eds.; House of Stratus: North York- dards; Whitney Library of Design: New York, 1979;
shire, U.K., 2001; 19–28. 15–20.
10. Alexander, E.P. The natural history museum. Museums in 36. Ruth, L.C. Introduction. Design Standards for Children’s
Motion: An Introduction to the History and Functions of Environments; McGraw Hill: New York, 2000; vii–x.
Museums; The American Association for State and Local 37. Diamond, J. Planning an evaluation project. Practical
History: Nashville, TN, 1979; 39–60. Evaluation Guide: Tools for Museums & Other Informal
11. [Link] Educational Settings; AltaMira Press: Walnut Creek, CA,
12. [Link] 1999; 15–24.
13. [Link] 38. McLean, K. Doing it right. Planning for People in
14. [Link] Museums; Association of Science-Technology Centers:
15. Leach, W. Interiors. Land of Desire; Random House, Inc.: Washington, DC, 1993; 68–80.
New York, 1993; 71–90. 39. Klein, L. What is an exhibit?. Exhibits; Madison Square
16. [Link] Press: New York, 1986; 62–89.
17. [Link] 40. McLean, K. Teams and schemes: The cast of players. Plan-
.html. ning for People in Museums; Association of Science-
18. [Link] Technology Centers: Washington, DC, 1993; 35–47.
mod=exhibitions. 41. Smithsonian Institution, Offce of Policy and Analysis,
19. Klein, L. Museum exhibition. Exhibits; Madison Square Exhibition making models. The Making of Exhibitions:
Press: New York, 1986; 62–89. Purpose, Structure, Roles and Process; Smithsonian Insti-
20. [Link] tution: Washington DC, 2002; 5–10.
21. Stefanovich, A. Driving innovation in museums American 42. Bine, J. A project manager is. Exhibitionist Spring 2006,
Association of Museums Annual Meeting Chicago, IL Spring, 70–71.
May, 16, 2007. 43. [Link]
22. Lorenc, J. Skolnick, L. Berger, C. Portfolios. What Is Exhi- group_id=62&div_id=5375.
bition Design?, Rotovision: Hove, U.K., 2007; 140–249. 44. [Link]
23. Lorenc, J. Skolnick, L. Berger, C. Process. What Is Exhibi- 45. [Link]
tion Design?, Rotovision: Hove, U.K., 2007; 104–139. 46. Klingmann, A. The lessons of Las Vegas. Brandscapes;
24. Caulton, T. Exhibit devlopment. Hands-On Exhibitions: MIT Press: Cambridge, MA, 2007; 189–205.
Managing Interactive Museums and Science Centers; 47. Vranckx, B. Leisure. Exhibit Design: High Impact Solu-
Routledge: London, U.K.,1998; 39–56. tions; Collins Design: New York, 2006; 202–253.
25. McLean, K. Transforming space. Planning for People in 48. Hooper-Greenhill, E. Forces for change. Museums and
Museums; Association of Science-Technology Centers: Their Visitors; Routledge: London, U.K., 1994; 6–34.
Washington, DC, 1993; 115–130. 49. Dewey, J. Criteria of experience. Experience and
26. Witteborg, L.P. Raw materials. In Good Show!; Stevens, Education; Simon and Schuster, Inc.: New York, 1938;
A.P., Ed.; Smithsonian Institution: Washington, DC, 33–50.
1982; 145–156. 50. Hein, G. Signifcance of constructivism for museum edu-
27. Cuffaro, D.F. Paige, D. Blackman, C.J. Laituri, D. cation. Museums and the Needs of the People; International
Covert, D.E. Sears, L.M. Nehez-Cuffaro, A. Material Committee on Museums Meeting: Israel, 1991.
selection. Process, Materials and Measurements: All 51. Gardener, H. The idea of multiple intelligences. Frames of
the Details Industrial Designers Need to Know But Can Mind; Basic Books: New York, 1983; 3–11.
Never Find; Rockport Publishers: Gloucester, MA, 2006; 52. Csikszentmihalyi, M.; Hermanson, K. Intrinsic motivation
78–87. in museums: what makes visitors want to learn?. Mus.
28. [Link] News, May/June 1995, 74 (3), 3438.
29. Calori, C. What is environmental graphic design?. Signage 53. [Link]
and Wayfnding Design: A Complete Guide to Environ- Appendix 52467.
mental Graphic Design Systems; John Wiley & Sons, Inc.: 54. Majewski, J. On striving for accessible exhibition design.
Hoboken, NJ, 2007; 2–13. Smithsonian Guidelines for Accessible Exhibition Design;
30. Dernie, D. Lighting. Exhibition Design; Laurence King Smithsonian Accessibility Program: Washington, DC,
Publishing Ltd.: London, U.K., 2006; 136–159. 1996; iii–iv.
31. Dean, D. The exhibition development process. Museum 55. Skolnick, L. Towards a new museum architecture. In
Exhibition: Theory and Practice; Routledge: London, U.K., Reshaping Museum Space: Architecture, Design, Exhibitions;
1994; 8–18. MacLeod, S., Ed.; Routledge: New York, 2005; 118–130.
Exhibition Design 1533

Epistemology–Faceted
56. Thomas, S. Introduction. In The Digital Museum: A Think 59. [Link]
Guide; Din, H., Hecht, P., Eds.; American Association of 60. [Link]
Museums: Washington, DC, 2007; 1–8. 61. [Link]
57. Mouw, M. Spock, D. Immersive media: creating theatrical 62. Cuffaro, D.F. Paige, D. Blackman, C.J. Laituri, D. Covert,
storytelling experiences. In The Digital Museum: A Think D.E. Sears, L.M. Nehez-Cuffaro, A. Sustainable design.
Guide; Din, H., Hecht, P., Eds.; American Association of Process, Materials and Measurements: All the Details
Museums: Washington, DC, 2007; 45–56. Industrial Designers Need to Know But Can Never Find;
58. [Link] Rockport Publishers: Gloucester, MA, 2006; 172–177.