Diversity: Despite the basic biological, chemical, and physical similarities found in all living things,
a diversity of life exists not only among and between species but also within every natural population. The
phenomenon of diversity has had a long history of study because so many of the variations that exist in nature
are visible to the eye. The fact that organisms changed during prehistoric times and that new variations are
constantly evolving can be verified by paleontological records as well as by breeding experiments in the
laboratory. Long after Darwin assumed that variations existed, biologists discovered that they are caused by a
change in the genetic material (DNA). That change can be a slight alteration in the sequence of
the constituents of DNA (nucleotides), a larger change such as a structural alteration of a chromosome, or a
complete change in the number of chromosomes. In any case, a change in the genetic material in the
reproductive cells manifests itself as some kind of structural or chemical change in the offspring. The
consequence of such a mutation depends upon the interaction of the mutant offspring with its environment.
It has been suggested that sexual reproduction became the dominant type of reproduction among organisms
because of its inherent advantage of variability, which is the mechanism that enables a species to adjust to
changing conditions. New variations are potentially present in genetic differences, but how preponderant a
variation becomes in a gene pool depends upon the number of offspring the mutants or variants produce
(differential reproduction). It is possible for a genetic novelty (new variation) to spread in time to all members
of a population, especially if the novelty enhances the population’s chances for survival in the environment in
which it exists. Thus, when a species is introduced into a new habitat, it either adapts to the change by natural
selection or by some other evolutionary mechanism or eventually dies off. Because each new habitat means
new adaptations, habitat changes have been responsible for the millions of different kinds of species and for the
heterogeneity within each species.
The total number of extant animal and plant species is estimated at between roughly 5 million and 10 million;
about 1.5 million of those species have been described by scientists. The use of classification as a means of
producing some kind of order out of the staggering number of different types of organisms appeared as early as
the book of Genesis—with references to cattle, beasts, fowl, creeping things, trees, and so on. The first
scientific attempt at classification, however, is attributed to the Greek philosopher Aristotle, who tried to
establish a system that would indicate the relationship of all things to each other. He arranged everything along
a scale, or “ladder of nature,” with nonliving things at the bottom; plants were placed below animals, and
humankind was at the top. Other schemes that have been used for grouping species include large anatomical
similarities, such as wings or fins, which indicate a natural relationship, and also similarities in reproductive
structures.
Taxonomy has been based on two major assumptions: one is that similar body construction can be used as
a criterion for a classification grouping; the other is that, in addition to structural similarities, evolutionary and
molecular relationships between organisms can be used as a means for determining classification.
Behaviour and interrelationships
The study of the relationships of living things to each other and to their environment is known as ecology.
Because these interrelationships are so important to the welfare of Earth and because they can be seriously
disrupted by human activities, ecology has become an important branch of biology.
Continuity
Whether an organism is a human or a bacterium, its ability to reproduce is one of the most important
characteristics of life. Because life comes only from preexisting life, it is only through reproduction that
successive generations can carry on the properties of a species.
The study of structure
Living things are defined in terms of the activities or functions that are missing in nonliving things.
The life processes of every organism are carried out by specific materials assembled in definite structures. Thus,
a living thing can be defined as a system, or structure, that reproduces, changes with its environment over a
period of time, and maintains its individuality by constant and continuous metabolism.