Hydraulics Systems

Aircraft systems provide a means of power transmission through the medium of hydraulics i.e.
transmission of power through an incompressible fluid via pipelines and actuators. Hydraulic systems
provide the power for the operation of components such as landing gear, flaps, flight controls, wheel
brakes, windshield wipers and other systems that require high power, accurate control and rapid response
rates.

PASCAL'S LAW

If a force is applied to a liquid in a confined space, then this force will be

felt equally in all directions.

SEALS

Seals perform a very important function in a hydraulic system, in

preventing leakage of fluid.

 Static seals, gaskets and packing are used in many locations, and these effect a seal by being
squeezed between two surfaces.
 Dynamic seals, fitted between sliding surfaces, may be of many different shapes, depending on
their use and on the fluid pressures involved.

The ideal properties of a hydraulic fluid are:

 be relatively incompressible, i.e. up to 27.6 MN/m2 (276 Bar), so ensuring instantaneous

operation.

 have good lubricating properties for metal and rubber.

 have good viscosity with a high boiling point (helps prevent vapour locking and cavitation) and
low freezing point e.g. temperature range +80°C to -70°C.

 have a flash point above 100°C.

 be non-flammable.

 be chemically inert.

 be resistant to evaporation.

 have freedom from sludging and foaming,

 have good storage properties.

 be non-corrosive.

 be reasonably priced and readily available.

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The choice of an aircraft' s hydraulic fluid is influenced by the materials used for glands, seals, rings,
seats etc There are two in common use.

D.T.D. 585 - a refined mineral based oil (Petroleum). Colour - red. Used with synthetic rubber seals
(Neoprene). Mineral Based - DTD 585

It has a kerosene base and is thus flammable.

It is chemically stable to a high temperature and has good resistance to foaming.

SKYDROL - a phosphate ester based oil. Colour - Type 500A purple, Type 700 green 500A purple,
Type 700 green. Used with synthetic rubber seals (Buty). Is fire resistant and less prone to cavitation
because of its higher boiling point.

OPEN-CENTRE SYSTEM

The main advantage of this system is that it is simple, the main disadvantage is that only one service can
be operated at a time.

The fluid is passed directly to the reservoir

when no services are being operated, this
allows the engine driven pump to run in an off
loaded' condition as little pressure is
generated.

On selection of a user system the fluid is

directed to the actuator, which will move.
SELECTOR

This type of system is popular in many light

aircraft which do not require a. constant
pressure to be maintained all the time as only
items like landing gear and flaps will be
powered for short periods of time each flight.

CLOSED SYSTEM

With this type of system, operating pressure is maintained in that part of the system which leads to the
selector valves, and some method is used to prevent over-loading the pump.

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Constant Delivery System

In systems which employ a fixed volume pump

(constant delivery) an automatic cut-out valve is
fitted, to divert pump output to the reservoir when
pressure has built up to normal operating pressure.
NRV and accumulator are also used in this system to
maintain system pressure

Constant pressure System

A variable volume pump (constant pressure) is used,

delivery being reduced as pressure increases.

RESERVOIRS

A reservoir provides both storage space for the system fluid, and sufficient air space to allow for any
variations of fluid in the system which may be caused by:

 jack (actuator) ram displacement, since the capacity of the jack is less when contracted than
extended.
 thermal expansion, since the volume of oil increases with temperature.
 it provides a head of fluid for the pump.
 it compensates for small leaks.

Most reservoirs are pressurised, to provide a positive fluid pressure at the pump inlet, and to prevent air
bubbles from forming in the fluid at high altitude. The fluid level will vary according to:

 the position of the jacks.

 whether the accumulators are charged.
 temperature.

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Pressurized Reservoirs: As compared to reservoirs which are vented to atmosphere, pressurised
reservoirs prevent fluid boiling at high altitude and provide a positive pressure at the inlet to the
EDPs to prevent cavitation.

PUMPS

Draw oil from the reservoir and deliver a supply of fluid to the system. Pumps may be:

 hand operated engine

 driven electric motor driven
 pneumatically (air turbine motor) (ATM).
 ram air turbine (HYDRAT or RAT)
 hydraulically (Hyd. motor driving a hyd. pump) Known as a Power Transfer Unit or PTU.

Hand Pumps may be the only source of

power in a small, light hydraulic system,
but in larger aircraft are employed:

I. to allow ground servicing to take

place without the need for engine
running.

II. so that lines and joints can be

pressure tested.

so that cargo doors etc., can be

III. operated without power.

Engine driven pumps (EDP) or electrically driven pumps may be classified as follows:

Constant Delivery (Fixed Volume) Type Pump. This pump supplies fluid at a constant rate and
therefore needs an automatic cut-out or relief valve to return the fluid to the reservoir when the jacks
have reached the end of their travel, and when the system is not operating, it requires an idling circuit.
The pump gives a large flow at small pressure.

Constant Pressure (Variable Volume) Pump This pump supplies fluid at a variable volume and
controls its own pressure, this type of pump is typically fitted in modern_aircraft whose systems operate
at 3,000-4,000 psi. Depending upon the pressure required the pump output is increased or decreased.

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AUTOMATIC CUT OUT VALVES (ACOV)

A automatic cut-out valve (ACOV) is fitted to a system

employing a constant delivery (fixed volume) pump, to control
system pressure and to provide the pump with an idling circuit
when no services have been selected. An accumulator is fitted as
part of the power system when a cut- out is fitted, since any
slight leakage through components, or from the system, would
result in frequent operation of the cut-out, and frequent loading
and unloading of the pump. The accumulator maintains the
system pressure when the pump is in its cut out position.

HYDRAULIC ACCUMULATORS

An accumulator is fitted:

I. to store hydraulic fluid under pressure.

II. to dampen pressure fluctuations.
III. to allow for thermal expansion.
IV. to provide an emergency supply of
fluid to the system in the event of
pump failure.
V. to prolong the period between cut-out
and cut in time of the ACOV and so
reduce the wear on the pump.
VI. provides the initial fluid when a selection
is made and the pump is cut-out.

FLEXIBLE FLOATING PISTON

Purpose: To convert fluid flow into linear or rotary motion.

HYDRAULIC LOCK

Service cannot be operated Ime When fluid is trapped between the piston of the jack and a non-return
valve, a "hydraulic lock" is said to be formed. Because the fluid is incompressible and is unable to flow
through the system. the piston cannot move even if a load is applied to it and is therefore locked in its
position.

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Hydraulic Fuses

Fitted upstream of components to shut off flow and prevent total loss of system fluid in case there is a
leak. The service will be inoperative but the rest of the system will function as normal.

Priority Valve or Pressure Maintaining Valve (PMV)

If the pressure drops below a set limit, the priority valve (PMV) closes and isolates the non-essential
services. Remaining pressure will go to the primary services.

Sequence Valves

Hydraulic sequence valves work by directing system fluid into one service ensuring its complete
operation before the fluid can enter the second service e.g. landing gear doors open before the landing
gear extends.

Flow Control Valves. A flow control valve may be fitted in a hydraulic system to maintain a constant
flow of fluid to a particular component; it is frequently found upstream of a hydraulic motor which is
required to operate at a constant speed.

Shuttle Valves. These are often used in landing gear and

brake systems, to enable an alternate system to operate the
same actuators as the normal system.

Restrictor Valves (or choke). A restrictor valve may be

similar in construction to a non-return valve, but a
restrictor valve is designed to permit limited flow in one
direction and full flow in the other direction, the restriction
is usually of fixed size.

Non-return Valves. The most common device used to

control the flow of fluid is the non-return valve, which
permits full flow in one direction, but blocks flow in
the opposite direction ( in a similar way to a diode in
electrical circuits)

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 AIRCRAFT PNEUMATIC SYSTEMS

AIRCRAFT PNEUMATIC SYSTEMS

A pneumatic system is fitted in most modern aircraft to supply some or all of the following aircraft
systems.

 Airconditioning

 Pressurisation

 Aerofoil and engine anti-icing

 Air turbine motors

 Engine starting
 Hydraulic power
 Thrust reverse
 Leading and trailing edge flap/slat operation

 Pneumatic rams, e.g. thrust reverser actuation

 Hydraulic reservoir and potable water tank pressurization

 Cargo compartment heating

ENGINE BLEED AIR SYSTEM

The engine bleed air system consists of the power source (the engine) and control devices for temperature
and pressure regulation during operation.

Hot pressurised air is supplied to the bleed air duct from the LP/HP compressor.

A tapping is then taken from the duct to supply the air-conditioning system. This air is passed through a
mass flow controller or a modulated engine bleed air valve and since the bleed air supply is always at a
higher temperature than that required for passenger comfort a means of cooling this air is accomplished
by the air conditioning pack.

The bleed air control valve is the separation point between the engine and the pneumatic system
manifold and allows the bleed air to enter the pneumatic system and is controlled electrically from the
flight deck.

RE-CIRCULATION FANS

These augment the air conditioning packs allowing the packs to be operated at a reduced rate during the
cruise which decreases engine bleed requirements and maintains a constant ventilation rate throughout the
cabin.

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 PRESSURISATION

The difference in pressure between the inside and outside of the pressurised areas of the aircraft or
differential pressure produces hoop stresses which are applied cyclically every time the aircraft is
pressurised and de-pressurised causing fatigue which can, ultimately, lead to structural failure.

(Keeping the maximum differential pressure to its lowest practical value reduces the hoop stress.
Pressurising the cabin to the 8,000 ft level reduces the stresses and therefore the fatigue on the airframe as
well as reducing the required structural strength and keeping the weight of the aircraft down which
increases the economy of operation and reduces the initial costs of the aircraft.

SYSTEM CONTROL

Cabin pressurisation is controlled by having a constant mass flow of air entering the cabin and then
varying the rate at which it is discharged to atmosphere.

The constant mass flow of air is supplied by the air-conditioning system via the mass flow controller and
is discharged to atmosphere by the discharge or outflow valves.

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Closing the valve reduces the outflow and increases the pressure, opening the valve increases the outflow
and reduces the pressure.

Safety valve. A simple mechanical outwards pressure relief valve fitted to relieve positive pressure in
the cabin when the maximum pressure differential allowed for the aircraft type is exceeded i.e
prevents the structural max. diff. being exceeded. This valve will open if the pressure rises to max. Diff.
Plus 0.25psi.

Inwards relief (inwards vent) valvel A simple mechanical inwards relief valve is fitted to prevent
excessive negative differential pressure which will open if the pressure outside the aircraft exceeds that
inside the aircraft by 0.5 to 1.0 psi.

The inwards and outwards safety valves may be combined in one unit or may be completely separate
components and are positioned above the aircraft flotation line. The outwards and inwards relief valves
must be duplicated.

Dump Valve. A manually operated component, the Dump Valve, will enable the crew to reduce the
cabin pressure to zero for emergency depressurization. This valve may also be used as the air outlet
during manual operation of the pressurisation system an aircraft fitted with pneumatic discharge valves.

Ditch Valve. Some aircraft are designed with the possibility of a water landing in mind. Airbus aircraft,
for example, feature a "ditching button" which, if pressed, closes valves and openings underneath the
aircraft, including the outflow valve, the air inlet for the emergency RAT, the avionics inlet, the extract
valve, and the flow control valve. It is meant to slow flooding in a water landing.

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 Ice and Rain Protection

Types of Ice:

1) Hoar Frost

2) Rime Ice

3) Clear or Glaze Ice

In no circumstances should a formation of ice or frost be allowed to remain on the aircraft wing surfaces
prior to take-off.

The effect of ice or frost on take-off and landing performance is of great importance. The effects are so
detrimental to the landing and take-off that no effort should be spared to keep the aircraft as free as
possible from any accumulation of ice or frost. If any ice remains on the aircraft as the landing phase
approaches it must be appreciated that the ice formation will have reduced CL max and incurred an
increase in stall speed.

In no circumstances should a formation of ice or frost be allowed to remain on the aircraft wing surfaces
prior to take-off. The undesirable effects of ice are obvious but, as previously mentioned, the effects of
frost are more subtle.

Two different approaches are generally used:

'De-icing' where ice is allowed to accumulate prior to being removed.

Anti-icing' where the object is to prevent any ice accumulation.

There are a number of avenues which need exploring and these include detection and warning systems
and the methods used to protect the aircraft, which can be any or all of the following:

1. Pneumatic Expanding rubber boots - mechanical.

2. Thermal Electrically heated. Oil heated. Air heated.

3. Liquid Freezing point depressant fluids. (FPD)

Ice detection is provided automatically by the provision of ice detectors, which relay a warning to the
flight crew.

Anti-Icing is the application of continuous heat or fluid.

De-Icing is the intermittent application of fluid, heat or mechanical effort.

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 MECHANICAL ‘DIE-ICING’

De-icer Boots. The de-icer boots, or overshoes, consist of

layers of natural rubber and rubberised fabric between which
are disposed flat inflatable tubes closed at the ends.

THERMAL 'ANTI-ICING' AND 'DE-ICING'

Hot air systems on modern aircraft are generally engine bleed

air and are said to be 'anti-icing. In systems of this type, the
leading edge sections of wings including lead and tail units are
usually provided with a second, inner skin positioned to form a
small gap between it and the inside of the leading edge section.
Heated air is ducted to the wings and tail units and passes into
the gap, providing sufficient heat in the outer skin of the leading
edge to melt ice already formed and prevent further ice
formation.

FLUID SYSTEMS

This system prevents the adhesion of ice on surfaces by pumping

freezing point depressant fluid (FPD) to panels in the leading edge of
the aerofoil, and allowing the fluid to be carried over the surface by
air movement.

WINDSCREEN PROTECTION

Windscreen protection is provided by fluid sprays, electrical heating, and cabin air may be provided for
de misting. Electrical heating may be within the main windscreen, or added as an optional extra by means
of a small heated glass panel fitted in front of the windscreen.

Electrical Anti-icing System. This system employs a windscreen of

special laminated construction heated electrically to prevent, not only
the formation of ice and mist, but also to improve the impact resistance
of the windscreen at low temperatures.

The film-type resistance element is heated by alternating current supplied from the aircraft' s electrical
system.

PROPELLER PROTECTION SYSTEMS

Ice formation on a propeller blade produces distortion to the aerofoil
section, causing a loss in efficiency, possible unbalance and destructive
vibration. The buildup of ice must be prevented and there are two systems in
use.

Protection is provided either by an Anti-Icing fluid system, or by an

electrically powered thermal De-Icing system.

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 Landing Gear i mart

The functions of the landing gear are:

 To provide a means of manoeuvring the aircraft on the ground.

 To support the aircraft at a convenient height to give clearance for propellers and flaps, etc. and to
facilitate loading.
 To absorb the kinetic energy of landing and provide a means of controlling deceleration.

Oleo-pneumatic Struts.

Some fixed main undercarriages, and most fixed nose

undercarriages, are fitted with an oleo-pneumatic shock
absorber strut.

The outer cylinder is fixed rigidly to the airframe

structure by two mounting brackets, and houses an inner
cylinder and a piston assembly, the interior space being
partially filled with hydraulic fluid and inflated with
compressed gas (air or nitrogen).

Shimmy Damper

Reduces lateral vibration during take off and landing roll.

A small hydraulic shock absorber installed between the nose wheel fork and
the nose wheel cylinder which is attached to the aircraft structure. The piston
inside the shimmy damper cylinder is free to move back and forth when it is
moved slowly enough to allow fluid to transfer from one side of the piston to
the other through a restrictor. Slow movement of the piston allows the nose
wheel to pivot so the aircraft can be steered on the ground. But, the restrictor
slows the flow of fluid inside the cylinder and prevents the piston from
moving back and forth as fast as it would if the nose wheel were shimmying.

RETRACTABLE LANDING GEAR (To decrease drag in flight)

Retractable landing gear is provided with mechanical locks to ensure that each undercarriage is locked
securely in the retracted and extended positions.

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In addition, means are provided to prevent retraction with the aircraft on the ground, and to guard against
landing with the landing gear retracted.

NOSE UNDERCARRIAGE

A nose undercarriage unit, is usually a lighter structure than a main unit since it carries less weight and is
usually subject only to direct compression loads. It does, however, carry the attachment for the towing
equipment and so must withstand shear loads as well. Its design is complicated by several requirements:

 Castoring.
 Self centering.
 Steering.
 Anti-shimmy.
 Withstand shear loads.

CASTORING

Castoring is the ability of the nose wheel to turn to either side in response to the results of differential
braking or aerodynamic forces on the rudder.

SELF CENTERING

Automatic self-centering of the nose wheel is essential prior to landing gear retraction. Centering is
achieved by either a spring loaded cam or a hydraulic dashpot.

NOSE WHEEL STEERING

A method of steering is required to enable the pilot to manoeuvre the aircraft safely on the ground.

GROUND LOCKS

Ground locks or landing gear locking pins are a further safety feature which is intended to prevent
inadvertent retraction of the gear when the aircraft is on the ground.

Aircraft Wheels

CREEP
When in service, the tyre has a tendency to rotate, creep (slippage)
around the wheel. This creep, if excessive, will tear out the inflation
valve and cause the tyre to burst.

Creep Marks. Creep can be detected by misalignment of two

matched whitelyellow lines one painted on the wheel and one on the
tyre.

Creep is less likely to occur if the tyre air pressure is correctly maintained. To assist in this, tyre
manufacturers specify a RATED INFLATION PRESSURE for each tvre This a RATED INFLATION
PRESSURE for each tyre. This figure applies to a

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cold tyre not under load, that is, a tyre not fitted to an aircraft. Distortion of the tyre cover when the
weight of the aircraft is on it will cause the tyre pressure to rise by 4%, When checking the tyre
pressure of a cold tyre fitted to an aircraft should mentally add 4% to the rated tyre pressure.

FUSIBLE PLUGS

This prevents excessive pressure build up in the tyre by allowing controlled deflation of the tyre.

Under extra hard braking conditions the heat generated in the wheel, tyre and brake assembly could be
sufficient to cause a tyre blowout, with possible catastrophic effect to the aircraft.

To prevent a sudden blowout fusible plugs are fitted in some tubeless wheels. These plugs are held in
position in the wheel hub by means of fusible alloy, which melts under excessive heat conditions and
allows the plug to be blown out by the tyre air pressure.

Awl Vents

Green or grey dots painted on the sidewall of the tyre indicate the position of the “awl" vents. Awl vents
prevent pressure being trapped between the plies which would cause disruption of the tyre carcase if it
was exposed to the low pressures experienced during high altitude flight.

A Red Dot or Triangle indicates the lightest part of the tyre. If this is placed opposite the valve during
tyre fitting, then it assists in balancing the wheel assembly.

AQUAPLANING

Aquaplaning is a phenomenon caused by a wedge of water building up under the tread of the tyre and
breaking its contact with the ground.

Aquaplaning speed, in Knots, the speed that the tyre loses contact can be found by applying the formula:

The possibility of aquaplaning increases as the depth of the tread is reduced, it is therefore important that
the amount of tread remaining is accurately assessed. The coefficient of dynamic friction will reduce
to very low values, typically 0, when aquaplaning.

REDUCTION OF TYRE WEAR

With the increased size of modern airports, taxi distances also increase, thus increasing the amount of tyre
wear and risk of damage. To minimise tyre wear therefore, it is recommended that a speed of no more
than 25 m.p.h (40 kph) should be reached during the taxi run.

NOTES MADE BY SAIRAM 14 | P a g e

Over inflation will cause excessive
wear to the crown of the tyres whilst
under inflation is the cause of excessive
shoulder wear.

Aircraft Brakes

The kinetic energy of an aborted takeoff or a landing is largely converted to heat by the brakes.

PLATE OR DISC BRAKES

All modern aircraft now use plate brakes operated by hydraulic systems as their means of slowing down
or stopping. This system uses a series of fixed friction pads, bearing on or gripping, one or more rotating
plates, similar in principle to disc brakes on a car.

The friction pads are made of an inorganic friction material and the plates of 'heavy' steel with a specially
case hardened surface. It is this surface which causes the plates to explode if covered with liquid fire
extinguishant when they are red hot. In the unfortunate event of a wheel or brake fire, the best
extinguishant to use is dry powder.

Anti-skid System

The anti-skid system, through various mechanisms, compares the speed of the aircraft with the rotational
speed of each main wheel. If the speed of any wheel is too slow for the existing aircraft speed, the brake
on that wheel (or wheels) is released momentarily to allow the wheel speed to increase and prevent the
wheel from skidding. The system is fully automatic and is active from immediately after initial wheel spin
up on landing (during which time brake activation might (or might not) be inhibited) down to a design
limited minimum speed; usually about 15 knots.

Anti-skid systems are designed:

 to minimise aquaplaning and the potential tyre damage which can occur when a wheel is locked
or rotating at a speed which does not correspond to the speed of the aircraft.

 REDUCE LANDING ROLL BY OPTIMUM BRAKING.

 Anti-skid removes the possibility of reverted rubber skids caused by locked wheels.

 An anti-skid system also greatly improves stopping distance on substandard surfaces such as
gravel or grass and

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  is particularly effective on surfaces contaminated with frozen contaminants such as ice or slush
by ensuring maximum effective breaking.

 Prevents aquaplanning

MECHANICAL ANTI-SKID SYSTEMS

The basic principle of these systems is the use of the inertia of a flywheel as a sensor of wheel
deceleration.

A wheel directly driven by the aircraft wheel is coupled to the flywheel by a spring. Any changes in
aircraft wheel velocity cause a relative displacement between the flywheel and the driven wheel. This
relative displacement is used as a control signal to operate a valve in the hydraulic braking system to
release the brake pressure.

ELECTRONIC ANTI-SKID SYSTEMS

The electronic system gives approximately a 15% improvement over the mechanical unit with the
advantage that it can be tested prior to use.

The electronic system comprises three main elements:

 A sensor which measures wheel speed.

 A control box to compute wheel speed information.
 A servo valve to modulate brake pressure.

AUTOBRAKES

This system permits automatic braking when using the normal brake system during landing rollout or
during a rejected takeoff. The autobrake system is not available when using the alternate brake system.

Carbon Fibre Brakes

There are multiple reasons for this evolution but the two most compelling ones are weight reduction and
efficiency. Efficiency is particularly critical, for as aircraft get larger and their weight increases the brakes
must be capable of dissipating more energy.

Carbon brakes are still fully functional and retain the ability to absorb energy and slow the aircraft at and
well bevond temperatures at which steel brakes have lost their efficiency and have started to "fade".

Differential Braking

The main wheels only are braked, and most aircraft are fitted with differential braking. This means that
the left or right brake can be applied individually, which enables the aircraft to turn about on its

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axis. This is a useful for tight manoeuvring. In aircraft with a castoring nose
wheel, not connected to steering), the use of differential brakes is the only
way that the aircraft can be steered on the runway below the speed of
rudder authority.

Fire Detection and Protection

Such areas are defined as Designated Fire

Zones and may be described as: "Areas
where a potential fire risk may exist
following failure or leakage of any
component or associated equipment".

In order to avoid the spread of fire in engines or APU's, fire zones are established ie a series of fire proof
bulkheads. A fire detection system must be capable of providing rapid detection of a localised fire or
overheat condition, however it must not automatically operate the fire extinguishers.

Class A fires involve solid materials of an organic nature such

as wood, paper, cloth, rubber and plastics that do not melt.

Class B fires involves liquids. They include petrol, diesel,

thinners, oils, paints, wax, cooking fat and plastics that melt,

Class C fires involve electricity,

Class D fires involve flammable metals such as

magnesium, aluminium, titanium, sodium and
potassium.

NOTES MADE BY SAIRAM 17 | P a g e

FIRE DETECTION SYSTEMS

Melting Link Detectors. These are found in older aircraft and consist of a pair of contacts held apart by a
fusible plug. At a pre-determined temperature the fusible plug melts allowing the contacts to close and a
fire warning circuit is made.

Differential Expansion Detectors. This type of detector

operates on the principle of the differential rate of
expansion of dissimilar materials. They consist of a pair of
contacts mounted on a spring bow assembly, fitted within
an expansion tube mounted on a base. When heat is
applied the tube expands at a greater rate then the bow,
drawing the contacts together, so providing power to the
Fire Warning Circuit. A subsequent drop in temperature
will cause the tube to shorten, the contact will open and
the warning cancel.

Continuous Fire Detectors. These detectors are

commonly known as Fire Wire and operate on the
principle of their elements having either a negative
coefficient of resistance or a positive coefficient of
capacitance.(one system has both) An element consists
of a stainless steel tube, with a central electrode
insulated from the tube by a temperature sensitive
material.

Gas Filled Detectors. This system consists of a continuous stainless steel tube containing a core gas
absorbent material. The tube is positioned strategically around the engine wherever a fire is likely to
occur. Gas is forced into the tube under pressure and partially absorbed by the core before the tube is
sealed.

Like the fire wire this system is positioned around the fire zones in a double loop, once again both loops
being required to detect a fire to give a warning.

Should the integrity of the tube be breached and the gas released from the core, the same pressure switch
that sensed the pressure rise due to increased temperature will sense the drop in pressure and signal a
Loop Fault on the control panel or electronic systems display.

TOILET FIRE SYSTEM These are fitted around each disposal receptacle for towels, paper or waste
paper containers and consist of a fire bottle, fusible plug and spray. In the event of a fire the fusible plug
will melt discharging fire extinguishant into the spray ring. The toilets must also be fitted with a smoke
detector system,

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FIRE EXTINGUISHANTS

BROMOCHLORODIFLUROMETHANE (BCF)

This is stored in green containers. This agent is very effective against electrical
and flammable liquid fires. It is only slightly toxic, is colourless, non-corrosive
and evaporates rapidly leaving no residue. It does not freeze or cause cold burns
and will not harm fabrics, metals or other materials it contacts. It is also known as
Halon 1211. It acts rapidly on fires by producing a heavy blanketing mist which
eliminates air from the fire source but more importantly it interferes chemically
with the combustion process. It has outstanding properties in preventing re-flash
after the fire has been extinguished.

WATER or WATER GLYCOL

 This is stored in red containers and used for hand held portable appliances.

 It can be used in passenger cabins for combatting fires involving domestic

materials.

 It must not be used on fires which involve electrical equipment or

liquids.

DRY CHEMICAL (DRY POWDER)

 This is stored in a blue or red container with a blue label and occasionally
called 'Dry Powder
 The use of this agent in crew compartments or passenger cabins of
pressurised aircraft is not permitted.
 It should not be used on electrical fires, and is best known for its application
against wheel and brake fires. As a powder it has no cooling effect, and this
reduces the danger of wheel explosions or the distortion of the brakes or
wheels.

CARBON DIOXIDE (CO2)

 Stored in black or red containers with a black label. It is non-corrosive and

extinguishes the flame by dissipating the oxygen in the immediate area.
 The use of this agent in aircraft is not permitted.
 Useful against engine fires as it will extinguish the fire without damaging
the engine.
 This agent may be used as a substitute for Dry Chemical against wheel and
brake fires, but it should not be sprayed directly on to the wheel but
alongside to blanket the wheel with a CO2 cloud.

NOTES MADE BY SAIRAM 19 | P a g e

SMOKE DETECTION

Smoke detection systems are employed where it is not possible to keep a bay or compartment (for
example cargo or electrical equipment bays) under constant physical surveillance.

Smoke and flame detectors operate according to several different principles, for example:

 Light detection
 Light refraction
 Ionisation Change in resistance of semiconductor

Aircraft Oxygen Equipment

Portable oxygen sets are provided in addition for therapeutic use by passengers and for use by cabin staff
during emergencies.

Crew oxygen is stored in High Pressure gaseous form whilst passenger supplies may be of HP gas or be
chemically generated.

Gaseous oxygen systems are generally of the diluter demand type for crew use and the continuous flow
type for passenger use.

DILUTER DEMAND SYSTEM

This type of system is provided in most aircraft for flight crew use.

Oxygen is diluted with air and supplied as demanded by the users' respiration cycle and the oxygen
regulator. There is a mask connection point for each crew member.

 With the oxygen supply 'ON' and 'NORMAL' oxygen selected,

diluted oxygen will be supplied to the crew members mask as
he/she inhales.

 As the cabin altitude increases and cabin air pressure decreases the
percentage oxygen increases until, at 32,000 ft cabin altitude,
100% oxygen is supplied.

 100% oxygen will be supplied, regardless of altitude, if the crew

member selects 100% 02 on the regulator control panel

 Selecting 'EMERGENCY' on the regulator will provide

protection against the inhalation of smoke and harmful gases by
supplying 100% O2 at a positive pressure.

NOTES MADE BY SAIRAM 20 | P a g e

  When TEST' is selected, oxygen at a high positive pressure is supplied to check masks for fit and
other equipment for leakage.

EMERGENCY REGULATING OXYGEN SYSTEM (EROS) CREW OXYGEN MASKS

These are combined masks and regulators fitted at each crew station to provide the flight crew with
diluted or 100% oxygen.

The pneumatic harness that holds the mask to the face is deflated when stowed. The harness fits all head
sizes.

The control for normal or 100% oxygen flow is on the front of the regulator, marked N and 100% PUSH.
100% oxygen is obtained by pushing in on the end of the of the control marked 100% push.

The EMERGENCY control knob changes the flow from diluter demand to steady flow if it is rotated to
the emergency setting.

PASSENGER OXYGEN SYSTEM

Provides an emergency oxygen supply to the passengers and cabin attendants and is of the continuous
flow type supplied either by a high presssure gaseous system or a chemical generator system.

CHEMICAL OXYGEN GENERATORS

The generators are relatively light self-contained devices and are located in each passenger, cabin
attendants and lavatory service units.

Once the chemical reaction has started, it cannot be stopped. Surface temperatures of the generator
can reach 232° C (450° F). A strip of heat sensitive tape or paint changes colour, usually to black, when
the generator is used and provides visual indication that the generator is expended. Chemical generators
have a shelf/installed life of ten years.

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 Fuselage, Wings and Stabilising Surfaces

Tension

A tension, or tensile load is one which tends to stretch a structural

member. Components designed to resist tensile loads are known as
ties.

Compression

Compressive loads are the opposite of tensile loads and tend to

shorten structural members. Components designed to resist
compressive loads are known as Struts.

Shear
Shear is a force which tends to slide one face of the material over an
adjacent face. Riveted joints are designed to resist shear forces

Bending

Bending of the structure involves the three basic

loadings:

 Tension as the outer edge stretches

 Compression as the inner edge squeezes
together.
 Shear across the structure as the forces try
to split it.

Torsion

Torsion or twisting forces produce tension at the outer edge,

compression in the centre and shear across the structure.

Stress

Stress is the internal force inside a structural member which resists an externally applied force and,
therefore, a tensile load or force will set up a tensile stress, compression loads compressive stresses.

Strain

When an external force of sufficient magnitude acts on a structure, the structural dimensions change. This
change is known as strain and is the ratio of the change in length to the original length and is a measure of
the deformation of any loaded structure.

NOTES MADE BY SAIRAM 22 | P a g e

Buckling

Buckling occurs to thin sheet materials when they are subjected to end loads and to ties if subjected to
compressive forces.

MONOCOQUE CONSTRUCTION

In a monocoque structure all the loads are taken by the skin

with just light internal frames or formers to give the required
shape. Even slight damage to the skin can seriously weaken the
structure.

SEMI-MONOCOQUE CONSTRUCTION

As aircraft became larger and the air loads greater the pure
monocoque structure was not strong enough and additional
structural members known as stringers (stiffeners) and
longerons were added to run lengthwise along the fuselage
joining the frames together.

Longeron

A major structural member that carry bending loads of an aircraft fuselage, running from front to rear.

Former

A transverse a structural member of an aircraft fuselage, of which a typical fuselage has a series from
the nose to the empennage, typically perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the aircraft. The primary
purpose of formers is to establish the shape of the fuselage and reduce the column length of stringers to
prevent instability. Formers are typically attached to longerons, which support the skin of the aircraft.

Stringers

Stringers are longitudinal members, used to give shape

and provide attachment of the skin.

Stringers and longerons together prevent tension and

compression from bending the fuselage.

Bulkhead

A bulkhead is an upright wall/transvers member deviding

the fuselage of an aeroplane, e.g. Cockpit and cabin etc

NOTES MADE BY SAIRAM 23 | P a g e

Ribs

In an aircraft, ribs are forming elements of

the structure of a wing. Usually ribs
incorporate the airfoil shape and contour of
the wing.

Spar

The spar is the main structural member of

the wing, running span wise at right angles
(or thereabouts depending on wing sweep)
to the fuselage.

Empennage

u pakla. The empennage of an aircraft is also known as the tail section. Most empennage designs consist
of a tail cone, fixed aerodynamic surfaces or stabilizers, and movable aerodynamic [Link]

Strut

A strut is a structural component designed to resist longitudinal

compression. Struts provide outwards-facing support in their
lengthwise direction.

NOTES MADE BY SAIRAM 24 | P a g e