UNIT 1

INTRODUCTION TO APPLIED
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY:
 DEFINITION :Applied Social Psychology
refers to the branch of social psychology
DEFINITION OF that draws on social psychological theories
, principles , methods , and research
APPLIED SOCIAL evidence to contribute to

PSYCHOLOGY: 1. The Understanding of social and

practical problems
2. The development of intervention
strategies for improving the
functioning of individuals, groups,
organizations, communities , and
societies with respect to social and
practical problems.
In this definition , functioning is
broadly viewed as encompassing how
well people perform or operate with
respect to any one of many criteria ,
including , for example emotional and
social adjustment, physical health, and
performance in school, work, or
NATURE OF APPLIED SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY:

[Link] SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY AS A SCIENCE:

AS A BRANCH OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY IS BY DEFINITION A SCIENCE AND

ACCORDINGLY RELIES ON THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD & IS GUIDED BY THE CORE VALUES
OF SCIENCE.( ACCURACY, OBJECTIVITY, SKEPTICISM & OPEN MINDEDNESS).

APPLIED SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGISTS ARE MOTIVATED BY AFOREMENTIONED GOALS OF

SCIENCE: DESCRIPTION, PREDICTION , DETERMINING CAUSALITY , EXPLANATION &
CONTROL.

THE ULTIMATE GOAL IS TO EFFECT POSITIVE CHANGE - TO IMPROVE THE FUNCTIONING

OF PEOPLE, THE APP SOC PSYCHOLOGISTS CONDUCT RESEARCH THAT HELPS THEM TO
UNDERSTAND THE NATURE & CAUSES OF PHENOMENA THAT CONCERN THEM.
NATURE OF APPLIED SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY:

APPLIED SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY AS SCIENCE:

APP SOC PSYCHOLOGISTS ALWAYS DRAW ON KNOWLEDGE ACCUMULATED BY OTHER

RESEARCHERS WHO MAY OR MAY NOT BE INTERESTED IN DIRECT APPLICATION OF
RESEARCH FINDINGS. SO , REGARDLESS OF THE ORIGIN OF THE RESEARCH EVIDENCE ,
INTERVENTIONS THAT APP SOC PSYCHOLOGISTS ARE INVOLVED IN DEVELOPING , SUCH AS
BULLYING REDUCTION STRATEGIES WILL HAVE SOLID SCIENTIFIC BASES TO THEM.

FURTHERMORE , A S PSYCHOLOGISTS S ‘ RESPONSIBILITY DOES NOT STOP WITH CAREFUL

SCIENCE BASED DESIGN OF INTERVENTION STRATEGIES BUT RATHER EXTENDS FOR BOTH
SCIENTIFIC & ETHICAL REASONS, TO THE EVALUATION OF THE CONSEQUENCES OF THE
INTERVENTIONS.
NATURE OF APPLIED SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY:

[Link] ROLE OF PERSONAL VALUES :

AS APP SOC PSYCHOLOGISTS BECOME INVOLVED IN IMPLEMENTING CONTROL -

DEVELOPING STRATEGIES TO CHANGE PEOPLES’ LIVES - PERSONAL VALUES TAKE ON
ADDED IMPORTANCE ( MAYO Et al.(1980) & SAPSFORD Et al.( 1998).

SO , INTERVENTIONS DEVELOPED BY APP SOC PSYCHOLOGISTS ARE VALUE LADEN IN THAT

THE PSYCHOLOGISTS S’ VALUES PLAY A ROLE IN DETERMINING WHAT SOCIAL AND
PRACTICAL PROBLEMS TO ADDRESS, INCLUDING WHICH PEOPLE SHOULD BE TARGETED
FOR CHANGE AND WHAT SHOULD CONSTITUTE CHANGE. AS MAYO & La FRANCE (1980 )
NOTED , “ IMPROVING QUALITY OF LIFE MAY ENTAIL SOCIAL CHANGES ARE NOT ALWAYS TO
EVERYONE’S LIKING”
3. A PROBLEM FOCUS :
SOCIAL PROBLEMS- AT THE VERY HEART OF
APPLIED SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY IS A REGARD FOR
ADDRESSING SOCIAL PROBLEMS. MORAWSKI
(2000 ) OBSERVED THAT SINCE ITS VERY EARLY DAYS
AROUND THE TURN OF THE 20th CENTURY, SOCIAL
PSYCHOLOGY HAS HAD “ AN APPRECIATION OF ITS
IMMEDIATE CONNECTEDNESS WITH PULSING SOCIAL
CONDITIONS - CRISES , DYSFUNCTIONS , OR
TENSIONS “ . IN 2002, SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGIST PHILIP
ZIMBARDO , THEN PRESIDENT OF OF THE APA ,
AFFIRMED THE CENTRAL ROLE OF PSYCHOLOGY IN
THE SOLUTION OF MANY OF THE MOST SERIOUS
PROBLEMS FACING THE UNITED STATES. ZIMBARDO
LISTED PROBLEMS SUCH AS AIDS, SUBSTANCE
ABUSE, PREJUDICE & DISCRIMINATION ETC.
ACCORDING TO ZIMBARDO , THE SOLUTION AND
PREVENTION REQUIRES CHANGES IN ATTITUDE,
VALUES , BEHAVIOUR AND LIFESTYLES .

AIDS & HEART RELATED DISEASE CAN BE

DISCUSSED HERE.
NATURE OF APPLIED SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY:

SOCIAL PROBLEMS:

A PRIME EXAMPLE IS WHAT MANY PEOPLE REGARD AS THE MOST SERIOUS CRISIS
FACING HUMANITY - - THE CONTINUOUS DEVASTATION OF THE EARTH’S
ENVIRONMENT BY FACTORS SUCH AS ACID RAIN ,GLOBAL WARMING, OZONE LAYER
DISTINCTION , THE DEPLETION OF FOREST ETC. MANY CONCERNED SCIENTISTS
BELIEVE THAT ON OUR CURRENT COURSE, OUR PLANET WILL BE “ IRRETRIEVABLY
MUTILATED” & THE EARTH “ WILL BE NEARLY UNINHABITABLE FOR FUTURE
GENERATIONS “.

OSKAMP ( 2000) AN APP SOC PSYCHOLOGIST & PRESIDENT OF DIFFERENT DIVISIONS

OF APA , ADDRESSED THAT THE MOST CRITICAL ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS ARE
DIRECTLY TRACEABLE TO HUMAN CHOICE AND BEHAVIOUR… PARTICULARLY TO 2
CATEGORIES OF BEHAVIOUR -OVERPOPULATION & OVERCONSUMPTION.
NATURE OF APPLIED SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY:

ALAN KAZDIN ( 2008) IN HIS PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS TO APA OUTLINED A VARIETY

OF WAYS IN WHICH PSYCHOLOGY CAN CONTRIBUTE TO FOSTERING
ENVIRONMENTALLY SUSTAINABLE BEHAVIOURS THROUGH ITS PSYCHOSOCIAL
RESEARCH AND KNOWLEDGE BASE IN THE AREAS OF EDUCATION , MESSAGE
FRAMING, FEEDBACK , DECISION MAKING , THE MEDIA , INCENTIVES AND
DISINCENTIVES , THE INTEGRATION AND UNDERSTANDING OF MULTIPLE INFLUENCES,
AND SOCIAL MARKETING.

PRACTICAL PROBLEMS : APPLIED SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY ALSO DEALS WITH OTHER

UNDESIRABLE OR UNSATISFACTORY CIRCUMSTANCES THAT DO NOT QUALIFY AS
SOCIAL PROBLEMS IN THE CONVENTIONAL SENSE.
NATURE OF APPLIED SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY:

IMPROVEMENTS TO SPORTS TEAM COHESIVENESS AND COMMUNICATION ARE

CONSIDERED AS MEANS OF DEALING WITH THE PROBLEM OF POOR TEAM
PERFORMANCE , AND IN DECISION MAKING IS ADDRESSED IN THE CONTEXT OF
IMPROVING BOTH INDIVIDUAL WORK PERFORMANCE AND ORGANIZATIONAL
[Link] POOR TEAM PERFORMANCE AND INEFFECTIVE DECISION
MAKING ARE NOT TYPICALLY DEFINED SOCIAL PROBLEMS, THEY ARE CERTAINLY
SOCIAL IN THAT THEY OCCUR IN THE CONTEXTS OF GROUPS , ORGANIZATIONS AND
PEOPLE INTERACTING WITH OTHER PEOPLE . WE REFER TO SUCH UNSATISFACTORY
CIRCUMSTANCES THAT PEOPLE FACE AS PRACTICAL PROBLEMS TO DISTINGUISH
THEM FROM CONVENTIONAL SOCIAL PROBLEMS AND TO ACKNOWLEDGE THEIR
CENTRALITY TO THE FIELD OF APPLIED SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY.
NATURE OF APPLIED SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY:

PERSONAL USES:

MURPHY (1998) REFERRED TO PERSONAL USES OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY,

MEANING HOW EACH OF US CAN USE SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGICAL
KNOWLEDGE TO IMPROVE HIS OR HER OWN LIFE . FOR INSTANCE , TO
IMPROVE THE SIZE OF A TIP , A RESTAURANT SERVER MIGHT DRAW ON THE
RESEARCH ON SERVER BEHAVIOUR ( RIND Et al.) . THIS RESEARCH SHOWS THAT
HIGHER TIPS TEND TO BE GIVEN WHEN SERVERS ENGAGE IN POSITIVE VERBAL
COMMUNICATION AND ALSO ENGAGE IN POSITIVE NONVERBAL BEHAVIOUR.
NATURE OF APPLIED SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY:

4. SOCIAL INFLUENCES ON BEHAVIOUR: THE POWER OF SITUATION.

A CORE ASSUMPTION OF THE FIELD OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY IS THAT THE

BEHAVIOUR OF INDIVIDUALS IS STRONGLY INFLUENCED BY THE SOCIAL CONTEXT.
BOTH SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORY & RESEARCH FOCUS ON UNDERSTANDING
HOW AND WHY PEOPLE ARE INFLUENCED BY SOCIAL FACTORS.

RESEARCH DEMONSTRATIONS OF THE POWERFUL INFLUENCE OF SITUATIONS: SOME

OF THE CLASSIC & BEST KNOWN STUDIES , THE POWER OF SOCIAL INFLUENCE IN
THE WORK OF SHERIF (1966), WHERE COMPETITION BETWEEN CAMPERS LED TO A
MARKED DETERIORATION IN RELATIONS.
NATURE OF APPLIED SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY:

ASCH ( 1955) , IN HIS RESEARCH ON INDEPENDENCE AND CONFORMITY,

DEMONSTRATED THAT ON A VERY SIMPLE JUDGEMENT TASK, IN WHICH THE
CORRECT JUDGEMENT WAS PERFECTLY OBVIOUS, MANY PARTICIPANTS CHOSE TO
GO ALONG WITH THE ERRONEOUS JUDGEMENTS OF OTHERS RATHER THAN TO
PUBLICLY DISAGREE WITH THEM.

STANLEY MILGRAM’S OBEDIENCE RESEARCH IS PERHAPS THE MOST WIDELY

RECOGNIZED ILLUSTRATION OF POWER OF THE SITUATION.

THESE WERE SOME OF THE FAMOUS EXPERIMENTS , WHICH SHOW THE ROLE OF
SOCIAL INFLUENCES WITH REGARDS TO HUMAN BEHAVIOUR.
RECOGNIZING THE ROLE OF INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES…..

CHARACTERISTICS OR QUALITIES OF AN INDIVIDUAL AND INCLUDE THINGS SUCH AS PERSONALITY , VARIABLES ,

ATTITUDES , VALUES , ABILITIES AS WELL AS DEMOGRAPHIC VARIABLES SUCH AS GENDER, ETHNICITY , RELIGION AND
AGE.

UNDERSTANDING THE ROLE OF SITUATIONAL INFLUENCES …..

EXTERNAL ATTRIBUTIONS , INTERNAL ATTRIBUTIONS , FUNDAMENTAL ATTRIBUTION ERROR ( ROSS, 1977).

INTERVENTION STRATEGIES AS SOCIAL INFLUENCE….

SYSTEMATIC EXERCISE OF SITUATIONAL CONTROL CAN BE EMPLOYED TO IMPROVE THE FUNCTIONING OF PEOPLE.
 NATURE OF APPLIED SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY:

5. NEED FOR A BROAD APPROACH-

TO BE MORE EFFECTIVE IN ACHIEVING ITS PROMISE TO THE EXTENT THE FIELD EMBRACES
THE VALUE OF TAKING A BROAD APPROACH TO THE SOLUTION OF PROBLEMS , HERE WE
UNDERSCORE THREE INTERRELATED ASPECTS OF SUCH A BROAD APPROACH :

THE USE OF MULTIPLE RESEARCH METHODS - TO DEAL WITH THE RELEVANT PROBLEM.

THE EMPHASIS ON COLLABORATION IN RESEARCH & APPLICATION WITH

REPRESENTATIVES OF OTHER DISCIPLINES FOR EXAMPLE COG SCIENCE, COMMUNICATION
STUDIES, EDUCATION, PUBLIC HEALTH, CRIMINAL JUSTICE , SOCIOLOGY ETC.

THE RECOGNITION OF THE POTENTIAL CONTRIBUTIONS OF OTHER RELEVANT

PERSPECTIVES FOR EXAMPLE PERSONALITY, EVOLUTIONARY , CULTURE ETC.
NATURE OF APPLIED SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY:

[Link] ROLES OF APPLIED SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGISTS-

RESEARCHER

PROGRAM DESIGNER

EVALUATION RESEARCHER

CONSULTANT

ACTION RESEARCHER

ADVOCATE
NATURE OF APPLIED SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY:

7. LEVEL OF ANALYSIS IN HUMAN SOCIAL FUNCTIONING:

THE INDIVIDUAL LEVEL -PERSONALITY TRAITS, MOTIVES , AND ATTITUDES ( THE

CONCEPT OF ROLE ENTERS AT THIS LEVEL).

THE INTERPERSONAL LEVEL- INTERACTION BETWEEN 2 PEOPLE.

THE GROUP LEVEL- THE STUDY OF GROUP ATMOSPHERE.

THE INTERGROUP LEVEL-THE STUDY OF PREJUDICE & DISCRIMINATION,

THE ORGANIZATIONAL LEVEL- STRUCTURED & LESS STRUCTURED ORGANIZATION.

NATURE OF APPLIED SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY:

LEVEL OF ANALYSIS IN HUMAN SOCIAL FUNCTIONING:

THE COMMUNITY LEVEL- AS A SOCIAL SYSTEM, WHERE THEIR WORK IS COMBINED WITH
THE TRADITIONAL THEORETICAL INTEREST OF SOCIOLOGISTS AND THE PRACTICE SKILLS
OF COMMUNITY DEVELOPERS, THE RESULT IS AN EXCITING AREA OF INTERDISCIPLINARY
ACTIVITY.

THE SOCIETAL LEVEL -CONCERNED WITH SOCIAL ISSUES THAT ARE AFFECTED BY
NATIONAL POLICIES AND LAWS, CULTURAL NORMS , AND SOCIAL CHANGE, FOR EXAMPLE
ISSUES OF RACISM, SEXISM AND POVERTY.

THE INTERNATIONAL OR GLOBAL LEVEL - PARTLY PARALLEL TO INTERGROUP RELATIONS,

BUT ALSO INVOLVE THEIR UNIQUE STRUCTURES AND PROCESSES. POLITICAL SCIENTISTS
HAVE CONTRIBUTED MOST TO OUR UNDERSTANDING OF THIS LEVEL, AND THE INSIGHTS
OF THE SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGISTS HAVE ALSO BEEN VERY USEFUL.
PARTICIPATORY
RESEARCH
METHODS….AN
OVERVIEW.
PARTICIPATORY RESEARCH METHODS:AN
OVERVIEW.
WHAT IS PARTICIPATION OR PARTICIPATORY?

SOME OF THE COMMON MEANINGS OF PARTICIPATORY ARE:

1. VOLUNTARY CONTRIBUTION BY PEOPLE , BUT WITHOUT TAKING PART IN DECISION MAKING.

2. SENSITIZATION OF PEOPLE TO INCREASE THEIR RECEPTIVITY AND ABILITY TO RESPOND TO
DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS.
3. AN ACTIVE PROCESS , THAT THE PERSON OR GROUP IN QUESTION TAKES INITIATIVES AND ASSERTS
THE AUTONOMY TO DO SO.
4. FOSTERING OF A DIALOGUE BETWEEN THE LOCAL PEOPLE AND THE PROJECT PREPARATION,
IMPLEMENTATION, MONITORING AND EVALUATION STAFF IN ORDER TO OBTAIN INFORMATION ON
THE LOCAL CONTEXT AND ON SOCIAL IMPACTS.
5. VOLUNTARY INVOLVEMENT OF PEOPLE IN SELF-DETERMINED CHANGE.
6. INVOLVEMENT IN PEOPLE’S DEVELOPMENT OF THEMSELVES , THEIR LIVES AND THEIR ENVIRONMENT.
PARTICIPATION RESEARCH METHODS:AN
OVERVIEW.

THREE MAIN USES OF PARTICIPATION:

1. COSMETIC LEVEL - TO MAKE WHATEVER IS PROPOSED APPEAR GOOD.

2. CO-OPTING PRACTICE - TO MOBILIZE LOCAL LABOUR AND REDUCE COSTS.

3. EMPOWERING PROCESS - WHICH ENABLES LOCAL PEOPLE TO DO THEIR OWN

ANALYSIS, TO TAKE COMMAND , TO GAIN IN CONFIDENCE AND TO MAKE THEIR
OWN DECISIONS.
THE PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS OF
PARTICIPATORY APPROACH:

ACCORDING TO PRETTY & OTHERS 1992,

PARTICIPATORY APPROACH HAVE BEEN EXPRESSED AS FOLLOWS :

IT WILL HAVE TO BEGIN WITH THE PEOPLE WHO KNOW MOST ABOUT THEIR OWN
LIVELIHOOD SYSTEMS. IT WILL HAVE TO VALUE AND DEVELOP THEIR KNOWLEDGE
AND SKILLS , PUT INTO THEIR HANDS THE MEANS TO ACHIEVE
SELF-DEVELOPMENT. THIS WILL REQUIRE A RESHAPING OF ALL PRACTICES AND
THINKING ASSOCIATED WITH DEVELOPMENT ASSISTANCE . IN SHORT , IT WILL
REQUIRE THE ADOPTION OF A NEW PARADIGM.
PARTICIPATION RESEARCH METHODS: A
PARADIGM SHIFT .

PARTICIPATION IN DEVELOPMENT : THE NEW MAINSTREAM PARADIGM.

PARTICIPATION HAD A RENAISSANCE IN THE 1990s , WHEN A WHOLE NEW SET OF

PARTICIPATORY METHODS MUSHROOMED UNDER THE NAME PARTICIPATORY RURAL APPRAISAL (
PRA ) . BECAUSE OF THE WIDESPREAD USE OF PRA METHODS WITH VILLAGES THAT PRETTY &
OTHERS TALKED OF A PARADIGM SHIFT TO PARTICIPATORY DEVELOPMENT….. MOVING FROM
THINGS TO PEOPLE AND REVERSING POWER RELATIONS FROM UPPERS TO LOWERS.

CHANGES OR SHIFTS DURING THIS PERIOD:

MANY PUT THEIR FINGER ON THE NEED FOR A SHIFT FROM TOP-DOWN , BLUEPRINT
DEVELOPMENT PLANNING TOWARDS BOTTOM-UP , PARTICIPATORY PROCESSES LED BY ACTIVE
PARTNERS .
PARTICIPATION RESEARCH METHOD : A
PARADIGM SHIFT.

CHANGES OR SHIFTS DURING THIS PERIOD:

MANY DEVELOPMENTAL PRACTITIONERS ENGAGED IN “ COMMUNITY

PARTICIPATION” , “POPULAR PARTICIPATION”, “ PEOPLE’S PARTICIPATION” AND
SIMILAR NAMES FOR INVOLVING PARTNERS AND USERS OF DEVELOPMENT
INTERVENTION.

WHILE OTHERS WERE BUSY SHARPENING THE ARGUMENTS AGAINST

PARTICIPATION , WHICH THEY SAW AS A POPULIST, MANIPULATIVE APPROACH TO
DEVELOPMENT.
PARTICIPATION RESEARCH METHOD : AN
OVERVIEW.

CHANGES AND SHIFTS DURING THIS PERIOD:

BY THE TURN OF THE MILLENIUM PARTICIPATION, PARTNERSHIP & EMPOWERMENT HAD BECOME
CENTRAL CONCEPTS IN THE MAINSTREAM DEVELOPMENT DISCOURSE. FROM CONSTITUTING AN
ALTERNATIVE DEVELOPMENT APPROACH FOCUSING ON THE MICRO LEVEL - THE PEOPLE, THE
COMMUNITY, THE GRASSROOTS - MAINLY PROMOTED BY NGOs PARTICIPATION AND
PARTNERSHIP ARE NOW CENTRAL AT THE MACRO LEVEL IN MAINSTREAM DEVELOPMENT POLICY.

MAINSTREAMING PARTICIPATION MEANS ADOPTING THE INSTITUTIONAL REFORMS AND

INNOVATIONS NECESSARY TO ENABLE FULL AND SYSTEMATIC INCORPORATION OF PARTICIPATION
METHODOLOGIES INTO THE WORK OF THE INSTITUTION SO THAT MEANINGFUL PRIMARY
STAKEHOLDER PARTICIPATION BECOMES A REGULAR PART OF A PROJECT AND POLICY
DEVELOPMENT , IMPLEMENTATION AND EVALUATION.
PERSPECTIVES OVER TIME OF PARTICIPATION
IN DEVELOPMENT COOPERATION:

SOME HAS PERCEIVED AS A PARADIGM SHIFT AND OTHERS AS TECHNICAL FIX.

1. 1960s - SHARING OF TECHNOLOGIES TRANSFERRED FROM OUTSIDE WAS CONSIDERED PARTICIPATION.

SELF HELP GROUPS ATTRACT ATTENTION.
2. 1970s - POPULAR PARTICIPATION OF THE POOR AND EXCLUDED TO GAIN ACCESS TO AND CONTROL
OVER DEVELOPMENT RESOURCES AND BENEFITS .

THESE ARE 3 MAJOR PERSPECTIVES:

A..PEOPLE PARTICIPATE AS THE BENEFICIARIES OF DEVELOPMENT AND ARE CALLED UPON TO HELP MAKE
CONTRIBUTIONS TO INTERVENTIONS SO AS TO INCREASE THE EFFECTIVENESS.

B…PARTICIPATION IS SEEN AS A PROCESS OWNED AND CONTROLLED BY THOSE WHOM DEVELOPMENT IS

SUPPORTED TO BENEFIT.
PERSPECTIVES OVER TIME OF PARTICIPATION IN
DEVELOPMENT COOPERATION:

C…PARTICIPATION INVOLVES WORKING WITH PEOPLE RATHER THAN FOR THEM.

1980s - PROJECTS WITH PEOPLE & A RAPID RISE IN POPULARITY OF THE USE OF
PARTICIPATORY APPROACHES TO PROJECTS AND PROGRAMMES.

THERE ARE 2 SCHOOLS OF METHODOLOGY.

1. METHODS PROMOTED BY OFFICIAL AGENCIES..

2. METHODS PROMOTED BY THE PARTICIPATORY DEVELOPMENT SCHOOL.
 PERSPECTIVES OVER TIME OF PARTICIPATION IN
DEVELOPMENT COOPERATION:

1990s -PARTICIPATION IS VIEWED MORE AS A PARTNERSHIP, COORDINATION OR

OWNERSHIP OF PROGRAMMES LEADING TOWARDS PEOPLE’S CONTROL OVER THEIR
RESOURCES.

EXAMPLES FROM THE WIDE SPECTRUM OF PERSPECTIVES ON PARTICIPATIONS ARE:

1. PARTICIPATION IS A PROCESS THROUGH WHICH STAKEHOLDERS INFLUENCE AND

SHARE CONTROL OVER DEVELOPMENT INITIATIVES, DECISIONS AND RESOURCES
WHICH AFFECT THEM.
2. PARTICIPATION IS INTIMATELY BOUND UP WITH POLITICISED QUESTIONS OF
EXCLUSION , RIGHTS AND CONTROL AND WITH RELATIONS OF POWER
3. PARTICIPATION IS A DEMOCRATIC RIGHT - PERSONAL AND CULTURAL DIMENSIONS
ARE CENTRAL FOR DEMOCRATIC CHANGE.
PERSPECTIVES OVER TIME OF PARTICIPATION IN
DEVELOPMENT COOPERATION:

2000 - PRESENT - WITH THE MOVE AWAY FROM PROJECTS TOWARDS SECTOR
PROGRAMMES AND MACRO POLICY ENVIRONMENTS . PARTICIPATION ALSO MOVES
FROM THE MICRO TOWARDS THE MESO AND MACRO LEVEL. FORMS OF INVITED
PARTICIPATION MULTIPLY , EXPANDING INTO SPHERES SUCH AS POLICY REFORMS -
ONCE VIRTUALLY CLOSED OFF TO LEGITIMATE PUBLIC INVOLVEMENT.
PARTICIPATION IN THE PROJECT CYCLE IS CONTESTED BY PARTICIPATION OUTSIDE
THE PROJECT CYCLE - FOR ADVOCACY. PARTICIPATION IS BEING MAINSTREAMED
AND INSTITUTIONALISED.
MULTIPLE TERMINOLOGY FOR PARTICIPATORY
RESEARCH:

MANY NAMES HAVE BEEN COINED BY INDIVIDUAL PRACTITIONERS AND ORGANIZATIONS FOR
THE PARTICIPATORY METHODS AND ACTIVITIES IN WHICH THEY ENGAGE , THESE ARE FEW
NAMES :

COMMONLY USED TERMINOLOGY….

PRA ( PARTICIPATORY RURAL APPRAISAL )

PLA ( PARTICIPATORY LEARNING & ACTION)

PREVIOUSLY USED TERMINOLOGY…..

RRA (RAPID RURAL APPRAISAL)

RAP ( RAPID ASSESSMENT PROCEDURES )

MULTIPLE TERMINOLOGY FOR PARTICIPATORY
RESEARCH:

PAME ( PARTICIPATORY ASSESSMENT MONITORING & EDUCATION).

SWOT ( STRENGTH , WEAKNESSES , OPPORTUNITIES & THREATS ).

VIDEOS RELATED TO PLA
VIDEOS RELATED PLA
A TYPOLOGY OF PEOPLE’S PARTICIPATION IN
DEVELOPMENT:

PRETTY & OTHERS (1995) DEVELOPED A SCALE OF SEVEN STAGES BASED ON

EXPERIENCE WITH PARTICIPATION IN RURAL DEVELOPMENT PROJECTS AND
RESEARCH , EACH STAGE DESCRIBING VARYING LEVELS OF INVOLVEMENT IN
COMMUNITY. IF AT ALL DIFFERENT TYPES OF PARTICIPATION ARE MADE EXPLICIT IN
SPECIFIC STUDIES , EXERCISES OR PROGRAMMES , REFERENCE IS VERY OFTEN TO
PRETTY’S SEVEN STAGES.

1. PASSIVE PARTICIPATION.
2. PARTICIPATION IN INFORMATION GIVING.
3. PARTICIPATION IN CONSULTATION.
4. PARTICIPATION FOR MATERIAL INCENTIVES.
A TYPOLOGY OF PEOPLE’S PARTICIPATION IN
DEVELOPMENT:

[Link] PARTICIPATION.

[Link] PARTICIPATION.

[Link]-MOBILIZATION.

AFTER PRETTY & OTHERS , TO THE ABOVE TYPES OF PARTICIPATION THE FOLLOWING
CATEGORIES CAN BE ADDED .

8. CATALYSING CHANGE.

9. OPTIMUM PARTICIPATION

10. MANIPULATIONS.
A TYPOLOGY OF PEOPLE’S PARTICIPATION IN
DEVELOPMENT:

THE TYPOLOGY OF PARTICIPATION CAN FUNCTION AS A USEFUL ANALYTICAL TOOL

AS LONG AS IT IS TAKEN FOR NO MORE THAN A DESCRIPTION OF IDEAL TYPES. THE
7 STAGE SCALE OF PARTICIPATION HAS BEEN CRITICISED FOR ATTACHING VALUES
TO THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF PARTICIPATION - WITH SELF -MOBILIZATION
INDICATING THE BEST FORM OF PARTICIPATION - FORGETTING THAT IN REAL LIFE
SITUATIONS THERE ARE A NUMBER OF CONSTRAINTS ON WHO PARTICIPANTS AND
ON WHAT TYPE OF PARTICIPATION IS POSSIBLE.
CATALOGUE OF PARTICIPATORY PRA METHODS:

PRA ( PARTICIPATORY RURAL APPRAISAL ) TECHNIQUES HAVE PROVED TO BE OF MUCH USE IN

DIAGNOSING SPECIFIC PROBLEMS AND HIGHLIGHTING POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS.

CATALOGUE ( PARTICIPATORY DATA COLLECTION , DATA ANALYSES AND COMMUNICATION TECHNIQUE) OF

SELECTED PRA METHODS , TECHNIQUES & TOOLS:

[Link] OF SECONDARY SOURCES ( DOCUMENTS , STATISTICS , REPORTS , BOOKS , FILES , AERIAL

PHOTOS , MAPS).

[Link] OBSERVATIONS

[Link] INDICATORS :

A. LOCAL, NATIONAL AND GLOBAL INDICATORS.

[Link] , PERFORMANCE, OUTCOME AND PROCESS INDICATORS.

CATALOGUE OF PARTICIPATORY METHOD:

4. SEMI-STRUCTURED INTERVIEWS- KEY INDIVIDUALS , FOCUS GROUPS , CHAINS OF

INTERVIEWS, PROBING QUESTIONS OR SIMPLE QUESTIONNAIRES.

[Link] & SCORING- PLACING SOMETHING IN ORDER , SOCIAL MARKETING RESEARCH

USES RANKING AND SCORING TO DEVELOP STRATEGIES FOR CHANGING PUBLIC
BEHAVIOUR.

6. CONSTRUCTION AND ANALYSIS OF MAPS AND MODELS -PARTICIPATORY MAPPING ,

CONSTRUCTION OF MODELS , SOCIAL MAPS AND TRANSECTS.

7. DIAGRAMMING- SUMMARIZING EMPIRICAL INFORMATION , SUMMARIZING ANALYZED

INFORMATION ( TIME LINES, FORCE FIELD ANALYSIS , TREND ANALYSIS ,SEASONAL
DIAGRAMS , ACTIVITY PROFILES AND DAILY ROUTINES, VENN DIAGRAM )
CATALOGUE OF PARTICIPATORY METHOD:

8. CASE STUDIES & STORIES- NARRATIVES , LIFE HISTORIES , ORAL OR WRITTEN STORIES TOLD BY KEY PEOPLE.

9. DRAMA , GAMES & ROLE PLAY.

[Link], SCENARIOS & POSSIBLE FUTURES.

11. TRIANGULATION - LOOKING AT THINGS FROM DIFFERENT POINTS OF VIEW.

5 TYPES OF TRIANGULATION - DATA TRIANGULATION, INVESTIGATOR TRIANGULATION, DISCIPLINE TRIANGULATION,

THEORY TRIANGULATION & METHODOLOGICAL TRIANGULATION.

[Link] ANALYSIS & REPORTING- PORTABLE COMPUTERS & SOFTWARE FOR ANALYSIS OF QUANTITATIVE AS
WELL AS QUALITATIVE DATA.
CATALOGUE FOR PARTICIPATORY METHOD:

13. PARTICIPATORY PLANNING , BUDGETING, MONITORING , EVALUATION & OTHER

SELF-SURVEY - PARTICIPATION IN ALL PROJECT CYCLE ACTIVITIES.

[Link]-IT-YOURSELF - OUTSIDERS BEING TAUGHT BY INSIDERS.

CLASSIFICATION & TYPOLOGY OF PARTICIPATORY
METHODS:

NEELA MUKHERJEE (2002) IN HER BOOK PARTICIPATORY LEARNING & ACTION -WITH 100 FIELD METHODS
PRESENTS THE 100 PARTICIPATORY METHODS IN EIGHT GROUPS , BASED ON CRITERIA OF DIRECT AND
INDIRECT SUPPORT FOR FIELD PARTICIPATION AND ACCOMPANIED WITH NOTES FROM HER OWN FIELD
EXPERIENCE.

1. PERSONAL ATTRIBUTES & APPROACHES.

2. FOSTERING TEAM SPIRIT & ANALYTICAL SKILLS .
3. BUILDING RAPPORT & HOLDING CONVERSATIONS.
4. WALKING TOGETHER.
5. VISUAL PORTRAYAL- MAPPING & SKETCHING.
6. REVEALING PRIORITIES- RANKING & SCORING,
7. SEASONAL CALENDARS.
8. VISUAL DEPICTION - DIAGRAMS & FLOW CHARTS.
CLASSIFICATIONS & TYPOLOGIES OF PARTICIPATORY
METHODS:

THESE METHODS HELP US IN DOING THE BACKGROUND WORK, IN PREPARING OUR

MIND-SETS AND BODY LANGUAGE AS INDIVIDUALS AND THERE ARE THOSE WHICH
HELP US TO ORGANISE OURSELVES AND IMPROVE OUR ANALYTICAL ABILITIES AS
FACILITATORS .

VERBAL METHODS HELP IN BUILDING RAPPORT & HOLDING CONVERSATION.

VISUAL METHODS OF MAPPING AND DIAGRAMMING .

RANKING AND SCORING HELP IN REVEALING PRIORITIES AND PREFERENCES .

CLASSIFICATIONS & TYPOLOGIES OF PARTICIPATORY
METHODS:

KUMAR PROVIDES A “ READY RECKONER” FOR EACH METHOD UNDER 3 GROUPS.

THE READY RECKONER CONTAINS A BRIEF STATEMENT OF CHARACTERISTICS FOR
THE PARTICULAR METHOD, IT DISTINGUISHES BETWEEN PEOPLE’S INVOLVEMENT
AND SCOPE FOR IMPROVISATION AS HIGH , MODERATE OR LOW, AND ADVICE IS
GIVEN ON WHEN IN THE PROJECT /PROGRAMME CYCLE EACH PRA METHOD COULD
BEST BE USED.

KUMAR HAS PROVIDED A BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE THREE CATEGORIES - SPACE ,

TIME AND RELATIONAL PRA METHODS.
CLASSIFICATIONS & TYPOLOGIES OF
PARTICIPATORY METHODS:

1. SPACE -RELATED PRA METHOD : THESE METHODS ARE USEFUL FOR EXPLORING THE
SPATIAL DIMENSIONS OF PEOPLE’S REALITY. THESE METHODS DEAL WITH MAPPING AND
THE FOCUS IS ON HOW PEOPLE PERCEIVE AND RELATE TO SPACE RATHER THAN JUST TO
THE PHYSICAL ASPECTS . THE COMMONLY USED SPACE -RELATED METHODS ARE SOCIAL
MAP, RESOURCE MAP, PARTICIPATORY MODELLING METHODS , MOBILITY MAP , SERVICES
AND OPPORTUNITIES MAP AND TRANSECT.

2. TIME -RELATED METHODS : THESE METHODS ARE USED TO EXPLORE TEMPORAL

DIMENSIONS OF PEOPLE’S REALITIES . THESE METHODS ALLOW PEOPLE TO USE THEIR OWN
CONCEPT OF TIME. THE COMMONLY USED TIME-RELATED METHODS INCLUDE TIME-LINE ,
TREND ANALYSIS, HISTORICAL TRANSECT , SEASONAL DIAGRAM, DAILY ACTIVITY
SCHEDULE, PARTICIPATORY GENEALOGY AND DREAM MAP.
CLASSIFICATIONS & TYPOLOGIES OF
PARTICIPATORY METHODS :

RELATIONAL METHODS : THIS CATEGORY OF PRA METHODS INCLUDE FLOW

DIAGRAMS , NETWORK DIAGRAMS , AND PROCESS MAPS, AS ALSO WELL-BEING
RANKING METHOD, VENN DIAGRAM, PAIR-WISE RANKING METHOD ETC. THESE
METHODS HAVE BEEN COMMONLY USED TO STUDY THE RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN
VARIOUS ITEMS OR VARIOUS ASPECTS OF SAME ITEM.
PROCESS OF INTERVENTIONS:

An intervention may be defined as a strategy that is intended to influence the

behavior of people for the purpose of improving their functioning with respect to
some social or practical problem.
2 broad types of intervention:
Personal interventions - those interventions that people carry out in the course of
their daily lives , that is , when they use their knowledge of social psychology to
improve their own circumstances or those of people around them.
Programmatic interventions - which commonly are referred to simply as programs.
The term interventions and programs are used interchangeably.
PROCESS OF INTERVENTIONS:

Royse & others defined a program as “ an organized collection of activities designed to

reach certain objectives . In the context of applied social psychology , the activities that
comprise a program are directed toward addressing a social or practical problem with
the objective of preventing , reducing , or eliminating its negative consequences . In some
instances, interventions may be directed at reinforcing and strengthening a positive
situation ( e.g improving the productivity of an already effective work group ).

We can identify some interventions as Trial interventions, are those that are
implemented to determine whether the interventions , as designed , in fact have the
positive consequences . These are also known as program efficacy studies.
PROCESS OF INTERVENTIONS :

KEY TASKS IN INTERVENTION DESIGN & DELIVERY:

1. IDENTIFYING A PROBLEM … STAKEHOLDERS & NEEDS ASSESSMENT.

2. ARRIVING AT A SOLUTION…..PRECIPITATING FACTOR , PERPETUATING FACTOR,
INTERVENTION HYPOTHESES.
3. SETTING GOALS & DESIGNING THE INTERVENTION…PROGRAM ACTIVITIES,
GOALS, OBJECTIVES & THEORY OF CHANGE MODEL.
4. IMPLEMENTING THE INTERVENTION….IMPLEMENTATION.
5. EVALUATION OF INTERVENTIONS…EVALUATION IS AN INTEGRAL PART OF THE
PROCESS OF INTERVENTION DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION AND MAY BE
CONSIDERED A FIFTH STEP IN THE PROCESS.
REASON FOR EVALUATING INTERVENTIONS:

1. THE MAJOR REASON FOR EVALUATION RESEARCH IS TO TEST THE THEORETICAL

ASSUMPTIONS UNDERLYING INTERVENTION.
2. ANOTHER MAJOR REASON IS AN ETHICAL ONE . ROYSE & OTHERS LISTED 14 MAJOR
SOCIAL PROBLEMS AND SUGGESTED THAT FOR EACH PROBLEM IN THE UNITED
STATES , THERE ARE HUNDREDS - OFTEN THOUSANDS OF PROGRAMS. SO THOSE
RESPONSIBLE FOR THE IMPLEMENTATION OF PROGRAMS HAVE AN ETHICAL
RESPONSIBILITY TO DETERMINE WHETHER THEIR RECIPIENTS ARE RECEIVING THE
INTENDED BENEFITS AND WHETHER THEY ARE EXPERIENCING ANY UNINTENDED
CONSEQUENCES.

THE ETHICAL RESPONSIBILITY ALSO EXTENDS TO A READINESS TO MODIFY OR EVEN

DISCONTINUE INEFFECTIVE PROGRAMS AND TO IMPROVE ON PROGRAMS THAT
HAVE BEEN EVALUATED AS EFFECTIVE.
REASON FOR EVALUATING INTERVENTIONS:

3. THE NEED FOR FUNCTIONAL ACCOUNTABILITY.

4. PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT AS AN OVERRIDING REASON .

THE THREE REASONS FOR EVALUATION MENTIONED DOVETAIL INTO PROGRAM

DEVELOPMENT BY SEEKING TO ENSURE THAT PROGRAMS :

1. ARE BASED ON SOUND EMPIRICALLY USED THEORETICAL ASSUMPTIONS.

2. ARE CONDUCTED WITH ETHICAL SAFEGUARD.
3. HAVE A SATISFACTORY RATIO OF BENEFITS AND COSTS.
INEFFECTIVE INTERVENTIONS:

4 MAIN REASONS :

1. THEORETICAL RATIONALE .
2. NOT IMPLEMENTED AS DESIGNED.
3. REACTANCE.
4. INCOMPATIBILITY BETWEEN PROGRAM DESIGN & CULTURAL CONTEXTS .