Lamp Types – Light Source Technology

When selecting lighting fixtures, a major consideration should be the light bulb types or
light source technology that will be best for you. Each kind of fixture has its own unique
operating characteristics. These characteristics include efficacy, which can be measured
in lumens per watt; color accuracy, which is measured in CRI; lamp (bulb) life, which is
measured in hours; and lumen depreciation, which measures lumens lost over the
lifetime of a fixture. Your decision will impact the quality of light, the maintenance
requirements of the system, and the cost of operating the lighting fixtures.
In the vast majority of cases, LED light sources are much more efficient, cost-effective,
and powerful than other traditional light sources. Read on to see why.
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It should be noted that, statistically, the cost of energy to operate a lighting fixture is at
least 90% of the total cost of the system. Before you make a decision on the type of
light technology you deploy, it is important to know how many foot candles are required
in the area you are lighting. Then, determine what light source can achieve your foot
candle, CRI, Kelvin, and maintenance requirements while using the fewest watts.

Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs)

 Extremely efficient
 High life (50,000+ hours, sometimes as high as 400,000+ hours)
 Good color rendition and the ability to customize specific CRIs
 Dimmable: 0-10v dimming, step dimming, bi-level dimming
 Customizable beam angles, optics, color temperatures, nanometer ranges, and more
 Often the most affordable light source over time
LED technology has become so efficient, malleable, and affordable, it is now the go-to
solution for almost every modern-day lighting project. Each new generation of LEDs has
become better (in every way) than the the last. Today’s LEDs last 10+ times longer
than compact fluorescents and far longer than typical incandescent bulbs. LEDs can be
found in luminaires (light fixtures) and even retrofit lamps (bulbs).

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor diode that radiates light

(electroluminescence) when current passes through it in the forward direction. Electrons
move through a semiconductor and “fall into” other energy levels during their transit of
the P-N junction. When these electrons transition to a lower energy level, they give off a
photon of light. This photon may be in the infrared region or just about anywhere across
the visible spectrum up to and into ultraviolet.
Because of the low power requirement for LEDs, using solar panels is sometimes more
practical and less expensive than an electric line or generator. Unlike incandescent
bulbs and CFLs, which send light in all directions, LEDs are considered directional, which
means they aim their light in one direction. Of course, this “one direction” is extremely
easy to manipulate, and adding more LEDs to a board or lamp makes omnidirectional
light possible. LEDs waste none of their waste light (energy) on areas you don’t need
illuminated; unlike HID or lamp-based technologies, they send almost no light back into
the fixture housing. All light goes exactly where you need it.
Since LEDs do not have filaments, they are not damaged under circumstances when a
regular incandescent bulb would be broken. Because they are solid (LEDs fall into the
category of solid-state lighting), LED bulbs hold up well to jarring and bumping. These
bulbs do not cause heat build-up; LEDs produce 3.4 or fewer BTUs/hour, compared to 85
 for incandescent bulbs. They are unbelievably customizeable, too—Access Fixtures has
LED fixtures in a wide range of Kelvin temperatures, CRI’s, distribution patterns, housing
styles, etc. There is very little an LED cannot do. Lastly, no mercury is used in the
manufacturing of LEDs, improving their value in all locations, especially in food-service
applications or high-traffic areas.

Incandescent
 Inexpensive
 Good in cold climates
 Low efficiency
 Short life of 750 to 1,000 hours
 Often replaced by CFL
Incandescent lamps have commonly been used in residential lighting. A flow of
electrical current heats a wire or filament to incandescence (the point at which light is
emitted). The short life and low efficacy (measured as lumens per watt, or LPW) of this
source limits its use to residential and decorative commercial lighting. The efficacy
varies with wattage and filament type, but it generally ranges from 15 to 25 lumens per
watt for general service lamps. An incandescent source produces light in a well-
accepted, warm tone. It is more convenient because it can be run directly on line
current and doesn’t require a ballast. Incandescent lights can be dimmed using
relatively simple equipment and are available in different bulb sizes and shapes to add
a decorative touch to an area.
To save energy, most fixtures that use incandescent bulbs are retrofitted with screw-in
compact fluorescent bulbs or replaced with LED fixtures.

Linear Fluorescent, Plug-In Fluorescent, and Compact Fluorescent (CFL)

 Uses 65–75% less energy than incandescent
 Relatively inexpensive
 Lifetime of 10,000 to 20,000 hours
 Superior CRI
Customers with warehouses, light manufacturing facilities, and similar facilities are
replacing old-style probe start metal halide and mercury vapor fixtures with linear
fluorescent and LED high bay fixtures. These technologies use a fraction of the power of
the old probe-start metal halides. Additionally, when fitted with a programmed-start
ballast, the fixtures can have an occupancy sensor and the on/off feature will not reduce
the operating life of the lamps. In virtually all cases, the switch reduces energy
expenses by thousands of dollars a year and will eventually pay for cost of the fixtures.
Fluorescent lamps produce light by activating phosphors on the inner surface of the
bulb via ultraviolet energy generated by a mercury arc. Because of the characteristics
of a gaseous arc, a ballast is needed to start and operate a fluorescent lamp. The
advantages of this kind of light include improved efficacy and longer life over
incandescent lamps. Efficacy for fluorescent lamps ranges from 50 to 100 lumens per
watt. Their low surface brightness and heat generation make them ideal for offices and
schools where thermal and visual comfort is considered important.
 The disadvantages of fluorescent lamps include: their large size relative to the amount
of light produced, the difficulty of controlling their light, and their lack of outdoor
effectiveness (their lumen output plummets in lower ambient temperatures).

High-Pressure Sodium (HPS)

 High lumen output
 Decent life of 24,000 hours
 Low color rendition (CRI)
 Operates reliably in wide range of climates
 Low Kelvin puts out yellow-orange glow
In the 1970s, increasing energy costs forced us to put new attention on the efficiency of
our lighting fixtures. Enter HPS lamps, which were actually developed in the 1960s. With
efficacies ranging from 80 to 140 lumens per watt, these lamps provide about seven
times as much light per watt as incandescent and about twice as much as some
mercury or fluorescent. An HPS lamp also has a good rated life of 24,000+ hrs. It is a
very reliable efficient source of light and for years was the de facto standard for street
lighting and elsewhere.
Before LEDs, the major objection to HPS was its yellowish color and low color rendition.
In fact, the yellowish color is both an objection and feature. HPS is ideal for outdoor
applications such as street lights, wall packs and bollards, because it is long-lasting and
efficient. The warmer light also has less of an impact on the environment in the same
way as whiter light does. Now, wildlife-friendly LEDs are even more effective, but HPS
had previously been the best solution available. Many cities, some states, and even
countries required HPS-colored light to lessen the impact on the environment.
A sodium-vapor lamp is a gas-discharge lamp that uses sodium in an excited state to
produce light at a characteristic wavelength near 589 nm.
Two varieties of such lamps exist: low pressure and high pressure. Low-pressure sodium lamps
are highly efficient electrical light sources, but their yellow light restricts applications to outdoor
lighting, such as street lamps, where they are widely used.[1] High-pressure sodium lamps emit a
broader spectrum of light than the low-pressure lamps, but they still have poorer color rendering than
other types of lamps.[2] Low-pressure sodium lamps only give monochromatic yellow light and so
inhibit color vision at night.
Single ended self-starting lamps are insulated with a mica disc and contained in a borosilicate
glass gas discharge tube (arc tube) and a metal cap.[3][4] They include the sodium-vapor lamp that is
the gas-discharge lamp in street lighting.[5][6][3][4]
The low-pressure sodium arc discharge lamp was first made practical around 1920 owing to the
development of a type of glass that could resist the corrosive effects of sodium vapor. These
operated at pressures of less than 1 Pa and produced a near monochromatic light spectrum around
the sodium emission lines at 589.0 and 589.56 nanometres wavelength. The yellow light produced
by these limited the range of applications to those where color vision was not required. [7]
First LPS commercial lamps were marketed since 1932, conceived respectively both
in Germany and Nederland by Osram and Philips. Mainly used for mains roads, but theses lamp are
mainly used for the cold and wet climate areas such as Belgium, Nederland, Luxembourg,
Germany, Ireland, UK, Scandinavia or even Canada.
Research into high-pressure sodium lamps occurred in both the United Kingdom and the United
States. Increasing the pressure of the sodium vapor broadened the sodium emission spectrum so
that the light produced had more energy emitted at wavelengths above and below the 589 nm
region. The quartz material used in mercury discharge lamps was corroded by high pressure sodium
vapor. A laboratory demonstration of a high pressure lamp was carried out in 1959. The
development by General Electric of a sintered aluminum oxide material (with magnesium oxide
added to improve light transmission) was an important step in construction of a commercial lamp.
The material was available in the form of tubing by 1962, but additional techniques were required to
seal the tubes and add the necessary electrodes—the material could not be fused like quartz. The
end caps of the arc tube would get as hot as 800 degrees C in operation, then cool to room
temperature when the lamp was turned off, so the electrode terminations and arc tube seal had to
tolerate repeated temperature cycles. This problem was solved by Michael Arendash [8] at the GE
Nela Park plant. The first commercial high-pressure sodium lamps were available in 1965 from
companies in the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Netherlands; at introduction a 400 watt
lamp would produce around 100 lumens per watt.[7][9]
Single-crystal artificial sapphire tubes were also manufactured and used for HPS lamps in the early
1970s, with a slight improvement in efficacy, but production costs were higher than for polycrystalline
alumina tubes.[7]
Low-pressure sodium

A low-pressure sodium lamp running at full brightness

An unlit 35 W LPS/SOX lamp

Warm-up phases of a LPS lamp. The faint pink light of the Penning mixture is gradually replaced by the

bright monochromatic orange light of the metallic sodium vapor. A

running 35 W LPS/SOX lampSpectrum of a low-pressure sodium lamp. The intense yellow band is the
atomic sodium D-line emission, comprising about 90% of the visible light emission for this lamp
[Link] Honda Fits under low-pressure sodium lamps. Both appear black, even though the car on the
left is bright red, while the car on the right is actually black.
Low-pressure sodium (LPS) lamps have a borosilicate glass gas discharge tube (arc tube)
containing solid sodium and a small amount of neon and argon gas in a Penning mixture to start the
gas discharge. The discharge tube may be linear (SLI lamp)[10] or U-shaped. When the lamp is first
started, it emits a dim red/pink light to warm the sodium metal; within a few minutes as the sodium
metal vaporizes, the emission becomes the common bright yellow. These lamps produce a
virtually monochromatic light averaging a 589.3 nm wavelength (actually two dominant spectral lines
very close together at 589.0 and 589.6 nm). The colors of objects illuminated by only this narrow
bandwidth are difficult to distinguish.
LPS lamps have an outer glass vacuum envelope around the inner discharge tube for thermal
insulation, which improves their efficiency. Earlier LPS lamps had a detachable dewar jacket (SO
lamps).[11] Lamps with a permanent vacuum envelope (SOI lamps) were developed to improve
thermal insulation.[12] Further improvement was attained by coating the glass envelope with an
infrared reflecting layer of indium tin oxide, resulting in SOX lamps.[13]
LPS lamps are among the most efficient electrical light sources when measured in photopic lighting
conditions, producing above 100 and up to 206 lm/W.[14] This high efficiency is partly due to the light
emitted being at a wavelength near the peak sensitivity of the human eye. They are used mainly for
outdoor lighting (such as street lights and security lighting) where faithful color rendition is not
important.
LPS lamps are similar to fluorescent lamps in that they are a low-intensity light source with a linear
lamp shape. They do not exhibit a bright arc as do High-intensity discharge (HID) lamps; they emit a
softer luminous glow, resulting in less glare. Unlike HID lamps, during a voltage dip low-pressure
sodium lamps return to full brightness rapidly. LPS lamps are available with power ratings from 10 to
180 W; longer lamp lengths can, however, suffer design and engineering problems.
Modern LPS lamps have a service life of about 18,000 hours and do not decline in lumen output with
age, though they do increase in energy consumption by about 10% towards end of life. This property
contrasts with mercury vapor HID lamps, which become dimmer towards the end of life to the point
of being ineffective, while consuming undiminished electrical power.
In 2017 Philips Lighting, the last manufacturer of LPS lamps, announced they were discontinuing
production of the lamps due to falling demand.[15] Initially, production was due to be phased out in the
course of 2020, but this date was brought forward and the last lamps were produced at the Hamilton
factory on December 31, 2019.[16]
Light pollution considerations
For locations where light pollution is a consideration, such as near astronomical observatories or sea
turtle nesting beaches, low-pressure sodium is preferred (as formerly in San Jose,
California and Flagstaff, Arizona).[17][18] Such lamps emit light on just two dominant spectral lines (with
other much weaker lines), and therefore have the least spectral interference with astronomical
observation.[19] (Now that production of LPS lamps has ceased, consideration is being given into the
use of narrow-band amber LEDs, which are on a similar color spectrum to LPS.) The yellow color of
low-pressure sodium lamps also leads to the least visual sky glow, due primarily to the Purkinje
shift of dark-adapted human vision, causing the eye to be relatively insensitive to the yellow light
scattered at low luminance levels in the clear atmosphere.[20][21] One consequence of widespread
public lighting is that on cloudy nights, cities with enough lighting are illuminated by light reflected off
the clouds. Where sodium vapor lights are the source of urban illumination, the night sky is tinged
with orange.
Film special effects
Sodium vapor process (occasionally referred to as yellow screen) is a film technique that relies on
narrowband characteristics of LPS lamp. Color negative film is typically not sensitive to the yellow
light from an LPS lamp, but special black-and-white film is able to record it. Using a special camera,
scenes are recorded on two spools simultaneously, one with actors (or other foreground objects)
and another that becomes a mask for later combination with different background. This technique
originally yielded results superior to blue-screen technology, and was used in years 1956 to 1990,
mostly by Disney Studios. Notable examples of films using this technique include Alfred
Hitchcock's The Birds and the Disney films Mary Poppins and Bedknobs and Broomsticks. Later
advancements in blue- and green-screen techniques and computer imagery closed that gap, leaving
SVP economically impractical.[22]
High-pressure sodium

High-pressure sodium lamp in operation

Spectrum of high-pressure sodium lamp. The yellow-red band on

the left is the atomic sodium D-line emission; the turquoise line is a sodium line that is otherwise quite
weak in a low pressure discharge, but becomes intense in a high-pressure discharge. Most of the other

green, blue, and violet lines arise from mercury. Diagram showing

the spectral output of a typical high-pressure sodium (HPS) lamp

Office building illuminated by high-pressure sodium lamps High-
pressure sodium lamp Philips SON-T Master 600 W
High-pressure sodium (HPS) lamps have been widely used in industrial lighting, especially in large
manufacturing facilities, and are commonly used as plant grow lights. They contain mercury.[23] They
have also been widely used for outdoor area lighting, such as on roadways, parking lots, and
security areas. Understanding the change in human color vision sensitivity
from photopic to mesopic and scotopic is essential for proper planning when designing lighting for
roadways.[24]
High-pressure sodium lamps are quite efficient—about 100 lumens per watt, when measured
for photopic lighting conditions. Some higher-power lamps (e.g. 600 watt) have efficacies of about
150 lumens per watt.
Since the high-pressure sodium arc is extremely chemically reactive, the arc tube is typically made
of translucent aluminum oxide. This construction led the General Electric Company to use the
tradename "Lucalox" for its line of high-pressure sodium lamps.
Xenon at a low pressure is used as a "starter gas" in the HPS lamp. It has the lowest thermal
conductivity and lowest ionization potential of all the stable noble gases. As a noble gas, it does not
interfere with the chemical reactions occurring in the operating lamp. The low thermal conductivity
minimizes thermal losses in the lamp while in the operating state, and the low ionization potential
causes the breakdown voltage of the gas to be relatively low in the cold state, which allows the lamp
to be easily started.
"White" high pressure sodium lamp
A variation of the high-pressure sodium introduced in 1986, the White HPS has a higher pressure
than the typical HPS lamp, producing a color temperature of around 2700 kelvins with a color
rendering index (CRI) of about 85, greatly resembling the color of an incandescent light. [25] These
lamps are often used indoors in cafes and restaurants for aesthetic effect. However, white HPS
lamps have higher cost, shorter service lives, and lower light efficiency, and so they cannot compete
with HPS at this time.
Theory of operation

Diagram of a high-pressure sodium lamp

An amalgam of metallic sodium and mercury lies at the coolest part of the lamp and provides the
sodium and mercury vapor that is needed to draw an arc. The temperature of the amalgam is
determined to a great extent by lamp power. The higher the lamp power, the higher will be the
amalgam temperature. The higher the temperature of the amalgam, the higher will be the mercury
and sodium vapor pressures in the lamp and the higher will be the terminal voltage. As the
temperature rises, the constant current and increasing voltage consumes increasing energy until the
operating level of power is reached. For a given voltage, there are generally three modes of
operation:

1. The lamp is extinguished and no current flows.

2. The lamp is operating with liquid amalgam in the tube.
3. The lamp is operating with all amalgam evaporated.
The first and last states are stable, because the lamp resistance is weakly related to the voltage, but
the second state is unstable. Any anomalous increase in current will cause an increase in power,
causing an increase in amalgam temperature, which will cause a decrease in resistance, which will
cause a further increase in current. This will create a runaway effect, and the lamp will jump to the
high-current state (#3). Because actual lamps are not designed to handle this much power, this
would result in catastrophic failure. Similarly, an anomalous drop in current will drive the lamp to
extinction. It is the second state that is the desired operating state of the lamp, because a slow loss
of the amalgam over time from a reservoir will have less effect on the characteristics of the lamp
than a fully evaporated amalgam. The result is an average lamp life in excess of 20,000 hours.
In practical use, the lamp is powered by an AC voltage source in series with an inductive "ballast" in
order to supply a nearly constant current to the lamp, rather than a constant voltage, thus assuring
stable operation. The ballast is usually inductive rather than simply being resistive to minimize
energy waste from resistance losses. Because the lamp effectively extinguishes at each zero-current
point in the AC cycle, the inductive ballast assists in the reignition by providing a voltage spike at the
zero-current point.
The light from the lamp consists of atomic emission lines of mercury and sodium, but is dominated
by the sodium D-line emission. This line is extremely pressure (resonance) broadened and is
also self-reversed because of absorption in the cooler outer layers of the arc, giving the lamp its
improved color rendering characteristics. In addition, the red wing of the D-line emission is further
pressure broadened by the Van der Waals forces from the mercury atoms in the arc.
At end of life, high-pressure sodium (HPS) lamps exhibit a phenomenon known as cycling, caused
by a loss of sodium in the arc. Sodium is a highly reactive element and is lost in a reaction with the
aluminum oxide of the arc tube. The products are sodium oxide and aluminum:
6 Na + Al2O3 → 3 Na2O + 2 Al
As a result, these lamps can be started at a relatively low voltage, but, as they heat up during
operation, the internal gas pressure within the arc tube rises, and more and more voltage is
required to maintain the arc discharge. As a lamp gets older, the maintaining voltage for the arc
eventually rises to exceed the maximum voltage output by the electrical ballast. As the lamp
heats to this point, the arc fails, and the lamp goes out. Eventually, with the arc extinguished, the
lamp cools down again, the gas pressure in the arc tube is reduced, and the ballast can once
again cause the arc to strike. The effect of this is that the lamp glows for a while and then goes
out, typically starting at a pure or bluish white then moving to a red-orange before going out.
More sophisticated ignitor designs detect cycling and give up attempting to start the lamp after a
few cycles, as the repeated high-voltage ignitions needed to restart the arc reduce the lifetime of
the ballast or the ignitor, depending on the ignitor configuration. If power is removed and
reapplied, the ballast will make a new series of startup attempts.
LPS lamp failure does not result in cycling; rather, the lamp will simply not strike or will maintain
the dull red glow of the start-up phase. In another failure mode, a tiny puncture of the arc tube
leaks some of the sodium vapor into the outer vacuum bulb. The sodium condenses and creates
a mirror on the outer glass, partially obscuring the arc tube. The lamp often continues operating
normally, but much of the light generated is obscured by the sodium coating, providing no
illumination.
Types of Lighting: High-intensity Discharge
High-intensity discharge (HID) lamps are similar to fluorescents in that an arc is
generated between two electrodes. The arc in an HID source is shorter, yet it generates
much more light, heat, and pressure within the arc tube.

Below are HID sources, listed in increasing order of efficacy (lumens per watt):

 mercury vapor
 metal halide
 high-pressure sodium
 low-pressure sodium
Like fluorescent lights, HID also requires ballasts, and they take a few seconds to
produce light when first turned on because the ballast needs time to establish the
electric arc.

Originally developed for outdoor and industrial applications, HID lamps are now used in
office, retail, and other indoor applications. Their color rendering characteristics have
been improved, and lower wattage have recently become available (as low as 18 watts).

Advantages and Disadvantages of HID lamps

Advantages of HID Disadvantages of HID lamps

lamps

 Relatively long life  HID lamps require time to warm up. It varies from lamp to lamp,
(5,000 to 24,000+ but the average warm-up time is two to six minutes.
hrs)  HID lamps have a "restrike" time, meaning a momentary
 Relatively high interruption of current or a voltage drop too low to maintain the
lumen output per arc will extinguish the lamp.
watt
 Relatively small in
physical size

When HID lamps reach "restrike" time, the gasses inside the lamp are too hot to ionize,
and time is needed for the gasses to cool and pressure to drop before the arc will
restrike. This process of restriking takes between 5 and 15 minutes, depending on
which HID source is being used. Therefore, good applications of HID lamps are areas
where lamps are not switched on and off intermittently.
Types of High-Intensity Discharge Lamps
Mercury vapor lamps
Mercury vapor lamps are widely used to light both indoor and outdoor areas such as
gymnasiums, factories, department stores, banks, highways, parks, and sports fields.

Mercury vapor lamps consist of an inner arc discharge tube constructed of quartz
surrounded by an outer hard borosilicate glass envelope. Shortwave UV, a result of the
decay of mercury atom electrons from an excited to a stable state, is readily
transmitted through the inner quartz tube but is virtually blocked by the outer glass
envelope during normal operation.

Mercury Vapor Lamp

Metal Halide lamps

Metal Halide lamps are similar to mercury vapor lamps but use metal halide additives
inside the arc tube along with the mercury and argon. These additives enable the lamp
to produce more visible light per watt with improved color rendition.

Wattages range from 32 to 2,000, offering a wide range of indoor and outdoor
applications. The efficacy of metal halide lamps ranges from 50 to 115 lumens per watt,
typically about double that of mercury vapor.

Because of the good color rendition and high lumen output, these lamps are good for
sports arenas and stadiums. Indoor uses include large auditoriums and convention halls.
These lamps are sometimes used for general outdoor lighting, such as parking facilities,
but a high-pressure sodium system is typically a better choice.
 Advantages and Disadvantages of Metal Halide Lamps

Advantages of Disadvantages of Metal Halide Lamps

Metal Halide
Lamps

 High efficiency  The rated life of metal halide lamps is shorter than other HID sources;
 Good color lower-wattage lamps last less than 7,500 hours while high-wattage
rendering lamps last an average of 15,000 to 20,000 hours.

 Wide range of  The color may vary from lamp to lamp and may shift over the life of
wattages the lamp and during dimming.

High-Pressure Sodium (HPS) Lamp

The high-pressure sodium (HPS) lamp is widely used for outdoor and industrial
applications. Its higher efficacy makes it a better choice than metal halide for these
applications, especially when good color rendering is not a priority.

HPS lamps differ from mercury and metal-halide lamps in that they do not contain
starting electrodes; the ballast circuit includes a high-voltage electronic starter. The arc
tube is made of a ceramic material which can withstand temperatures up to 2,372°F. It
is filled with xenon to help start the arc, as well as a sodium-mercury gas mixture.

The efficacy of the HPS lamp is very high (as much as 140 lumens per watt.) For
example, a 400-watt high pressure sodium lamp produces 50,000 initial lumens. The
same wattage metal halide lamp produces 40,000 initial lumens, and the 400-watt
mercury vapor lamp produces only 21,000 initially.

Sodium, the major element used, produces the "golden" color that is characteristic of
HPS lamps. Although HPS lamps are not generally recommended for applications where
color rendering is critical, HPS color rendering properties are being improved. Some HPS
lamps are now available in "deluxe" and "white" colors that provide higher color
temperature and improved color rendition. The efficacy of low-wattage "white" HPS
lamps is lower than that of metal halide lamps (lumens per watt of low-wattage metal
halide is 75-85, while white HPS is 50-60 LPW).
High-intensity discharge lamp

15-kilowatt xenon short-arc lamp used in IMAX projectors.

High-intensity discharge (HID) lamps include several types of electrical

lamps: mercury-vapor, metal halide (also HQI), high-pressure sodium, low-
pressure sodium and less common, xenon short-arc lamps. The light-
producing element of these lamp types is a well-stabilized arc discharge
contained within a refractory envelope (arc tube) with wall loading in excess
of 3 watts-per-square-centimeter (W/cm²) (19.4 watts per square inch
(W/in.²)).