Data Communication &

Computer Networks
Prof . Gadug Sudhamsu
Computer Science and Engineering
A Communications Model
 1-1 DATA COMMUNICATIONS

The term telecommunication means communication at a

distance. The word data refers to information presented in
whatever form is agreed upon by the parties creating and
using the data. Data communications are the exchange of
data between two devices via some form of transmission
medium such as a wire cable.

Topics discussed in this section:

▪ Components of a data communications system
▪ Data Flow
What is data communication?
•Not to be confused with telecommunication—
•Any process that permits the passage from a sender to one or more
receivers of information of any nature, delivered in any easy to use
form by any electromagnetic system.
•Data communication-
•Defined as a subset of telecommunication involving the transmission
of data to and from computers and components of computer
systems.
• More specifically data communication is transmitted via mediums such as wires,
coaxial cables, fiber optics, or radiated electromagnetic waves such as broadcast
radio, infrared light, microwaves, and satellites.
 FOUR FUNDAMENTAL CHARACTERISTICS

• Delivery :-The system must deliver data to the correct destination

• Accuracy :- The system must deliver the data accurately
• Timeliness :- The system must deliver the data in a timely manner.(Real Time
Tramission)
• Jitter :- Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time.

6 Ref: Cloud Computing: Theory and Practice. By Dan C. Marinescu

Figure 1.1 Components of a data communication system
Components
1. Message: the information (data) to be communicated
– Consist of text, numbers, pictures, audio, or video
2. Sender: the device that sends the data message
– Computer, workstation, telephone handset, video camera,
…
3. Receiver: the device that receives the message
– Computer, workstation, telephone handset, television, ….
Components
4. Medium: The physical path by which a message travels
from sender to receiver
– twisted pair, coaxial cable, fiber-optic, radio waves
Components
5. Protocol: a set of rules that govern data communications
– An agreement between the communicating devices
– Devices may be connected but not communicating (no protocol)
– Arabic speaker with Japanese speaker
Elements of a Protocol
• Syntax
• Structure or format of the data
• Indicates how to read the bits - field delineation
• Semantics
• Interprets the meaning of the bits
• Knows which fields define what action
• Timing
• When data should be sent and what
• Speed at which data should be sent or speed at which it is being received.
Data / Message Representation

Text

Numbers

Images

Audio

Video
Data Flow
•Communication between two devices can be:
• Simplex
• Half-Duplex

• Full-Duplex
Data Flow
• Simplex (one way street)
• The communication is unidirectional
• Only one device on a link can transmit; the other can only receive

• Use the entire capacity of the channel to send data

• Example: Keyboards, Monitors

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Data Flow
• Half-Duplex (one-lane with two-directional traffic)
• Each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same
time
• When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice
versa
• The entire capacity of a channel is taken over by the transmitting
device
• Example: Walkie-talkies

Dat
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Dat
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Data Flow
• Full-Duplex (Duplex) (two-way street)
• Both stations can transmit and receive at same time
• Signals going in either direction sharing the capacity of the link

• Sharing can occur in two ways:

• Link has two physically separate transmission paths
• One for sending and the other for receiving
• The capacity of the channel is divided between signals travelling in both
directions
• Example: Telephone network

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 1-2 NETWORKS

A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes)

connected by communication links. A node can be a
computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending
and/or receiving data generated by other nodes on the
network. A link can be a cable, air, optical fiber, or any
medium which can transport a signal carrying
information.
Topics discussed in this section:
▪ Network Criteria
▪ Physical Structures
▪ Categories of Networks

1.16
Networks
• Network Criteria
–Network must meet a certain number of criteria
–The most important of the network criterions are:
–Performance
–Reliability
–Security
Networks
• Performance
• Transit time: A mount of time required for a message to travel
from one device to another
• Response time: Elapsed time between an inquiry and a
response
Networks
• Performance
• Performance depends on :
1- Number of users: large number slow response time.
2- Type of transmission medium: fiber-optic cabling faster than others
cables.
3- Capabilities of the connected hardware: affect both the speed and
capacity of transmission.
4- Efficiency of the software: process data at the sender and receiver
and intermediate affects network performance.
Networks
• Reliability
• Reliability is measured by:
1. Frequency of failure
2. Recovery time of a network after a failure
3. Network’s robustness in a catastrophe: protect by good back
up network system
Networks
• Security
• Protecting data from unauthorized access
• Protecting data from damage and development
• Implementing policies and procedures for recovery from
breaches and data losses (Recovery plan)
Networks
• Physical Structures:
•Type of connection
•Network: Two or more devices connected through links
•Link: Communication pathway that transfers data from one device
two another
•Two devices must be connected in some way to the same link at the
same time. Two possible types:
•Point-to-Point
•Multipoint
Networks
• Point-to-Point
• Dedicated link between two devices
•Entire capacity of the link is reserved for transmission between those
two devices
•Use an actual length of wire or cable
Networks
• Point-to-Point
• Other options, such as microwave or satellite is possible
•Example: Television remote control
Networks
• Multipoint (multidrop)
• More than two devices share a single link
•Capacity is shared
•Channel is shared either spatially or temporally
• Spatially shared: if devices use link at same time
• Timeshare: if users must take turns
Networks
• Physical Topology
• The way a network is laid out physically
•Two or more links form a topology
•The topology of a network is the geometric representation
of the relationship of all the links and linking devices
(nodes) to one another.
•Four topologies : Mesh, Star, Bus, and Ring
Physical Topology
Physical Topology
• Mesh
•Every link is dedicated point-to-point link
•The term dedicated means that the link carries traffic only between
the two devices it connects
Physical Topology
• Mesh
•To link n devices fully connected mesh has:
n ( n - 1) / 2 physical channels (Full-Duplex)

•Every Device on the network must have

n - 1 ports
Physical Topology
• Mesh
•Example:
6 devices in mesh has links: n(n-1) / 2

number of links = 6 (6-1)/2 = 15

number of ports per device = n – 1 = 6 –1 = 5

Physical Topology
• Mesh
•Advantages
•Each connection carry its own data load (no traffic problems)
•A mesh topology is robust
•Privacy or security
•Fault identification and fault isolation
Physical Topology
• Mesh:
•Disadvantages
•Big amount of cabling
•Big number of I/O ports
•Installation and reconnection are difficult
•Sheer bulk of the wiring can be greater than the available space
•Hardware connect to each I/O could be expensive

•Mesh topology is implemented in a limited fashion; e.g., as

backbone of hybrid network
Physical Topology
• Star:
•Dedicated point-to-point to a central controller (Hub)
•No direct traffic between devices
•The control acts as an exchange
Physical Topology
• Star
• Advantages
•Less expensive than mesh
(1 Link + 1 port per device)
•Easy to install and reconfigure
•Less cabling
•Additions, moves, and deletions required one connection
•Robustness : one fail does not affect others
•Easy fault identification and fault isolation
Physical Topology
• Star
•Disadvantages
•Dependency of the whole topology on one single point (hub)
•More cabling than other topologies ( ring or bus)

•Used in LAN
Physical Topology
• Bus
•It is multipoint
•One long cable acts as a backbone
•Used in the design of early LANS, and Ethernet LANs
Physical Topology
• Bus
• Nodes connect to cable by drop lines and taps
• Signal travels along the backbone and some of its energy is transformed to heat
• Limit of number of taps and the distance between taps
Physical Topology
• Bus
•Advantages
•Ease of installation
•Less cables than mesh, star topologies
•Disadvantages
•Difficult reconnection and fault isolation ( limit of taps)
•Adding new device requires modification of backbone
•Fault or break stops all transmission
•The damaged area reflects signals back in the direction of the
origin, creating noise in both directions
Physical Topology
• Ring
•Each device has dedicated point-to-point connection with only the two
devices on either side of it
•A signal is passed along the ring in one direction from device to device
until it reaches its destination
•Each devices incorporates a Repeater
Physical Topology
• Ring
•Advantages
•Easy of install and reconfigure
•Connect to immediate neighbors
•Move two connections for any moving (Add/Delete)
•Easy of fault isolation
•Disadvantage
•Unidirectional
•One broken device can disable the entire network. This weakness
can be solved by using a dual ring or a switch capable of closing off
the break
Physical Topology
• Hybrid Topology
•Example: having a main star topology with each branch connecting
several stations in a bus topology
Categories of Networks
• Network Category depends on its size
• Two primary categories
•LAN: Covers area < 2miles
•WAN: Can be worldwide
•MAN: Between LAN & WAN, span 10s of miles
Local Area Network (LAN)
•Privately owned
•Links devices in the same office, building, or campus
•Simple LAN: 2 PCs & 1 printer in home or office
•Size is limited to a few kilometers
•Allow resources to be shared (hardware, software, or data)
Local Area Network (LAN)

An isolated LAN connecting 12 computers to a hub in a closet

Local Area Network (LAN)
•LAN is distinguished by:
•Size (# users of OS, or licensing restrictions)
•Transmission medium (only one type)
•Topology (bus, ring, star)

•Data Rates (speed):

•Early: 4 to 16 Mbps
•Today: 100 to 1000 Mbps
Wide Area Networks (WAN)
•Provides long-distance transmission of data over large
geographic areas (country, continent, world)
Wide Area Networks (WAN)
•Switched WAN
•Backbone of the Internet

•Dialup line point-to-point WAN

•Leased line from a telephone company
Wide Area Networks (WAN)
Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN)
•Size between LAN and WAN
•Inside a town or a city
•Example: the part of the telephone company network that
can provide a high-speed DSL to the customer
Interconnection of Networks: Internetworks
•Two or more networks connected together
Standards
• Importance
• Provide a “fixed” way for hardware and/or software systems (different companies)
to communicate
• Help promote competition and decrease the price
• Types of Standards
• Formal standards
• Developed by an industry or government standards-making body
• De-facto standards
• These are the standard s that have not been approved by any Organization , but
have been adopted as Standards because of it's widespread use
• Emerge in the marketplace and widely used
• De jure Standards
• Ethernet standard defined by the IEEE 802.3 specification. This standard provides
the formal protocols and guidelines for wired LANs, ensuring compatibility and
interoperability among networking devices

Copyright 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Inc

Standardization Processes
• Specification
•Developing the nomenclature and identifying the problems to be addressed
• Identification of choices
•Identifying solutions to the problems and choose the “optimum” solution
• Acceptance
•Defining the solution, getting it recognized by industry so that a uniform
solution is accepted

Copyright 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Inc

Major Standards Bodies
• ISO (International Organization for Standardization)
• Technical recommendations for data communication interfaces
• Composed of each country’s national standards orgs.
• Based in Geneva, Switzerland ([Link])
• ITU-T (International Telecommunications Union –Telecom Group
• Technical recommendations about telephone, telegraph and data communications
interfaces
• Composed of representatives from each country in UN
• Based in Geneva, Switzerland ([Link])

Copyright 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Inc

Major Standards Bodies (Cont.)
• ANSI (American National Standards Institute)
• Coordinating organization for US (not a standards- making body)
• [Link]
• IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers)
• Professional society; also develops mostly LAN standards
• [Link]
• IETF (Internet Engineering Task Force)
• Develops Internet standards
• No official membership (anyone welcomes)
• [Link]

Copyright 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Inc

Protocol “Layers”
Networks are complex!
• many “pieces”:
• hosts
• routers
• links of various media
• applications
• protocols
• hardware, software
 LAYERED TASKS
• We use the concept of layers in our daily
life. As an example, let us consider two
friends who communicate through
postal mail. The process of sending a
letter to a friend would be complex if
there were no services available from
the post office.

56 Ref: Cloud Computing: Theory and Practice. By Dan C. Marinescu

Organization of air travel
ticket (purchase) ticket (complain)

baggage (check) baggage (claim)

gates (load) gates (unload)

runway takeoff runway landing

airplane routing airplane routing

airplane routing

• a series of steps
Layering of airline functionality

ticket (purchase) ticket (complain) ticket

baggage (check) baggage (claim baggage

gates (load) gates (unload) gate

runway (takeoff) runway (land) takeoff/landing

airplane routing airplane routing airplane routing airplane routing airplane routing

departure intermediate air-traffic arrival

airport control centers airport

Layers: each layer implements a service

• via its own internal-layer actions
• relying on services provided by layer below
 Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Model

• International standard organization (ISO) established a committee in 1977 to develop an

architecture for computer communication.
• Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model is the result of this effort.
• In 1984, the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model was approved as an
international standard for communications architecture.
• Term “open” denotes the ability to connect any two systems which conform to the
reference model and associated standards.
 OSI Reference Model
• The OSI model is now considered the primary Architectural model for inter-computer
communications.
• The OSI model describes how information or data makes its way from application
programmes through a network medium (such as wire) to another application
programme located on another network.
• The OSI reference model divides the problem of moving information between
computers over a network medium into SEVEN smaller and more manageable problems
.
• This separation into smaller more manageable functions is known as layering.
OSI Reference Model: 7 Layers
Application Layer (1/2)
Applications – The Interface Between Human and Data Networks
Application Layer (2/2)
• Application layer interacts with application programs and is the highest level of OSI model.
• Application layer contains management functions to support distributed applications.
• Examples of application layer are applications such as file transfer, electronic mail, remote login
etc.
• Makes sure that the other party is identified and can be reached
• If appropriate, authenticates either the message sender or receiver or both
• Makes sure that necessary communication resources exist (for example, is there a modem in
the sender's computer?)
• Ensures agreement at both ends about error recovery procedures, data integrity, and privacy
• Determines protocol and data syntax rules at the application level
Presentation Layer
• Presentation layer defines the format in which the data is to be
exchanged between the two communicating entities.
• Also handles data compression and data encryption
(cryptography).
 Session Layer
• Session layer provides mechanism for controlling the dialogue between the two end systems. It
defines how to start, control and end conversations (called sessions) between applications.
• This layer requests for a logical connection to be established on an end-user’s request.
• Any necessary log-on or password validation is also handled by this layer.
• Session layer is also responsible for terminating the connection.
Functions that are present in session layer :-
Session establishment, maintenance & termination.
Synchronization
Dialog controller
Some examples of session layer protocols
NFS ( NETWORK FILE SYSTEM)
SQL (STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE)
RPC ( REMOTE PROCEDURE CALL)
Transport Layer (1/2)
• Purpose of this layer is to provide a reliable mechanism for the
exchange of data between two processes in different computers.
• Ensures that the data units are delivered error free.
• Ensures that data units are delivered in sequence.
• Ensures that there is no loss or duplication of data units.
• Provides connectionless or connection oriented service.
• Provides for the connection management.
• Multiplex multiple connection over a single channel.
Transport Layer (2/2)
Network Layer (1/3)
• Implements routing of frames (packets) through the network.
• Defines the most optimum path the packet should take from the
source to the destination
• Defines logical addressing so that any endpoint can be identified.
• Handles congestion in the network.
• Facilitates interconnection between heterogeneous networks
(Internetworking).
• The network layer also defines how to fragment a packet into smaller
packets to accommodate different media.
Network Layer (2/3)
Network Layer (3/3)
Data Link Layer (1/6 )
• Data link layer attempts to provide reliable communication over the
physical layer interface.
• Breaks the outgoing data into frames and reassemble the received
frames.
• Create and detect frame boundaries.
• Handle errors by implementing an acknowledgement and
retransmission scheme.
• Implement flow control.
• Supports points-to-point as well as broadcast communication.
• Supports simplex, half-duplex or full-duplex communication.
Data Link Layer (2/ 6)
Data Link Layer (3/6)
Data Link Layer (4/ 6)
Data Link Layer (5/ 6)
Data Link Layer (6/ 6)
Physical Layer
• Provides physical interface for transmission of information.
• Defines protocol by which bits are passed from one system to another
on a physical communication medium.
• Covers all - mechanical, electrical, functional and procedural -
aspects for physical communication.
• Such characteristics as voltage levels, timing of voltage changes,
physical data rates, maximum transmission distances, physical
connectors, and other similar attributes are defined by physical layer
specifications.
OSI & TCP/IP Models
 Addressing
• Physical address :- MAC address (48 bit)
• Logical address :- IP address (32 bit)
• Port address :- ftp,telnet, port address
• Specific address :- url address

80 Ref: Cloud Computing: Theory and Practice. By Dan C. Marinescu