Hand Turned Synthesis: A One Chip Exploration of

CMOS Electronics

Timothy Tate Andrew R. Brown John R. Ferguson Daniel Della-Bosca

Queensland Conservatorium Interactive Media Lab Queensland Conservatorium Queensland College of Art
Griffith University Griffith University Griffith University and Design
140 Grey Street, 226 Grey Street, 140 Grey Street, Griffith University
South Brisbane, 4101, South Brisbane, 4101, South Brisbane, 4101, 226 Grey Street,
Australia Australia Australia South Brisbane, 4101,
[Link]@[Link] [Link]@griffith [Link]@griffith Australia
.[Link] .[Link] [Link]-bosca@griffith
.[Link]
ABSTRACT synthesizer community and our main objective is to outline a robust
We discuss and give a concise overview of the historical synthesizer tool kit that brings together various approaches, with the
practices and approaches to utilising budget-friendly electronic goal of only using one CMOS chip. One of our designs, T.H.E.M,
components as a foundation for constructing simple sound discussed in Section 4, foregrounds the idiosyncratic behaviours
making circuits. Building on the work of Lunetta, Collins and that CMOS technology exhibits when supplied a varying voltage
Wilson we focus specifically on the use of a 40106 CMOS supply.
integrated circuit (IC). Our research goal is to provide a tool kit
of circuits for common synthesis elements based around the use Our goal is to discuss and explore the potential of simple
of a single 40106 IC that may be of use to those involved in hardware designs and their ability to be used in installation and
sound installations and frugal instrument design as well as performance situations by musicians without the need for
practitioners working within accessibility and assumed knowledge or a specific performance practice. Whilst
workshop/pedagogical scenarios. The authors demonstrate the CMOS based synthesizer designs can range from elaborate
application of the tool kit in their own projects, such as a large-scale professional systems to portable and handmade
monophonic synthesizer as well as several hand cranked devices, it is clear that devices such as Waisvisz’s Cracklebox,
sculptures that are powered and ‘played’ by the interaction BugBrand’s Board Weevils, Bastl+Casper Electronics’ Bit Ranger
between the user and the hand crank. Overall, we gather a broad and even Buchla's Thunder offer novel and engaging interfaces that
range of relevant information that is difficult to find in one place celebrate interactive performance. The connection between sound
and provide a practical tool kit that is pitched at an introductory generating processes and musical interfaces can be observed across the
level and describe how this is incorporated into the design of range of these synthesizer designs, providing a rich and complex
interactive electronic instruments. We also attempt to highlight context for this project, without the need for interfacing with other
fundamental electronics and synthesis principles while devices or software, which can so often be the case for NIME’s.
embracing terminology common to both electronics and
synthesizer communities. CMOS circuits have been celebrated and explored extensively in the
maker and DIY electronics community. As such the breadth of
information associated with simple synthesizer CMOS circuits
Author Keywords can be, at times, overwhelming and confusing. The tool kit,
Synthesizer, Integrated Circuits, Lunetta, CMOS, DIY, Electronic presented in Section 3, aims to offer a clear usage of such circuits
Music, History, Sound Art, Installation, Accessibility, Low Cost, contextualised by established designs and approaches though a
Sonic Devices, Community Music, Public Art, Ensemble concise overview of historical approaches and practices related
to CMOS music making circuits. In addition, we foreground
CCS Concepts synthesizer building blocks that can inspire musically creative
outcomes yet are reliable and simple to build, and represent frequently
•Social and professional topics → History of hardware; •Applied used synthesis elements such as voltage-controlled oscillators (VCOs),
computing → Sound and music computing; •Human-centred voltage-controlled filters (VCFs), and voltage-controlled amplifiers
computing → Interaction design; (VCAs). Lastly, we demonstrate how they can be combined to create
a basic monophonic subtractive synthesizer and are applied in work by
the authors.
1. INTRODUCTION
This article presents designs of simple, yet novel, sound-making 2. BACKGROUND
and processing circuits foregrounding low cost and accessible Over many decades a wide variety of electronic components have
hardware synthesizer designs using a Complementary Metal been used for sound synthesis, including the 4000-series chips, a
Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS) integrated circuit (IC) or ‘chip’. CMOS logic family of integrated circuits. When these logic chips are
Simple CMOS circuits have long been used by the DIY utilised as simple circuits clocked at audio rates, they offer a wide
range of audio synthesis possibilities. One of the most used chips is the
40106 Hex Schmitt Trigger, which is popular among circuit bending
Licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution
and DIY electronics enthusiasts and has been at the core of texts such
4.0 International License (CC BY 4.0). Copyright as Nicolas Collins’ book Handmade Electronic Music [5].
remains with the author(s).
NIME’24, September 4–6, 2024, Utrecht, The Netherlands
2.1 The 40106 Six Oscillators on a Chip, Guaranteed to Work” and presents circuits
The 40106 is popular within the maker and DIY electronics for obtaining triangle and square waves from the 40106 IC [5]. Collins
community due to its affordance to be configured as an audio oscillator takes a methodical approach to experimenting with a variety of CMOS
with just two additional components and a power source. This is chips and passive components to create volume and tone controls,
achieved by adding a capacitor between ground and the input of the Theremins, and cross-modulated oscillators. The book is often used as
Schmitt trigger then creating a feedback loop with a resistor across the a guide by musicians new to DIY electronics.
input and output of the same Schmitt trigger, as shown in Figure 1.
This configuration creates a feedback loop in the circuit, connecting In his book subtitled A Modern Approach to Old-School Sound
output to input, resulting in a rapid opening and closing of the output Synthesis, Ray Wilson [25] offers a comprehensive overview and
of the Schmitt trigger, in turn producing an oscillating waveform. The tutorial on DIY electronic sound synthesis. The book includes a variety
40106-based circuit can be configured in various ways to produce of practical projects and detailed explanations of electronic theories.
different waveforms and to provide other useful applications beyond While the book delves into topics beyond the basic components
astable oscillation, as documented by Wilson [25], Williams [22], and emphasised by Lunetta or Collins – it utilises bipolar power supplies
Collins [5]. Given the six individual Schmitt triggers on the 40106, up common in Eurorack synthesizers. Collins states that “one of the
to six independent waveforms can be generated at once. With an biggest problems for non-engineers making audio circuits was power
individual CD40106 chip costing well less than USD$1, this provides supplies — they were difficult to build, and always seemed to
the basis for quite inexpensive and approachable sound synthesis. contribute excessive hum and other noise” [32]. The 4000 series
CMOS IC’s accept a wide range of voltage and can be easily powered
In the work reported here, we continue a long tradition of using the by a 9-volt battery. Whilst Wilson’s book uses such power supplies, it
40106, combined with passive electronic components, to generate has an excellent appendix focused on CMOS logic chips, covering the
analogue signals. operation and potential applications of many of the 4000 series ICs,
including the 40106, with circuits for generating common waveforms.
2.2 Early Approaches to CMOS Synthesis Wilson’s website, Music From Outer Space [26], is an invaluable
In the 1970s Stanley Lunetta created CMOS-based sound sculptures, resource for designs and education, often used within the DIY
such as the Moozack Machine: “a sculpture that produces, mixes and electronics community, featuring design such as The Weird Sound
processes electronic sound” built around digital logic circuits [1]. Generator (WSG) that utilises the 40106 as a noise instrument,
Lunetta’s website details further circuits, dubbed Moozack Machines incorporating cross modulation as a fundamental design.
[12], which make use of 4000-series CMOS logic family IC’s. These
sculptures and circuits are an important starting point for our projects, 2.3 A (Brief) Overview of the Variety of
considering that Lunetta’s work, by design, thrived on a simple and Approaches to CMOS Synthesis
inclusive approach, often using a wide variety of low-cost CMOS IC’s Since the early discussion on forums about Lunettas, many other
to make sound. Lunetta’s SOUND GUN is an example of such an approaches to CMOS synthesis have been shared online, often in
approach, utilising CMOS IC’s for sound generation coupled with a connection to modular synthesis practices. However, the breadth of
simple mercury tilt switch for gestural control [13], [28]. Howard information that emerges on a forum can be confusing. To consolidate
Moscovitz said of Lunetta’s practice: resources, guides such as Introduction to the Lunetta-style CMOS
Synths by Sergio Gonzalez [9] have been created. Additionally, Jon
“Stan taught us about the joy of the surplus electronics stores, and he Dent provides a useful overview of CMOS chips and their uses in
was into building really simple digital circuits that clocked at audio Lunetta-style circuits [10]. Casper Electronics (Peter Edwards) has
rates. For example, you make simple oscillators using digital inverters contributed a series of tutorial videos, connected to the OMSynth [33],
with RC networks. If you uses [sic] NAND gates instead of inverters, a circuit development tool, which explain how to make oscillators with
you get some sort of neat modulation when you hook up another the 40106 and other CMOS chips and a ISD1820 (Voice recorder).
oscillator to one of the free gate inputs. Run the osc into a modulo-N Edwards later released the BITRANGER with Bastl Instruments,
converter and you can get different pitches based on the code you put based upon CMOS logic chips [34]. His archived website [35] is a
on the four inputs.” [16] useful resource for circuitbenders and DIY enthusiasts. Elliot
Williams' Logic Noise series on Hackaday [22] contributes to the
Moscovitz also mentions that those who were taught by Lunetta gave discussion around the 40106, building on Collins' approach by
the name Lunettas to these simple circuits, which often used “one buffering the output of a 40106 with another CMOS chip, and
‘naked’ IC, … hooked up to ban[a]na jacks so you can make patches” configuring the 40106 to produce sawtooth and pulse waves along
[16]. Online forums such as [Link] and [Link] with discussion about cross-modulating oscillators. Williams' Logic
are popular spaces for sharing Lunetta circuits and approaches, with Noise series eventually moves away from the 40106 to add more 4000
[Link] featuring a dedicated subforum filled with lively series CMOS chips and op-amps, but the discussion of an AR
discussions [29]. One notable example from this community is Tom generator and a voltage-controlled oscillator are noteworthy for their
Bugs (BugBrand), a forum member who presented schematics early frugality and utility [23]. It is no surprise that Williams’ work has
on and went on to create his Board Weevils, that “stem from the same resulted in a CMOS synthesizer called The Klangorium, which ties
core circuit using CMOS 4000 chips to make simple squarewaves together all the building blocks of the series [24].
which are quasi-ringmodulated together” [30]. Bugbrand’s Board
Weevil’s incorporate touch, photocells and power starving1. Lunetta's Other approaches to this style of CMOS synthesizer abound, such as
unique approach to CMOS synthesis may have been especially the Moduletta which demonstrates the almost endless creative utility
relevant in the 1970s when the cost of early hardware synthesizers was of 4000 series; the 40106 is not used as an oscillator [36] [19]. Moritz
high and software-based alternatives were limited. Klein’s YouTube channel [37] features a series of videos on building
simple synthesizer modules from the ground up, for the popular
Collins echoes Stanley Lunetta's approach to making music with 4000 Eurorack modular format. Klein has teamed up with Erica Synths to
series chips, describing the 40106 IC as “The World's Simplest Circuit: make each module available for purchase under the brand name mki x

1
Tom Bugs notes that power-starving causes connected synthesis circuits to “inter-modulate in very strange ways, slightly tameable but
with a life of their own. The range of sounds it helps to create out of the simple heart of these circuits is quite amazing.”[31]
[Link]. Each module is accompanied with detailed construction
guides which give clear explanation of the function and purpose of
CMOS chips, op-amps and discrete components (transistors, resistors,
diodes, etc...) used in each module [38]. Whilst his approach is frugal
at times, it is concerned with interfacing with Eurorack control voltage
and input/output standards and, as such, his circuit designs quickly
depart from single power supplies to using bipolar power (+-12v)
making them more complex than the aspirations we have for
simplicity and approachability in this article. Lastly, Peter Blasser
(Ciat-Lonbarde) combines the spirit of Lunetta's CMOS instruments
with a more complex, and slightly chaotic, approach by printing design
layouts on paper into which components are paced and their legs
soldered together to form a circuit [5]. Figure 1. Schmitt trigger oscillation using a resistor and
capacitor when powered at 9 volts.
3. BUILDING A SYNTHESIZER WITH A Oscillators are a fundamental element in an electronic synthesis
system, frequently being used as Voltage Controlled Oscillators
40106: A TOOL KIT (VCO), Low Frequency Oscillators (LFO), or as a modulation source.
In the sections that follow we discuss a range of circuit schematics and Commonly they are found as discrete modules within a synthesizer
outline our approach to creating building blocks towards a tool kit for system interconnected either by patching or hardwiring. Electronic
a simple electronic synthesizer based on the CMOS 40106 integrated oscillators are often complex in design and usually involve multiple
circuit and other components, contextualised by existing CMOS components and require a stable voltage supply. Conversely using a
synthesis practices. For anyone unfamiliar with circuit schematics, 40106 allows us to create 4 discrete waveforms with a handful of
Sparkfun have a useful overview [18]. components.
The varying approaches to CMOS synthesise outlined in Section 2.3 Figure 2 displays a schematic of a circuit using a 40106 and passive
often incorporate multiple 4000 series chips and Operational components that generate various waveforms which can be visualised
Amplifiers (Op Amps). This is in contrast to our approach in this by an LED2. A feedback resistor creates oscillation in the Schmitt
article, which foregrounds the use of a single 40106 chip for analogue trigger by connecting its output to its input. The feedback resistor sets
synthesis. In the third edition of Handmade Electronic Music, Collins the oscillation frequency, and its range is determined by a capacitor.
discusses the Op Amp stating that “We built our first oscillator ... with The left image generates square or triangle waves, the right image
just four parts … [t]o make the same with an op amp would double generates saw or pulse waves by adding a diode.
that count, square your changes of wiring error and make it 10 times
more likely you’d walk away from the book then and there.” [5].

Echoing Collins' approach, we misuse a 40106, which is inherently a

digital chip, for various analogue tasks, however to aid simplicity and
approachability we avoid including any further IC’s. Whilst this
contrast’s Lunetta’s approach of using multiple CMOS chips, we still
emphasise the economy of the materials used, and Collin’s
approachability and simplicity, instead employing transistors for
voltage buffering and vactrols (opto-isolator see Section 3.1.2) for
voltage control of circuit elements. Lastly, we strive for a sustainable
and material minimisation in our designs acknowledging the ongoing
discussions around sustainability in the design and building of new
musical tools within the DIY and music making communities (e.g.
[14], [21]). Our circuits strive to achieve utility whilst economy and
ease of use is at the forefront of their design.

The schematics and design files of the circuits presented in this Figure 2. LEDs driven by low frequency square, triangle,
article are available on the authors’ GitHub [27]. sawtooth, and pulse waveshapes.
When varying the input voltage, the 40106 exhibits interesting
behaviours. A higher voltage will result in a lower rate of oscillation.
3.1 40106 Waveshapes This is because each Schmitt trigger is a dual comparator that can
The 40106 easily produces square and triangle waves, depending on detect an input signal relative to upper and lower threshold values. The
where the output to the circuit is connected. Oscillation frequency, and output retains its value until the input changes sufficiently to cross a
thus pitch range (when oscillating at audio rates) is set by the values of threshold and trigger a change to the opposite state (high or low). This
the resistor and capacitor as shown in Figure 2. When the supply dual threshold action is called hysteresis implying that it can hold its
voltage is varied, this also affects the oscillation frequency. historical state. Typically, the hysteresis thresholds of a 40106 Schmitt
trigger range across 1/3 of the supply voltage, making it versatile and
useful as an impromptu gate [25]. As voltage increases, so do the upper
and lower thresholds, and they decrease as voltage increases. Since
oscillation is determined by the charging and discharging of a
capacitor, at a lower voltage it takes less time for the charging and

2
A 9-volt battery can be used when testing these circuits. The
40106. Pin 14 is connected to +, pin 7 is connected to -
discharging cycle to take place due to the constrained upper and lower sawtooth waveforms. The transistor is configured as an emitter
thresholds; this cycle takes longer at higher voltages due to the follower allowing it to drive greater loads than the 40106 alone. This
expanded thresholds; this is contrary to the notion that higher voltage goes beyond Collins’ suggestion of using a single capacitor [5]. The
results in faster oscillations/speed e.g. a motor. Our circuits are signals obtained from the input of the Schmitt trigger (triangle and
designed to work at 9V, but other voltages between 5V – 12V are sawtooth) are at a lower level, so a voltage divider is inserted after the
acceptable. signals from the output side (square and pulse) to reduce their level so
both sides match.
3.1.1 Using a transistor as a buffer to maintain
integrity of triangle and saw waveshapes
The schematic shown in Figure 3 is suitable for generating audio
signals. A transistor is used to maintain the integrity of triangle and

Figure 3. Audio rate square, pulse, and buffered triangle and pulse wave (with voltage divider for level control).

3.1.2 Vactrols to control resistance with light level

A vactrol is a common name for an opto-isolator, it transfers
electrical signals between two isolated circuits by using light.
We use them for applying voltage control using resistors, such
as potentiometers. A vactrol can be made from an LED and the
LDR put in close proximity and shielded from external light. The
LED brightness varies the LDR’s resistance. Collins [5] provides
an overview of making and using vactrols.

3.2 Synthesis Building Blocks

This section introduces electrical circuits that act as modules for
various synthesis functions, including: VCO, VCF, AR, VCA,
and an Audio Amplifier. The modules for the building blocks of Figure 4. A vactrol consists of a single or more LED/s and
the frugal synthesizer. Each module can be combined, or LDR encased to exclude external light.
elaborated upon, to provide different utilities if desired.

Figure 5. Low Frequency Oscillator circuit (LFO).

3.2.1 Voltage controlled oscillators 3.2.2 Low frequency oscillators
A variety of methods are available to achieve voltage control of LFOs resemble VCOs but have slower frequency ranges. They
the oscillators. The schematic in Figure 6 uses a vactrol, are commonly used to modulate other modules, e.g., adding
however, a diode [2] or a transistor [3, 16] can be used. vibrato to VCO pitch. The circuit shown in Error! Reference
source not found. outputs square and triangle/sawtooth waves,
which can produce different modulation effects. The triangle
waveshape is governed by a potentiometer (shape) which also
acts as a quasi-level control and gives more musical possibilities
for modulation. The waveshape becomes more like a sawtooth
(ramp) wave when the RAMP_WAVE switch is closed.
3.2.3 Low pass filters
Filters are used to change tone colour by excluding some parts
of the frequency range. The filter shown in Figure 7 consists of
a capacitor and resistor and can be made active through the
inclusion of a transistor detailed by Don Lancaster [11]. The
same method is commonly employed by Doepfer and shows the
possibility of control by vactrols [7]. Another possibility for a
single transistor VC filter design is the PAIA 2720 DIY
Synthesizer [17]. The design in Figure 7 allows a double vactrol
(two LDR’s and one LED) to control the cut-off frequency of the
filter. By using the vactrol we can make this voltage controlled.

Figure 6. A voltage-controlled oscillator circuit (VCO).

Figure 7. Low Pass Filter circuit (LPF).

 Figure 8. Attack-Release envelope generator (ENV).

3.2.4 Attack-Release envelope generator

Figure 8 is a classic Attack-Release envelope generator. These
are useful for controlling a sound’s amplitude or pitch contour.
A gate signal or button is used to generate a voltage envelope
that can be fed to a VCO, VCF or VCA. This design is quite
common. Erica Synths and Klein [8] and Wilson [25] explain its
function. The overall attack-release duration can be changed by
modifying the capacitor value.
3.2.5 Voltage controlled amplifier
The VCA adjusts the level of a signal, it is a simple circuit
utilising a vactrol and a resistor to form a voltage divider. Collins Figure 10. LM386 Amplifier circuit.
details the construction and use of these [5]. The capacitor
removes any DC offset present in the signal.
3.3 Combining Building Blocks: Building a
Synthesizer
Having outlined our synthesis tool kit above, we turn our
attention to a simple monophonic subtractive synthesizer. We
have designed these building blocks, so they connect one to
another in (almost) any combination. There are many creative
ways of connecting modules to form a synthesis architecture.
This flexibility is the basis for the popularity of Eurorack
modular synthesizers. Our modules are less flexible, due to their
simplicity, but their somewhat idiosyncratic nature can also lead
to interesting results.

Figure 9. VCA circuit.

3.2.6 Output amplifier
The output amplifier uses the widely available LM386 chip. It
shares its power (VDC & GND) with the other modules. If a
varying voltage is supplied, then the amplifier will vary its
volume in relation the voltage level supplied.
Figure 11. Synthesis Modules, Configuration and
Connection.
Figure 11 details the creative use of six building blocks to create of designing for a single sided PCB board, which was hand
a monophonic subtractive synthesizer consisting of a VCO, two etched, drilled and populated by the authors. It is noted that a
LFO’s, VCF, VCA and an ENV building block, but patched in a revised layout would be less idiosyncratic and follow more
creative way. Each ‘module’ is able to patched to one another standard synthesizer layout conventions.
with a 3.5mm connector. The layout is such due to the constraints

Figure 12. Monophonic Subtractive Synth with 3.5mm connectors for patching.
4. USING THE TOOL KIT WITH A electrical enclosures that arose from the imaginations of Nikola Tesla
and Raymond Lowey.
HAND CRANKED POWER SOURCE AND
POWER SUPPLY
The 4000 series CMOS ICs display idiosyncratic behaviours
when varying the power supply voltage. These behaviours can
be exploited; power starving is a common technique that exploits
this and is used extensively by Tom Bug’s in his Board Weevils.
Hand cranking a dynamo produces a voltage output that is often
unstable, since its rotation, when operated by a person, is not at
a constant speed. Products such as hand cranked portable torches
often exhibit this relationship through a changing of light output
that is relational to the hand cranking speed or pattern.

The Handmade Electric Machines (T.H.E.M.) [6] is an interactive

public art installation project developed by the authors in 2023 with a
specific focus on using the 40106 Hex Schmidt Trigger, configured as
an audio oscillator. T.H.E.M. features six different sound and light-
making instruments in three human-sized enclosures, all based on a
gestural interface of hand cranks and a dynamo as a power source, that
can be played together or separately. Each instrument incorporates
40106 synthesis designs based upon those presented in Section 3, but
configured in differing ways so each instrument has a unique sonic
character. T.H.E.M. was presented as part of Curiocity Festival and the
World Science Festival Brisbane, where 24,000 public interactions
occurred over 12 days (according to Southbank Corporation data), the
outdoor installation withstood the temperature and humidity extremes
that are common in Queensland, Australia, and even survived being
‘fed’ several ice-creams.

Figure 14. Public interactions with T.H.E.M. (Credit: World

Science Festival, Brisbane).
Our experience with projects using the 40106 combined with
information shared by the community through publications and
projects come together in the design of synthesis building blocks
in the form of electronic circuits for the construction of frugal
synthesizers. Alongside T.H.E.M we also ran 8 sold out
workshops called Make a Circuit SING! An Introduction to
Handmade Electronic Music”, for 96 participants with varying
skill levels and ranging from children to adults. Two public
performances with professional musicians, alongside T.H.E.M.
took place as part of the exhibition.

Figure 13. Inside T.H.E.M. A portable version of T.H.E.M was also developed. Figure 15
shows this portable hand cranked patchable mono synth that
T.H.E.M. builds on the long history of hand cranked musical
utilises the building blocks and circuit design, discussed in
instruments, including mechanical ones like the hurdy-gurdy,
Section 3.3. It is a portable version of one of the voices in
music boxes, street organs, and Italian Futururist Luigi Russolo’s
T.H.E.M; its patchable interface is shown in Figure 12. Since
Intonarumori noise machines. Hand cranking has played a role
many of the patches involve oscillation and voltage sources,
in contemporary interfaces such as the Wintergartan marble
which vary over time, the varying of voltage creates interesting
machine [15], the Humming Box [4] and the Generator Organ
patterns and pitch variations in relation to the pattern and speed
[39].
of crank rotation.
The T.H.E.M. project aimed to explore the production of electronic
sound and light in a highly physical manner. The 40106 is a key
component in the project, chosen for its reliability including the ability
to withstand harsh weather conditions often experienced in sub-
tropical environments. As the devices are hand-powered, they aim to
reinforce the personal connection with electricity production at a time
when societal methods of energy generation are in transition. The use
of a hand crank for gestural interaction is effective because of the
immediate nature of the audio feedback. The installation is designed
for participants of all ages and abilities, with devices arranged at
various heights. The visual aesthetic is inspired by early 20th century
 and highlighted the sonic affordances of low-cost electronic
devices and their potential in installation, performance and
workshop/pedagogical contexts.
6. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We acknowledge the support from various Griffith University
elements; The Queensland Conservatorium, Creative Arts
Research Institute, Queensland College of Art, and the
Interactive Media Lab.
7. ETHICAL STANDARDS
This paper is written as part of Timothy Tate’s PhD studies at
the Queensland Conservatorium, Griffith University. John R.
Ferguson and Andrew R. Brown are Timothy’s PhD supervisors.
PhD funding is being received from the Australian Government
Research Training Program Scholarship.

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Figure 15. Portable and patchable monophonic subtractive
editor, Nilendra Gurusinghe. University of California
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