Linda Cooper Foreman and Alber t B. Bennett, Jr.

COURSE III
Math Alive!
Visual Mathematics, Course III
by Linda Cooper Foreman and Albert B. Bennett Jr.

Math Alive! Visual Mathematics, Course III is preceded by:

Visual Mathematics, Course I
Visual Mathematics, Course II

Copyright ©1998 The Math Learning Center, PO Box 12929, Salem, Oregon 97309.
Tel. 503 370-8130. All rights reserved.

Produced for digital distribution November 2016.

The Math Learning Center grants permission to classroom teachers to reproduce blackline
masters and student activity pages (separate documents) in appropriate quantities for their
classroom use.

This project was supported, in part, by the National Science Foundation

Grant ESI-9452851. Opinions expressed are those of the authors and not
necessarily those of the Foundation.

Prepared for publication on Macintosh Desktop Publishing system.

Printed in the United States of America.

VMCIII DIGITAL2016

ISBN 1-886131-45-7
Acknowledgments
Contributing authors from Math and the Mind’s Eye Luise Wilkinson and Lou Saponas for their laughter,
project: Gene Maier, L. Ted Nelson, Mike Arcidiacono, enthusiasm, commitment, and encouragement every day
Mike Shaughnessy, and David Fielker. in the classroom – for seeing possibilities in ideas that
didn't work and for celebrating the ones that did.
Book Design: Jonathan Maier and Susan Schlichting
The many teachers and administrators who field tested Math
Cover Design: Susan Schlichting Alive! Course III, allowed us to observe its implementation in
their schools, and/or permitted us to explore new ideas with
Layout and Graphics: Ingrid Williams
their students. In particular, we thank:
Illustrator: Travis Waage
Colorado
Editorial Consultant: Mike Shaughnessy Aurora; Eaglecrest High School – Larry Linnen

Production Editor: Vaunie Maier Louisiana

Sulphur; Maplewood Middle School – Darlene Morris
Materials Production: Tom Schussman and Don Rasmussen
Lake Charles; Calcasieu Parish Schools, Middle School
Math Consultant – Judy Vail
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WE GIVE SPECIAL THANKS TO: Missouri
Gene Maier and Ted Nelson, whose vision, inspiration, Webster Groves; Webster Groves School District,
and support have enabled the development of Math Alive! Mathematics Coordinator K-8 – Cathy Fueglein
They have been our mentors in the truest sense of the
word. Ohio
Centerville; Tower Heights Middle School – Bonnie
Ingrid Williams, for her unflagging patience with our Thompson
revisions and her commitment to creating a friendly layout
Oregon
and clear graphics.
Eugene; Roosevelt Middle School – Audrey Manning
We also wish to acknowledge the many children, parents, Gresham; Clear Creek Middle School – Nicole Miller
teachers, and school administrators that have been involved
with the field testing of Math Alive! Course III. In particular, Hood River; Hood River Middle School – Trudy Mitchell
we wish to thank the following:
Portland
These young mathematicians (and their parents) at Athey WinterHave Alternative School – Paul Griffith
Creek Middle School and West Linn High School in West Binnsmead Middle School – Heather Nelson
Linn, Oregon, for their willingness to explore, challenge,
Welches; Welches Elementary School – Pam Alexander
struggle with, and celebrate new ideas. They have touched
our hearts, stirred our minds, and enabled our growth as West Linn, Wilsonville
writers. Athey Creek Middle School – Kim Noah, Elaine Jones
Lindsay Adams, Katie Alfson, Joel Bergman, Morgan Inza R. Wood Middle School – Maureen Callahan
Briney, Matthew Eppelsheimer, Jennie Eskridge, Kyle West Linn High School – Joyce Hedstrom, Laura Lanka,
Foreman, Michael Geffel, Briaan Grismore, Malia Nicki Hudson, Jamie LeVeque
Jerkins, Julie Locke, Tyler Mackeson, JAlex Meinhard,
Linden Parker, Dylan Schmidt, Erica Sexton West Linn School District – Roger Woehl, Mike
Tannenbaum, Jane Stickney, Bob Hamm
Kathy Pfaendler and Patty Quan for their continued
support and encouragement and their willingness to Vermont
consider and experiment with new ideas. Montpelier; Main Street Middle School – Sue Abrams

And finally, we thank our spouses, Jane and Wally, and our
families for their patience and encouragement.

© 1998 The Math Learning Center Math Alive! Visual Mathematics Course III / iii
 Contents
INTRODUCTION vii
LESSON 1  Exploring Symmetry 1
LESSON 2  Introduction to Isometries 25
LESSON 3  Measurement — Inventing Formulas 53
LESSON 4  Arithmetic Sequences 81
LESSON 5  Extended Counting Piece Patterns 105
LESSON 6  Fraction Concepts 135
LESSON 7  Properties, Operations, and Algorithms 161
LESSON 8  Experimental and Theoretical Probability 189
LESSON 9  Reasoning and Radicals 209
LESSON 10  Constructions and Mappings 243
LESSON 11  Introduction to Quadratics 279
LESSON 12  Continuous Graphs 307
LESSON 13  Modeling Situations 335
LESSON 14  Analyzing Graphs 367
LESSON 15  Data—Variability and Spread 397
LESSON 16 Counting and Probability Diagrams 423
LESSON 17  Simulations and Probability 449
APPENDIX  Materials Appendix-1
INDEX Index-1

© 1998 The Math Learning Center Math Alive! Visual Mathematics Course III / v
 .
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Introduction
. Math Alive! is a series of four comprehensive, NCTM Standards-based, one-year
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. courses for students in the middle grades. This curriculum is in development with
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. support from the National Science Foundation and is the grades 5-8 portion of a new
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. Math Learning Center seamless K-8 curriculum.
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.
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. The first two courses in the Math Alive! middle grades series were originally published
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. under the names Visual Mathematics, Course I and Course II. Subsequent publications
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. of those courses will be renamed Math Alive! Course I and Course II. This book,
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. Math Alive! Course III, is the third course in this series. The fourth course is now in
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. development. Math Alive! Course III, is designed for use by teachers in grades 7 or 8
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. whose students have completed Course II, or by teachers in grades 7-9 whose students
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. are exploring Math Alive! for the first time. To support the teacher whose students may
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. need additional background, there is extensive cross referencing to Courses I and II.
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.
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. Throughout the 17 Math Alive! Course III lessons, each averaging about two weeks
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. of class time, there are many implementation suggestions. In addition, the teachers’
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. resource book, Starting Points for Implementing Math Alive!, provides an overview
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. of the philosophy and goals of the Math Alive! courses, together with extensive
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. suggestions for: organizing materials; planning, pacing, and assessing lesson activities;
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. working with parents and the community outside your classroom; finding support as
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. you seek changes in your teaching practices; and creating a classroom climate that
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. invites risk-taking and nourishes the mathematician within each student. The ideas in
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. Starting Points are based on our own classroom experiences and comments we have
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. received from many other teachers field testing Math Alive! courses.
.
.
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. Teaching Math Alive! ourselves has affirmed our beliefs in the potential within each
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. student, enriched our views of mathematics and the art of teaching mathematics, and
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. reinforced our commitment to support teachers in their efforts to change the way
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. mathematics is learned and taught. It is our hope that teaching Math Alive! will be
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. equally fulfilling for you.
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© 1998 The Math Learning Center Math Alive! Visual Mathematics Course III / vii
Exploring Symmetry
Exploring Symmetry Lesson 1 Lesson 1

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THE BIG IDEA .
.
CONNECTOR
.
. OVERVIEW MATERIALS FOR TEACHER ACTIVITY
Actions such as draw- .
.
. Students draw frames for 2- ✔ Connector Masters A-C, ✔ Butcher paper, 1 large
ing, cutting, tracing, .
. dimensional figures to iden- 1 copy per group and 1 sheet per class.
.
framing, rearranging, . tify the figures’ reflectional transparency. ✔ Butcher paper strips (4-5"
.
. and rotational symmetries ✔ Connector Master D, 2 long), 8-10 per group.
flipping, turning, imag- .
. and order of symmetry. copies per student and
. ✔ Scissors, 1 pair per stu-
ining, and discussing . 2 transparencies.
. dent.
.
shapes build spatial . ✔ Note (file) cards, 1 un- ✔ Tape and marking pens
.
. lined card per student. for each group.
sense and promote in- .
. ✔ Plain (unlined) paper, 1
. ✔ Quartered blank trans-
sights and intuitions . sheet per student.
. parencies (optional) for
.
about symmetry con- . use at the overhead.
.
.
cepts. Investigations .
.
.
that involve forming . FOCUS
.
.
polygons which satisfy .
. OVERVIEW MATERIALS FOR TEACHER ACTIVITY
. Students draw symmetric
certain symmetry con- . ✔ Focus Master A, 1 copy ✔ 1-cm triangular grid pa-
. figures on square grids and
. per student and 1 trans- per, 4 sheets per student
ditions prompt conjec- .
. on triangular grids and note parency. and 1 transparency.
. the different symmetry
tures and generaliza- .
. ✔ Focus Student Activities ✔ Scissors, 1 pair per stu-
. types possible. They inves-
tions. Such activities . 1.1-1.2, 1 copy of each dent.
. tigate all orders of symme-
. per student and 1 trans- ✔ Butcher paper strips, 8
provide a rich context . try possible for 3-sided to 8-
. parency of each. for the teacher, 16 for
. sided polygons and make
for experiencing the . ✔ “We conjecture…/We each group, and several
. conjectures and generaliza-
. tions based on their obser- wonder…” poster from for use by the class, as
mathematical process. .
. vations. Finally, students the Connector activity, needed during the les-
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. reflect on how these activi- 1 for each class. son.
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. ties relate to the goals of ✔ 1-cm squared grid paper, ✔ Marking pens and tape
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. the class. 4 sheets per student and for each group.
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. 1 transparency.
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FOLLOW-UP
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. OVERVIEW MATERIALS FOR STUDENT ACTIVITY
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. Students form conjectures ✔ Student Activity 1.3,
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. and generalizations about 1 copy per student.
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. the order of symmetry for
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. regular n-gons. They iden-
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. tify the symmetries of flags
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. and logos and create a logo
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. with symmetry. They inves-
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. tigate and generalize about
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. situations involving sym-
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Math Alive! Course III / 1

Lesson 1 Exploring Symmetry

LESSON IDEAS
.
STUDENT INVESTIGATIONS dents complete a Follow-up resource book, Starting . QUOTE
.
Investigations in this lesson at home. Rather than dis- Points for Implementing . Symmetry in two and
.
provide a rich context for cussing and showing “how- Math Alive! . three dimensions provides
.
“doing mathematics.” You to” solve problems, during . rich opportunities for stu-
.
might take time during the class discussions of the Fol- PACING . dents to see geometry in
.
Focus activity to discuss the low-up, suggest that stu- On average, each lesson . the world of art, nature,
.
fact that, like for profes- dents seek and share “clues” in this course is designed . construction, and so on.
.
sional mathematicians and to jump start each other’s to take about 2 weeks. . Butterflies, faces, flowers,
.
scientists, “successful” in- thinking. Some teachers This may vary according . arrangements of windows,
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vestigations may leave the select problems from Fol- to your students’ back- . reflections in water, and
.
students with more ques- low-ups for in-class assess- grounds, your familiarity . some pottery designs in-
.
tions than answers. ment activities. with the curriculum, your . volve symmetry. Turning
.
In our classroom, we ask school schedule, and stu- . symmetry is illustrated by
.
FOLLOW-UP that students revise incor- dent- or teacher-generated . bicycle gears. Pattern
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Keep in mind that Follow- rect work on Follow-ups extensions you choose to . symmetry can be ob-
.
ups require extended time before a grade is entered in explore. . served in the multiplica-
.
for students to investigate the grade book and provide . tion table, in numbers ar-
.
and communicate their opportunities before and . rayed in charts, and in
.
ideas. They are not de- after school to discuss stu- . Pascal’s triangle.
.
signed to be “due the next dents’ questions. Grades on . NCTM Standards
day.” It is not necessary to Follow-ups are determined
assign every problem, and according to criteria on the
it is reasonable to move on Follow-up Assessment
to the next lesson while stu- Guide given in the teacher

SELECTED ANSWERS

1. triangle: 3 reflectional symmetries, 3 rotational symme- 3. Here are possible expressions (others are also possible),
tries ( )
listed in the order of the chart: 2n; n; n; k 360° for k = 1, 2,
3... n; (n −2)180° .
n
square: 4 reflective, 4 rotational n

pentagon: 5 reflective, 5 rotational 9. a) True

b) True
hexagon: 6 reflective, 6 rotational

heptagon: 7 reflective, 7 rotational

octagon: 8 reflective, 8 rotational

Measures of the angles of rotational symmetry for the

following regular polygons:
triangle: 120°, 240°, 360°

square: 90°, 180°, 270°, 360°

pentagon: 72°, 144°, 216°, 288°, 360°

hexagon: 60°, 120°, 180°, 240°, 300°, 360°

heptagon: 513 ⁄ 7 °, 1026 ⁄ 7 °, 1542 ⁄ 7 °, 2055 ⁄ 7 °, 2571 ⁄ 7 °, 3084⁄ 7 °,

360°

octagon: 45°, 90°, 135°, 180°, 225°, 270°, 315°, 360°

2 / Math Alive! Course III

Exploring Symmetry Lesson 1

Connector Teacher Activity

OVERVIEW & PURPOSE MATERIALS
Students draw frames for 2-dimensional figures to identify ✔ Connector Masters A-C, 1 copy per group and
the figures’ reflectional and rotational symmetries and order 1 transparency.
of symmetry. ✔ Connector Master D, 2 copies per student and
2 transparencies.
✔ Note (file) cards, 1 unlined card per student.
✔ Plain (unlined) paper, 1 sheet per student.
✔ Butcher paper, 1 large sheet per class.
✔ Butcher paper strips (4-5" long), 8-10 per group.
✔ Scissors, 1 pair per student.
✔ Tape and marking pens for each group.
✔ Quartered blank transparencies (optional) for use at
the overhead.
✔ Coffee stirrers (optional), 1 per student.

ACTIONS COMMENTS

1␣ ␣ Arrange the students in groups and give each student 1␣ ␣ Leave as little space as possible between the card and
a plain (unlined) rectangular note (file) card and a plain its frame:
sheet of paper. Ask them to label the corners of their
note cards A, B, C, and D. Hold a note card against a 1 2
A B
sheet of plain paper mounted on the wall, and draw a
frame around the card. Label the corners of the frame 1,
D C
2, 3, and 4. Ask the students to also draw and label 4 3
frames for their note cards. Then give each group a copy
of Connector Master A (see next page) and have the
students carry out the instructions. Discuss, inviting
volunteers to demonstrate their methods and observa-
tions at the overhead.
Note that ready to copy masters for all Connector and
Focus Masters and Student Activities are contained in
Blackline Masters. In addition, Student Activity Packets are
available from The Math Learning Center (MLC); each
packet contains a one-student supply of masters and
student activities needed by individual students for this
course. A one-student supply of grid paper, Student
Activity Grids, is also available from MLC.

Students who have difficulty reading may need some

help here. Encourage students to support their
groupmates as they interpret the instructions in a)-c).

There are an infinite number of points around which

the card can be rotated 360° (or 0°) to exactly fit back
into its frame, since a 360° (or 0°) rotation about any
point on the card replaces the card in its original posi-
tion. A point about which a shape is rotated to fit back

(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 3

Lesson 1 Exploring Symmetry
Connector Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

1 (continued.)
Exploring Symmetry Lesson 1
Connector Master A
into its frame is the center of the rotation. The point P
illustrated below is the only point about which a rota-
tion other than a 360° (or 0°) rotation is possible.
ROTATIONS/TURNS
1 2
a) Complete this procedure: A B
P
• Position your note card so that it fits in its frame D C
with no gaps or overlaps. 4 3
• Mark a point anywhere on your card with a dot, center of rotation
and label this point P.
• Place a pencil point on your point P and hold the
pencil firmly in a vertical position at P.
The card can be rotated 180° and 360° (or 0°) about the
• Rotate the card about P until the card fits back into point P shown above, and each of these rotations pro-
its frame with no gaps or overlaps. duces a different position of the card in its frame. Note
that different positions refers to the placements of the
b) How many different rotations of the card about your card, not the methods to reach those placements. Letter-
point P are possible so that the card fits back in its
ing the corners of the card and the corners of the frame
frame with no gaps or overlaps? Assume that rotations
are different if they result in different placements of helps distinguish the positions:
the card in its frame.
1 2 1 C D 2
c) If only a 360° (or 0°) rotation about your point P A B
P
brings the card back into its frame, find another posi- P
tion for P on the card so that more than one different D C
B A
rotation about this point is possible. What are the mea- 4 3 4 3
sures of the rotations and how did you determine
them? Position after 360° (or 0°) Position after 180°
rotation about P. rotation about P.

Students may notice that the result of a 180° counter

clockwise rotation about point P leaves the card in the
same position as a 180° clockwise rotation about the
point. They may wonder if this is true for all rotations (it
is not).

2␣ ␣ Give each group a copy of Connector Master B and 2␣ ␣ The result of flipping the card over a line l is equiva-
ask them to carry out the instructions. Discuss their lent to the image observed when a mirror is placed
results. along the line (with the exception of labels). If you have
access to mirrors, you could distribute them and have
students confirm this fact. Because of this relationship,
the terms flip and reflect are used synonymously, and
when the card fits back into its frame the line l is re-
ferred to as a line, or axis, of reflection.

Another test for a line of reflection is to determine

whether the card can be folded along the line to form
two halves that exactly match one another.

There are only 2 axes/lines over which the rectangular

1 2
A B card can be reflected to fit back into its frame, as shown
by the dashed lines at the left.
D C
4 3

4 / Math Alive! Course III

Exploring Symmetry Lesson 1
Connector Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

Lesson 1 Exploring Symmetry

Connector Master B

REFLECTIONS/FLIPS

Figure 1 below shows the frame for a rectangular card

with a line l drawn across the frame. In Figure 2, the
card has been placed in the frame. Figure 3 shows the
result of reflecting, or flipping, the card over line l. No-
tice that after the reflection over line l, the card does
not fit back in its frame.

A B

l l l
D C
Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3

Determine all the different possible placements of line

l so that when you flip your card once over l, the card
fits back in its frame with no gaps or overlaps.

HINT: As a guide for flipping the card about a line, you could tape
a pencil or coffee stirrer to the card along the path of line l, as
shown below. Then keep the pencil or coffee stirrer aligned with
line l as you flip the card.

A B

..
D C l

3␣ ␣Give each group a copy of Connector Master C. 3␣ ␣ Although terminology comes up here for discussion,
When the groups have carried out the instructions, lead the intent is that students gain comfort with terms
a discussion of their ideas, clarifying terminology as throughout the lesson. Rather than memorizing terms, it
needed. is important that students develop a general feel for the
motions that take a shape from one position to another
Exploring Symmetry Lesson 1 in its frame. It is helpful if you model appropriate usage
Connector Master C
of terms by using informal and formal terms inter-
changeably. For example, you might reinforce the mean-
a) Discuss your group’s ideas and questions about the ings of reflection and rotation by using the terms flip
meanings of the following terms. Talk about ways and turn along with reflect and rotate.
these terms relate to a nonsquare rectangle such as
your note card. Record important ideas and questions
a) In Math Alive! Course I (Lesson 16), students learned
to share with the class.
that a shape which fits in its frame in more than one
i) reflectional symmetry position is said to have symmetry or to be symmetrical.
ii) axis of reflection (also called line of reflection)
iii) rotational symmetry A 2-dimensional shape has reflectional symmetry if it can
iv) center of rotation be moved from one position in its frame to another (i.e.,
v) frame test for symmetry
so it fits exactly back into the frame) by flipping it about
a line called an axis of symmetry, or line of symmetry.
b) If a shape is symmetrical, its order of symmetry is (Note: reflectional symmetry for a plane figure is also re-
the number of different positions for the shape in its ferred to as reflection symmetry, reflective symmetry, and
frame, where different means the sides of the shape
and the sides of the frame match in distinctly different
ways. Develop a convincing argument that your rect-
angular note card has symmetry of order four. (Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 5

Lesson 1 Exploring Symmetry
Connector Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

3 (continued.)
bilateral symmetry.) A nonsquare rectangle, for example,
has 2 reflectional symmetries because it has 2 lines, or
axes, of symmetry. Although a mirror provides a method
of checking for reflectional symmetry, the mirror is not
useful for checking for rotational symmetry. Thus, an
advantage of using a frame is that it can be used to
check for both reflectional and rotational symmetry.

A shape has rotational symmetry if it can be moved from

one position in its frame to another position in its frame
by rotating, or turning, it less than 360° about a point,
called the center of rotation so that the shape fits exactly
into its frame. For example, a rectangular note card has
2 rotational symmetries because both a 180° and 360°
(or 0°) rotation move the shape to fit exactly into its
frame and each rotation produces a different relation-
ship between the sides of the card and the sides of the
frame. Note: rotational symmetry is also referred to as
rotation symmetry.

It is standard to say that, if a figure can be rotated only

through a full turn (360°) to fit exactly back into its
frame, it has no rotational symmetry. If other rotations are
possible for the shape or, if there are one or more reflec-
tional symmetries, then the 360° rotation is included
when counting the shape’s number of rotational sym-
metries.

In general, using a “frame test” to determine a shape’s

rotational and reflectional symmetries involves checking
for rotations (other than 360°) and reflections that lead
1 2 1 C D 2 to different final positions of the shape in its frame.
A B

B A b) Any nonsquare rectangle has symmetry of order 4

D C
4 3 4 3 because there are exactly 4 different positionings of the
Position 1 Position 2 rectangle in its frame, as illustrated at the left. There are
ABCD→1234 ABCD→3412 other methods one can use to reposition the card in its
same after 360° rotate Position 1 180° frame, such as to reflect and then rotate the card, or vice
or 0° rotation versa, but the final placement of the card will be one of
the 4 shown at the left.

Students may recall from Course I that the order of the

1 2 1 2 rotational symmetry of a shape is the number of different
rotations that take the shape back into its frame, includ-
ing a 360° rotation. To avoid confusion over usage of the
4 3 4 3 term order, throughout this lesson reference is made
only to the overall order of symmetry of a shape (i.e.,
Position 3 Position 4 the total number of different positionings of a shape in
ABCD→2143 ABCD→4321 its frame due to rotations and reflections).
reflect Position 1 reflect Position 1
over vertical axis across horizontal axis

6 / Math Alive! Course III

Exploring Symmetry Lesson 1
Connector Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

4␣ ␣ Give each student 2 copies of Connector Master D 4␣ ␣ Copying the shaded page 2 on the back of page 1 of
and a pair of scissors. Have the students each cut out Connector Master D enables students to distinguish
Shape a) from one copy of Connector Master D and shapes from their reflections.
using Shape a) on the other copy as a frame, do the
following, if possible: Shape a) is an equilateral triangle. Since there are 3 lines
it can be flipped across to fit exactly into its frame,
i) draw all axes of reflection; record the number of Shape a) has 3 reflectional symmetries. Since it can be
reflectional symmetries, rotated 120°, 240°, and 360° to fit into its frame, it has 3
rotational symmetries. Further, because shape a) has 6
ii) mark the shape’s center of rotation and list the mea- different positionings in its frame (i.e., with distinctly
sures of all angles of rotation, different pairings of the sides of the card and sides of the
frame), it has symmetry of order 6.
iii) determine and record the shape’s order of symmetry.
1 1
Discuss the students’ results, inviting volunteers to
demonstrate their conclusions and reasoning at the A

C
overhead.
X

A
C B
Exploring Symmetry Lesson 1 3 2 3 2
Connector Master D
Position 1 Position 2
ABC→123 ABC→231
a) b) c)
same after 360° rotate Position 1
or 0° rotation 120° about X

1 1
B

d) e) f)

X
A

3 2 3 2
r
Position 3 Position 4
g) h) i) ABC→312 ABC→132
rotate Position 1 flip Position 1
240° about X across line r

1 1
j) m n

3 2 3 2
Position 5 Position 6
ABC→213 ABC→321
flip Position 1 flip Position 1
across line m across line n

(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 7

Lesson 1 Exploring Symmetry
Connector Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

4 (continued.)
Note that students may find other methods of moving
Shape a) so that it fits in its frame, but such motions will
place the shape in one of the above final positions in its
frame.

Students may conjecture about relationships they no-

tice. Encourage such discussion, but rather than con-
firming or correcting their ideas, suggest that they look
for verification or contradictions during the remaining
actions of this lesson.

5␣ ␣ Ask the students to repeat Action 4 for the remaining 5␣ ␣ It is helpful to have a large supply of 4-5" long
shapes on Connector Master D and suggest they confer butcher paper strips on hand throughout this and subse-
with their groupmates as they work. Post a large sheet of quent lessons, so that students can record their conjec-
poster paper with the heading, “We conjecture…/We tures and questions before posting them. During this
wonder… .” Distribute several strips of butcher paper, activity, as you circulate while students work, you might
tape, and marking pens to each group. Ask that, as collect and post their statements, delaying discussion
students work on Connector Master D, they record their until after students have completed their work on Con-
ideas, conjectures, and questions on strips of butcher nector Master D. You might suggest that it is okay if
paper and attach them to the poster. groups post similar conjectures or questions; differences
in wordings may be useful to examine.
When the students have examined all of the shapes on
Connector Master D, discuss their results, including This activity, including writing “We conjecture … ” and
conjectures and questions that have been posted. “We wonder …” statements, could also be completed as
homework and then discussed in class.

b) 1 reflectional and no rotational symmetries; order 2

c) 2 reflectional and 2 rotational (180° and 360°) sym-

metries; order 4

d) no symmetry

e) 8 reflectional and 8 rotational (45°, 90°, 135°, 180°,

225°, 270°, 315°, and 360°) symmetries; order 16

f) no reflectional and 2 rotational (180° and 360°) sym-

metries; order 2

g) no reflectional and 3 rotational (120°, 240°, and 360°)

symmetries; order 3

h) 4 reflectional and 4 rotational (90°, 180°, 270°, and

360°) symmetries; order 8

i) 5 reflectional and 5 rotational (72°, 144°, 216°, 288°,

360°) symmetries; order 10.

j) no reflectional and 2 rotational (180°, 360°); order 2.

8 / Math Alive! Course III

Exploring Symmetry Lesson 1
Connector Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS
A B C D Rather than labeling vertices or several points on a
shape, another way to count the positionings of a shape
in its frame is to place an X on the shape, and then to
determine the different positions that X can take inside
the frame. For example, one can mark an X in the upper
A rotated A flipped A flipped right corner of Shape h) from Connector Master D and
180° across across see there are 8 different positions (see diagram at the
dotted line dotted line left) possible for the X.

It is possible to use other rotations (turns) and/or reflec-

E F G H tions (flips), or combinations of rotations and reflections,
to reach the positions. However, no other positions are
possible.

For some students, the motions they use to change the

position of a shape in its frame may be intuitive. To
A rotated A flipped A rotated A flipped encourage thought about the properties of the motions,
90° across 270° counter- across you might ask questions such as the following: Can you
dotted line clockwise (or dotted line describe that action in more detail? How did you decide
90° clockwise) the direction to flip the shape? What line are you flip-
ping the shape over? How did you decide the size of the
turn? Where is the pivot/turning point? If a student uses
a pencil point, for example, to hold a shape in place
while rotating it, ask whether they can hold the pencil
point in other places.

Allow plenty of time for groups to investigate and con-

jecture. You might suggest that they form new shapes to
test their conjectures. A particular observation can often
be prompted into a generalization by asking, “When else
will it be true?”

Following are some conjectures that students have given.

If these do not come up now, there will be opportunities
during the next action and during the Focus activity.

Shapes with just 1 line of symmetry have 2 different final

positions in their frames.

Shapes with no symmetry fit in their frames in only 1 way.

Any shape with at least 1 line of symmetry has an even

number of different final positions in its frame.

If a shape has an odd number of final positions in its frame

then it only has rotational symmetry.

Two possible final positions implies 1 line of symmetry and

no rotational symmetry, or 2 rotational symmetries and no
reflectional symmetry.

Three final positions implies 3 rotational symmetries.

Math Alive! Course III / 9

Lesson 1 Exploring Symmetry
Connector Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

6␣ ␣ Ask the groups to determine ways to sort and classify 6␣ ␣ Rather than responding to the correctness of the
shapes from Connector Master D according to the sym- students’ “We conjecture…” or “We wonder…” state-
metries of the shapes. Have the groups label each classi- ments at this time, you might suggest that students keep
fication, and draw another shape that fits in each classi- them in mind as the lesson proceeds. If there is debate
fication. Discuss, asking the groups to share new over an idea listed on the poster, you might write a “?”
conjectures and “We wonder… “ statements that sur- next to it as a reminder to discuss it again later. If stu-
face. dents’ questions or conjectures are limited at this point,
note there will be opportunities to refine, confirm,
respond, and add to the conjectures and questions on
this poster throughout the lesson.

Classifying shapes according to the number of different

positions possible in their frames may prompt conjec-
tures such as those listed in Comment 5. Notice, for
example, that a rhombus and an oval, like a nonsquare
rectangle, can be classified as shapes with 2 lines of
symmetry and 2 rotational symmetries:

2 reflectional and 2 rotational symmetries

7␣ ␣ (Optional) Ask the groups to sketch, if possible, a 7␣ ␣ This action may elicit additional conjectures. To save
shape (different from those on Connector Master D) for time verifying symmetry at the overhead, you might
one or more of the following conditions. Invite volun- have volunteers draw 2 copies of their shapes on quar-
teers to sketch their shapes at the overhead for verifica- tered sheets of transparencies prior to coming to the
tion by the other students. Record any new conjectures overhead.
or “We wonder…” statements that are suggested.
a) Notice that a shape that fits in its frame in exactly one
a) This shape fits back into its frame in exactly 1 way. way has no symmetry. A symmetrical shape must fit in
its frame in 2 or more ways; hence, the order of a sym-
b) This shape fits back into its frame in exactly 2 ways. metry for a symmetrical shape is always greater than or
equal to 2.
c) This shape fits back into its frame in exactly 3 ways.
b) Students may notice that all shapes that fit in their
frames in exactly 2 ways (i.e., have symmetry of order 2)
have exactly one line of symmetry and no rotational
symmetry or 2 rotational and no reflectional.

c) One method that students frequently use to create

shapes with symmetry of order 3 is to start with an
equilateral triangle and alter each side so the shape has 3
rotational symmetries and no reflectional symmetry.

10 / Math Alive! Course III

Exploring Symmetry Lesson 1

Focus Teacher Activity

OVERVIEW & PURPOSE MATERIALS
Students draw symmetric figures on square grids and on ✔ Focus Master A, 1 copy per student and 1 transpar-
triangular grids and note the different symmetry types pos- ency.
sible. They investigate all orders of symmetry possible for ✔ Focus Student Activities 1.1-1.2, 1 copy of each per
3-sided to 8-sided polygons and make conjectures and gener- student and 1 transparency of each.
alizations based on their observations. Finally, students
✔ “We conjecture…/We wonder…” poster from the
reflect on how these activities relate to the goals of the class.
Connector activity, 1 for each class.
✔ 1-cm squared grid paper, 4 sheets per student and
1 transparency.
✔ 1-cm triangular grid paper, 4 sheets per student and
1 transparency.
✔ Scissors, 1 pair per student.
✔ Butcher paper strips, 8 strips for the teacher, 16 small
strips for each group, and several for use by the class,
as needed during the lesson.
✔ Marking pens and tape for each group.

ACTIONS COMMENTS

1␣ ␣ Arrange the students in groups. Draw the following 1␣ ␣ a) Some students may suggest that the small square
figure on a transparency of 1-cm grid paper. in the upper right corner could be removed. Others may
suggest “adding” to the figure (e.g., adding a 2 by 3
rectangle to the right-hand side). There are many possi-
bilities.

b) One purpose here is to encourage mental geometry—

to enhance the students’ powers of imagery. Another is
to encourage a systematic approach to the problem. One
system is to mentally move the small square round the
a) Ask for volunteers to describe several ways the figure figure, stopping at each position to consider whether a
could be made symmetrical. symmetric figure results. There are 5 possibilities:

b) Ask each student to determine mentally the number

of different ways one square of the grid can be added to
the figure to make it symmetrical. Invite volunteers to
report their conclusions and, without revealing the
possible positions of the square, to describe the system
they used to arrive at their answer. Discuss.

c) When there is some agreement about the number of

possible locations for the square, distribute a sheet of The first of the above shapes has 180° rotational symme-
1-cm grid paper to each student and ask them to draw try, the others have reflectional symmetry. Students can
the symmetric shapes. Have volunteers sketch these at use the frame test to verify the symmetry of a shape.
the overhead and discuss the types of symmetry the
resulting shapes have. d) Have a supply of butcher paper strips and marking
pens available so that students/groups can record their
d) Ask the students for any conjectures they wish to add questions and conjectures as they come up. Periodically
to the “We Conjecture…/We wonder…” poster from the throughout this lesson, take time to review the list and
Connector. Suggest that they add to and/or edit the list discuss students’ additions or edits.
throughout the remainder of this lesson.

Math Alive! Course III / 11

Lesson 1 Exploring Symmetry
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

2␣ ␣ Place cutouts of the following 2 shapes on a transpar- 2␣ ␣ One strategy is to take the rectangular piece and
ency of grid paper. Ask the students to determine men- mentally place it in different positions around the L-
tally the number of noncongruent symmetrical shapes shaped piece. Several figures that can be obtained with-
that can be made by joining these two shapes and deter- out overlapping the original two shapes are shown
mine the symmetries of the resulting shapes. Discuss below. Figure (1) has 2 lines of symmetry and 2 rota-
strategies the students use and have volunteers sketch tional symmetries; Figures (3) and (4) have 1 line of
the symmetrical shapes at the overhead. symmetry, and Figures (2) and (5) have 2 rotational
symmetries.

(1) (2) (3) (5)

(4)

3␣ ␣ Place cutouts of the following 3 shapes on a transpar- 3␣ ␣ Have additional grid paper available for use as needed.
ency of grid paper.
a) If there is disagreement over the symmetry of a shape,
students could see if the shape passes the frame test, i.e.,
A B C can it be positioned in its frame in more than one way?
If so, it is symmetrical; if not, it has no symmetry.

b) This may take some time; hence, after groups have

worked for an adequate period in class, you might pro-
a) Ask for a few volunteers to show ways the 3 shapes ceed with the lesson and ask the students to continue
can be put together to form a symmetrical shape. the investigation as homework.

b) Give each student a pair of scissors and 1 sheet of Students may ask about the “rules;” for example, they
1-cm grid paper. Ask the groups to investigate the num- may ask if they are allowed to form shapes such as those
ber of noncongruent symmetrical shapes that can be shown at left. As questions such as these arise, let the
formed by these 3 shapes. Have them sketch each sym- students make their own decisions. Encourage them to
metrical shape and describe its symmetry. Discuss. consider the consequences. For example, if overlaps are
allowed, the amount of the overlap may be varied infi-
nitely and the problem becomes unmanageable. Decid-
ing under what conditions an investigation becomes
manageable, and determining how the choice of condi-
tions affects the conclusions, are integral parts of carry-
ing out a mathematical investigation.
Join shapes at Let shapes Use 2 shapes
There are 17 noncongruent shapes that can be formed
the corners overlap
by using shapes A, B, and C and assuming that squares
always match edge to edge with no overlaps or gaps.
Some groups may make their own cutouts and keep a
record of their results on grid paper. Others may only
sketch on the grid paper.

Students may begin in a random way. As you observe

them at work, asking them about their plan of attack
Have gaps Have shapes that
may encourage systematic approaches.
don’t touch

12 / Math Alive! Course III

Exploring Symmetry Lesson 1
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

When forming these 17 noncongruent shapes, students

may notice that a given shape may formed by different
arrangements of shapes A, B, and C, as shown at the left.
Assuming that squares always match edge-to-edge and
no gaps or overlaps are allowed, there are 33 total sym-
metrical arrangements—even more if one counts rota-
tions and reflections of the individual pieces in an
arrangement!

4␣ ␣ Distribute one copy of Focus Student Activity 1.1 to 4␣ ␣ This could be assigned as a homework activity.
each student for completion. Discuss their results and
methods. 1)-2) One strategy is to mentally move the additional
square or triangle from one possible location to the
Exploring Symmetry Lesson 1
next, checking each time whether or not the resulting
shape is symmetrical.
Focus Student Activity 1.1
NAME DATE
3)-4) Students may find that using more complicated
1␣ ␣ For each shape below, determine mentally how many ways one
shapes tends to limit the number of ways a square or
square of the grid can be added to the shape to make it symmetrical.
Assume no gaps or overlaps and that squares meet edge-to-edge.
triangle can be placed to form a shape that is symmetri-
cal.
A B C
One way to conduct sharing of students’ results for 3)
and 4) is to have the students sketch their shapes on
squared and triangular grid paper and exchange with
D F
classmates who verify that the shapes fit the criteria of
Problems 3 and 4.
2␣ ␣ For each shape below, determine mentally how many ways one
triangle of the grid can be added to the shape to make it symmetri-
cal. Assume no gaps or overlaps and that triangles meet edge-to-
Lesson 1 Exploring Symmetry
edge.
Focus Student Activity (cont.)

A B C
3␣ ␣ Create a shape that is made of squares joined edge-to-edge (no
overlaps) and has exactly 3 ways of adding one additional square to
make the shape symmetrical.
D F

4␣ ␣ Create a shape that is made of triangles joined edge-to-edge (no

(Continued on back.) overlaps) and has exactly 4 ways of adding one additional triangle
to make the shape symmetrical.

Math Alive! Course III / 13

Lesson 1 Exploring Symmetry
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

5␣ ␣ Give each student a sheet of 1-cm triangular grid 5␣ ␣ a) This hexagon has 2 reflectional and 2 rotational
paper. symmetries. Students may ask if the hexagons they
create must follow grid lines—moving off the grid lines
a) Sketch the following hexagon on a transparency of will not affect the outcomes of the investigation, but the
triangular grid paper. Ask the groups to determine its grids are useful in making accurate sketches.
symmetries. Then ask them to draw other noncongruent
hexagons which have the same symmetries. Discuss.

Shown below are two other hexagons, one concave and

b) Ask the groups to construct examples of hexagons one convex, with the same symmetries as above.
which have:

i) reflectional but no rotational symmetry,

ii) rotational but no reflectional symmetry.

As needed, have volunteers show examples at the over-

head. Discuss the students’ observations. b) i) These hexagons have reflectional symmetry and no
rotational symmetry:

The students may notice that it is not possible to have 2

axes of symmetry and no rotational symmetry (see
Comment 6).

ii) The hexagons shown below have 2 and 3 rotational

symmetries, respectively, but no reflectional symmetry.

6␣ ␣ Ask the groups to each prepare a chart showing the 6␣ ␣ Following are examples of the seven possible types of
different types of symmetry a hexagon can have and an symmetries that a hexagon can have.
example of each type. Discuss their results. Encourage
the students to add to the “We conjecture…/We won-
der…” poster. Discuss as appropriate.

14 / Math Alive! Course III

Exploring Symmetry Lesson 1
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

Hexagons Classified by Symmetry Type

A. no reflectional B. no reflectional C. no reflectional

no rotational 2 rotational 3 rotational

D. 1 reflectional E. 2 reflectional F. 3 reflectional G. 6 reflectional

no rotational 2 rotational 3 rotational 6 rotational

As you circulate while students work, you might note

questions, observations, and conjectures you overhear.
You could record these on the “We conjecture…/We
wonder…” poster, or ask the students to do so. For
example, students may make observations about the
axes of symmetry of a hexagon. Notice that hexagon D
above has 1 reflectional and no rotational symmetry,
and its axis of symmetry connects midpoints of opposite
sides. Hexagon i) at the left also has one reflectional and
no rotational symmetry, but the axis of symmetry con-
nects opposite vertices. Hexagon ii) has 3 reflectional
and 3 rotational symmetries and has axes of symmetry
connecting midpoints of opposite sides, as compared to
hexagon F above which also has 3 reflectional and 3
rotational symmetries but has axes of symmetry which
connect opposite vertices. Note: these “types” of lines of
i) ii) symmetry of polygons are investigated in Action 11.

Students may make observations about the possible

orders of symmetry for hexagons; if so, note that the
orders of symmetry for hexagons B-G respectively, are 2,
3, 2, 4, 6, and 12; figure A has no symmetry.

The students may observe that a shape which has 2 or

more axes of symmetry also has rotational symmetry. If
so, you might ask them to investigate now why they
think this is so, or you could make note of it as a topic

(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 15

Lesson 1 Exploring Symmetry
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

6 (continued.)
for investigation later. In general, changing the position
of a shape by first flipping it about one of its axes of
symmetry, and then flipping it about a second axis, has
the same effect as rotating the shape through an angle
twice that of the angle between the axes. Notice, for ex-
ample, reflecting a rectangle about its horizontal axis
and then about its vertical axis results in the same final
position as rotating the rectangle 180˚ (i.e., double the
90° angle of intersection of the axes).

Step 1 Step 2 Step 3

7␣ ␣ Repeat Action 6 for quadrilaterals. 7␣ ␣ There are 5 symmetry types for quadrilaterals, as
illustrated at the left.
Quadrilaterals Classified by Symmetry Type
Squares are the only quadrilaterals which have 4 reflec-
tional and 4 rotational symmetries. All nonsquare rect-
angles and nonsquare rhombuses have 2 reflectional
and 2 rotational symmetries, although the axes of sym-
metry of rectangles connect midpoints of opposite sides
A. no reflectional B. no reflectional C. 1 reflectional and those of rhombi connect pairs of opposite vertices.
no rotational 2 rotational no rotational Kites, both convex (other than rhombi) and concave,
and isosceles trapezoids have one reflectional and no
rotational symmetry. Parallelograms (other than rect-
angles and rhombi) have no reflectional and 2 rotational
symmetries.

The symmetry of a parallelogram that is not a rectangle

D. 2 reflectional E. 4 reflectional or rhombus sometimes causes problems. Students often
2 rotational 4 rotational think it has 2 axes of symmetry, like the rectangle or like
the rhombus (see diagram below). This can be disproved
by using the frame test, by cutting the parallelogram out
and folding it along one of its diagonals, or by placing a
mirror along a diagonal.

2 lines of symmetry No lines of symmetry

Notice that quadrilateral A at the left has no symmetry;

B has symmetry of order 2; C, order 2; D, order 4; and E,
order 8.

16 / Math Alive! Course III

Exploring Symmetry Lesson 1
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

8␣ ␣ Ask the students to classify triangles according to 8␣ ␣ There are 3 symmetry types for triangles, as shown at
their symmetries. Compare this classification with other the left. Notice the classification of triangles by symme-
classifications of triangles. try type corresponds to the classification of triangles as
scalene (no equal sides), isosceles (2 equal sides), or equi-
Triangles Classified by Symmetry Type lateral (3 equal sides). Note: an equilateral triangle is also
isosceles.

You might want to discuss with the students their ideas

about types of symmetry a right triangle could have.

Scalene: Isosceles: Equilateral:

no reflectional 1 reflectional 3 reflectional
no rotational no rotational 3 rotational

9␣ ␣ (Optional) Repeat Action 6 for pentagons and/or 9␣ ␣ There are only 3 symmetry types for pentagons: no
octagons. Encourage conjectures and generalizations. reflectional and no rotational; 1 reflectional and no
rotational; 5 reflectional and 5 rotational. Octagons, like
hexagons, have 7 symmetry types.

Students may be interested here (or in Action 11) to

investigate the symmetries possible for polygons with a
prime number of sides. Any polygon with n sides, where
n is a prime number has one of the following 3 symme-
try types: no reflectional and no rotational; 1 reflectional
and no rotational; or n reflectional and n rotational.

10␣ ␣ Ask the groups to examine the class “We conjec- 10␣ ␣ You might use this as an opportunity to remind the
ture… We wonder… ” poster, to add new ideas and edit students that, while they examined many important
existing ones. Discuss, clarifying as needed. symmetry relationships and discovered many new ideas
during this lesson, a “big idea” of the lesson is to engage
them in the process of conjecturing, questioning, and
generalizing about mathematical ideas. Rather than
memorizing or mimicking the work of mathematicians,
the students are the mathematicians.

11␣ Give each student a copy of Focus Student Activity 11␣ ␣ Students may need additional grid paper. Sketching
1.2 (see next page) and ask them to select one of the symmetric shapes is facilitated by using the square or
given problems for investigation (or formulate other triangular grids.
questions). Explain your expectations for their written
work, including your timeline and methods of evaluat- If the questions on Focus Student Activity 1.2 were
ion. examined by your students during other actions, if you
feel the students need to examine another idea, or if
there are areas of particular interest that emerged during
Action 10, you could pose other questions for investiga-
tion. If students have difficulty engaging in a problem,
you might encourage them to explore related ideas that
surface during their investigation.

(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 17

Lesson 1 Exploring Symmetry
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

11 (continued.)
Exploring Symmetry Lesson 1
After a specified time for investigation, you might hold a
Focus Student Activity 1.2 large group discussion of progress so far, adding any new
conjectures or questions to the class poster. This can
NAME DATE

give new “momentum” to students having difficulty.

Write a well-organized, sequential summary of your investigation of
one of Problems 1 or 2. Include the following in your summary:

• a statement of the problem you investigate Because these investigations involve extended thought
• the steps of what you do, including any false starts and dead-ends
• relationships you notice (small details are important) and exploration, you may want to assign this activity as
• questions that occur to you
• places you get stuck and things you do to get unstuck
an individual or group assessment, to be started in class
• your AHA!s and important discoveries
• conjectures that you make—include what sparked and ways you
and completed outside of class. You and the students
tested each conjecture
• evidence to support your conclusions.
could develop a scoring guide for use in evaluating their
work. See the Assessment chapter of Starting Points for
1␣ ␣ A nonsquare rectangle and a nonsquare rhombus each have 2 Implementing Math Alive! for suggestions regarding ex-
reflectional symmetries. However, the 2 lines of symmetry are of 2
different types—the lines of symmetry of a rectangle connect the tended projects and assessment guides.
midpoints of opposite sides and the lines of symmetry of a rhombus
connect opposite vertices. Investigate other polygons with exactly 2
lines of symmetry of these 2 types. Generalize, if possible.
As you think about assessing the students’ development,
keep in mind that, while the students should by this
time have a solid conceptual sense about the meanings
of rotational and reflectional symmetry and should be
2␣ ␣ What, if any, is the minimum number of sides for a polygon comfortable using the frame test to determine the sym-
with 3 rotational symmetries and no reflectional symmetry? What,
if any, is the maximum number of sides? What, if any, is the mini-
mum number of sides for polygons with 4 rotational symmetries
metries of a polygon, it isn’t reasonable to expect that
and no reflectional symmetries? 5 rotational and no reflectional
symmetries? n rotational and no reflectional symmetries? Investi-
they memorize all the symmetry types of a hexagon, for
gate. example, or that they memorize definitions of terms. A
meaningful assessment activity should engage students
in further investigations involving symmetry ideas and
should ask them to discuss their methods, reasoning,
and generalizations. The students’ written work for such
investigations should reveal their knowledge of the
concepts of symmetry and their understanding of the
mathematical process. The problems on Focus Student
Activity 1.2 and Follow-up Student Activity 1.3 are
designed to provide such information.

Following are examples of observations that may come

up related to Problem 1 on Focus Student Activity 1.2:

For hexagons with exactly 2 lines of reflection, one line

must connect 2 opposite vertices and the other must
connect midpoints of 2 sides, as illustrated below.

Octagons may have 2 lines of symmetry that connect

opposite vertices or 2 lines that connect midpoints of
opposite sides, as shown below.

18 / Math Alive! Course III

Exploring Symmetry Lesson 1
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

For a decagon with exactly 2 lines of symmetry, there

must be one connecting opposite vertices and one con-
necting midpoints of opposite sides, as shown at the left.

If the number of sides of a nonregular polygon is an

even number which is a multiple of 4, and if it has
exactly 2 lines of symmetry, it must have one type
(vertex-to-vertex or side-to-side) or the other, but not
both. If the number of sides of a nonregular polygon is
an even number which is not a multiple of 4, and if
there are exactly 2 lines of symmetry, there must be one
of each kind.

Some observations related to Problem 2 from Focus

Student Activity 1.2 follow.

The minimum number of sides for a polygon with 3

rotational symmetries and no reflectional symmetries is
6. This can be obtained by drawing 3 line segments from
a central point which form 120° angles and then draw-
ing 2 noncongruent sides of the polygon AB and BC.
These sides can then be rotated 120° and 240° to obtain
the remaining sides of the hexagon.

A
B
120°
120°
120°
C

Hexagon - 3 rotational symmetries

In a similar manner, the minimum number of sides for a

polygon with 4, 5, or n rotational symmetries and no
reflectional symmetries is 8, 10, and 2n as suggested by
the following figures.

90° 72° 72°

72° 72°
72°

Octagon Decagon
4 rotational symmetries 5 rotational symmetries

Some students may reason that shapes with the mini-

mum number of sides for 3, 4, or 5 rotational symme-
tries can be obtained by building triangular “arms” that
are congruent to each other off a “base” that is an equi-
lateral triangle, square, or regular pentagon, as shown
(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 19

Lesson 1 Exploring Symmetry
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

11 (continued.)
below. Notice, the 2 exposed sides of each arm must be
noncongruent to assure no reflective symmetry. Form-
ing arms that are other shapes generates polygons with
more sides and with the same number of rotational
symmetries as their “base” regular polygon.

6-sided polygon 8-sided polygon 10-sided polygon

3 rotational symmetries 4 rotational symmetries 5 rotational symmetries

12␣ ␣ (Optional)␣ Write each of the goals a)-h) from Focus 12␣ ␣ You may wish to amend the list of goals on Focus
Master A (see next page) in large print on a separate strip Master A to include other goals you have for the class.
of butcher paper. Post these strips about the classroom. Students may also have ideas they wish to add to the
Distribute a copy of Focus Master A to each student. list. The goals listed are the goals considered by the
Arrange the students in groups and give each group 8 authors during the development of each Math Alive!
blank strips of butcher paper and marking pens. Ask the lesson.
groups to complete i) below:
As you circulate while groups are working on this task, it
i) Describe in your own words what you believe may be helpful to pose some questions, or if a group is
is the meaning of each of the goals listed on stuck trying to articulate an idea, you might share some
Focus Master A. Write each description on a of your ideas. Following are some thoughts about goals
separate blank strip. Post each completed strip a) and b) that may be useful for discussion.
under its corresponding goal on the wall.
Goal a): In Math Alive! visual thinking refers to a 3-part
Next have the groups discuss their ideas from i). Then process: perceiving, imaging, and portraying. In the
give each group 8 additional strips of butcher paper and article, Mathematics and Visual Thinking by Eugene Maier
have them complete ii): (see the Appendix of Starting Points) perceiving is de-
scribed as “becoming informed through the senses…
ii) For each of goals a)-h), list one or more spe- and through kinesthesia, the sensation of body move-
cific examples from the class activities during ment and position.” In Math Alive! perceiving occurs
this lesson that illustrate our class’ successful through the use of manipulatives and hands-on activi-
work on that goal. Post each completed strip ties to investigate mathematical ideas and through
under its corresponding goal on the wall. discussions about those ideas. Such experiences are
multisensory. That is, Math Alive! activities involve the
Discuss the groups’ results ii). senses of sight, touch, and hearing, and they are kines-
thetic in nature.

The second aspect of the visual thinking process is

imaging. One’s sensory experiences can be recreated as
mental images which provide a basis for further thought
and discussion. That is, the sensory experiences them-
selves often do not need to be physically recreated in
order to reconsider or extend the idea. Rather, the expe-
riences can be recreated in the mind’s eye. For example,
after drawing and cutting out a variety of shapes, and

20 / Math Alive! Course III

Exploring Symmetry Lesson 1
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

then flipping and turning the shapes to fit back into

Exploring Symmetry Lesson 1
Focus Master A
their frames, many students can look at a shape and
Our Goals as Mathematicians “see” those motions in their mind’s eye.

We are a community of mathematicians The third part of the visual thinking process, portraying,
working together to develop our: is representing a perception using sketches, diagrams,
models, or other symbolic forms. These representations
a) visual thinking, can be used as tools for solving problems or investigat-
ing conceptual relationships.
b) concept understanding,
Goal b): Understanding concepts is different from know-
c) reasoning and problem solving, ing definitions and procedures, although many people
mix these ideas. One who understands the meaning of a
d) ability to invent procedures and make
generalizations, concept is usually capable of inventing procedures for
solving problems involving the concept. On the other
e) mathematical communication, hand, one who has memorized definitions or procedures
without understanding conceptual relationships may
f) openness to new ideas and varied have difficulty solving problems involving the idea or
approaches,
procedure.
g) self-esteem and self-confidence,

h) joy in learning and doing mathematics.

Math Alive! Course III / 21

Lesson 1 Exploring Symmetry

TEACHER NOTES:

22 / Math Alive! Course III

Exploring Symmetry Lesson 1

Follow-up Student Activity 1.3

NAME DATE

1␣ ␣ Trace and cut out a copy of each of the above regular polygons.
Use the copies and original polygons, but no measuring tools (no
rulers, protractors, etc.), to help you complete the following chart:

No. of different
positions in frame

No. of reflectional
symmetries

No. of rotational
symmetries

Measures of all
angles of rotation

Measure of each
interior angle*

*Interior angles are the angles “inside” the polygon and are formed by intersections of the sides of the polygon.

Complete the following problems on separate paper. Be sure to write

about any AHA!s, conjectures, or generalizations that you make.

2␣ ␣ Explain the methods that you used to determine the angles of

rotation and the interior angle measures for the chart above. Re-
member, no protractors.

3␣ ␣ Label the last column of the chart in Problem 1 “Regular n-gon”

and then complete that column. For each expression that you write
in the last column, draw a diagram (on a separate sheet) to show
“why” the expression is correct.

(Continued on back.)
Math Alive! Course III / 23
Lesson 1 Exploring Symmetry
Follow-up Student Activity (cont.)

4␣ ␣ Discuss the symmetries of a circle. Explain your reasoning.

5␣ ␣ Locate a resource that shows flags of the countries of the world.

For each of the following, if possible, sketch and color a copy of a
different flag (label each flag by its country’s name) and cite your
resource.

a) rotational symmetry but no reflectional symmetry,

b) reflectional symmetry across a horizontal axis only,

c) no symmetry,

d) both rotational and reflectional symmetry,

e) 180° rotational symmetry.

6␣ ␣ Sort and classify the capital letters of the alphabet according to

their types of symmetry.

7␣ ␣ Attach pictures of 2 different company logos that have different

types of symmetry. Describe the symmetry of each logo.

8␣ ␣ Create your personal logo so that it has symmetry. Record the

order of symmetry for your logo, show the location of its line(s) of
symmetry, and/or record the measures of its rotational symmetries.

9␣ ␣ Jamaal made conjectures a) and b) below. Determine whether

you think each conjecture is always/sometimes/never true. Give
evidence to show how you decided and to show why your conclu-
sion is correct. If you think a conjecture is not true, edit it so that it
is true.

If a shape has exactly 2 axes of reflection, then

a) those axes must be at right angles to each other.

b) the shape also must have 2 rotational symmetries.

24 / Math Alive! Course III

Exploring Symmetry Lesson 1
Connector Master A

ROTATIONS/TURNS

a) Complete this procedure:

• Position your note card so that it fits in its frame

with no gaps or overlaps.
• Mark a point anywhere on your card with a dot,
and label this point P.
• Place a pencil point on your point P and hold the
pencil firmly in a vertical position at P.
• Rotate the card about P until the card fits back into
its frame with no gaps or overlaps.

b) How many different rotations of the card about your

point P are possible so that the card fits back in its
frame with no gaps or overlaps? Assume that rotations
are different if they result in different placements of
the card in its frame.

c) If only a 360° (or 0°) rotation about your point P

brings the card back into its frame, find another posi-
tion for P on the card so that more than one different
rotation about this point is possible. What are the mea-
sures of the rotations and how did you determine
them?

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 1 Exploring Symmetry
Connector Master B

REFLECTIONS/FLIPS

Figure 1 below shows the frame for a rectangular card

with a line l drawn across the frame. In Figure 2, the
card has been placed in the frame. Figure 3 shows the
result of reflecting, or flipping, the card over line l. No-
tice that after the reflection over line l, the card does
not fit back in its frame.

A B

l l l
D C
Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3

Determine all the different possible placements of line

l so that when you flip your card once over l, the card
fits back in its frame with no gaps or overlaps.

HINT: As a guide for flipping the card about a line, you could tape
a pencil or coffee stirrer to the card along the path of line l, as
shown below. Then keep the pencil or coffee stirrer aligned with
line l as you flip the card.

A B

..
D C l

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Exploring Symmetry Lesson 1
Connector Master C

a) Discuss your group’s ideas and questions about the

meanings of the following terms. Talk about ways
these terms relate to a nonsquare rectangle such as
your note card. Record important ideas and questions
to share with the class.

i) reflectional symmetry
ii) axis of reflection (also called line of reflection)
iii) rotational symmetry
iv) center of rotation
v) frame test for symmetry

b) If a shape is symmetrical, its order of symmetry is

the number of different positions for the shape in its
frame, where different means the sides of the shape
and the sides of the frame match in distinctly different
ways. Develop a convincing argument that your rect-
angular note card has symmetry of order four.

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 1 Exploring Symmetry

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Exploring Symmetry Lesson 1
Connector Master D

a) b) c)

d) e) f)

g) h) i)

j)

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 1 Exploring Symmetry
Connector Master D (page 2)

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Exploring Symmetry Lesson 1
Focus Master A

Our Goals as Mathematicians

We are a community of mathematicians

working together to develop our:

a) visual thinking,

b) concept understanding,

c) reasoning and problem solving,

d) ability to invent procedures and make

generalizations,

e) mathematical communication,

f) openness to new ideas and varied

approaches,

g) self-esteem and self-confidence,

h) joy in learning and doing mathematics.

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 1 Exploring Symmetry

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Exploring Symmetry Lesson 1

Focus Student Activity 1.1

NAME DATE

1␣␣For each shape below, determine mentally how many ways one
square of the grid can be added to the shape to make it symmetrical.
Assume no gaps or overlaps and that squares meet edge-to-edge.

A B C

D F

2␣␣For each shape below, determine mentally how many ways one
triangle of the grid can be added to the shape to make it symmetri-
cal. Assume no gaps or overlaps and that triangles meet edge-to-
edge.

A B C

D F

(Continued on back.)

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 1 Exploring Symmetry
Focus Student Activity (cont.)

3␣␣Create a shape that is made of squares joined edge-to-edge (no

overlaps) and has exactly 3 ways of adding one additional square to
make the shape symmetrical.

4␣␣Create a shape that is made of triangles joined edge-to-edge (no

overlaps) and has exactly 4 ways of adding one additional triangle
to make the shape symmetrical.

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Exploring Symmetry Lesson 1

Focus Student Activity 1.2

NAME DATE

Write a well-organized, sequential summary of your investigation of

one of Problems 1 or 2. Include the following in your summary:

• a statement of the problem you investigate

• the steps of what you do, including any false starts and dead-ends
• relationships you notice (small details are important)
• questions that occur to you
• places you get stuck and things you do to get unstuck
• your AHA!s and important discoveries
• conjectures that you make—include what sparked and ways you
tested each conjecture
• evidence to support your conclusions.

1␣␣A nonsquare rectangle and a nonsquare rhombus each have 2

reflectional symmetries. However, the 2 lines of symmetry are of 2
different types—the lines of symmetry of a rectangle connect the
midpoints of opposite sides and the lines of symmetry of a rhombus
connect opposite vertices. Investigate other polygons with exactly 2
lines of symmetry of these 2 types. Generalize, if possible.

2␣␣What, if any, is the minimum number of sides for a polygon

with 3 rotational symmetries and no reflectional symmetry? What,
if any, is the maximum number of sides? What, if any, is the mini-
mum number of sides for polygons with 4 rotational symmetries
and no reflectional symmetries? 5 rotational and no reflectional
symmetries? n rotational and no reflectional symmetries? Investi-
gate.

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 1 Exploring Symmetry

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Exploring Symmetry Lesson 1

Follow-up Student Activity 1.3

NAME DATE

1␣␣Trace and cut out a copy of each of the above regular polygons.
Use the copies and original polygons, but no measuring tools (no
rulers, protractors, etc.), to help you complete the following chart:

No. of different
positions in frame

No. of reflectional
symmetries

No. of rotational
symmetries

Measures of all
angles of rotation

Measure of each
interior angle*

*Interior angles are the angles “inside” the polygon and are formed by intersections of the sides of the polygon.

Complete the following problems on separate paper. Be sure to write

about any AHA!s, conjectures, or generalizations that you make.

2␣␣Explain the methods that you used to determine the angles of

rotation and the interior angle measures for the chart above. Re-
member, no protractors.

3␣␣Label the last column of the chart in Problem 1 “Regular n-gon”

and then complete that column. For each expression that you write
in the last column, draw a diagram (on a separate sheet) to show
“why” the expression is correct.

(Continued on back.)

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 1 Exploring Symmetry
Follow-up Student Activity (cont.)

4␣␣Discuss the symmetries of a circle. Explain your reasoning.

5␣␣Locate a resource that shows flags of the countries of the world.

For each of the following, if possible, sketch and color a copy of a
different flag (label each flag by its country’s name) and cite your
resource.

a) rotational symmetry but no reflectional symmetry,

b) reflectional symmetry across a horizontal axis only,

c) no symmetry,

d) both rotational and reflectional symmetry,

e) 180° rotational symmetry.

6␣␣Sort and classify the capital letters of the alphabet according to

their types of symmetry.

7␣␣Attach pictures of 2 different company logos that have different

types of symmetry. Describe the symmetry of each logo.

8␣␣Create your personal logo so that it has symmetry. Record the

order of symmetry for your logo, show the location of its line(s) of
symmetry, and/or record the measures of its rotational symmetries.

9␣␣Jamaal made conjectures a) and b) below. Determine whether

you think each conjecture is always/sometimes/never true. Give
evidence to show how you decided and to show why your conclu-
sion is correct. If you think a conjecture is not true, edit it so that it
is true.

If a shape has exactly 2 axes of reflection, then

a) those axes must be at right angles to each other.

b) the shape also must have 2 rotational symmetries.

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Introduction to Isometries
Introduction to Isometries Lesson 2 Lesson 2

.
.
.
.
THE BIG IDEA .. CONNECTOR
.
. OVERVIEW MATERIALS FOR TEACHER ACTIVITY
Viewing congruence in .
.
. Students construct and ana- ✔ 1-cm grid paper, 1 sheet
terms of isometries— .
. lyze the symmetry of vari- per student and 1 trans-
.
motions that preserve . ous polyominoes—shapes parency.
.
. made by joining together ✔ Scissors for each stu-
size and shape—pro- .
. squares. dent.
vides insights about re- ..
.
.
lationships among .
.
. FOCUS
congruent shapes. .
.
.
Hands on investiga- . OVERVIEW MATERIALS FOR TEACHER ACTIVITY
.
. Students explore different ✔ Focus Student Activities ✔ Scissors and straight-
tions of the four basic .
. ways of moving a shape 2.1, 2.2, and 2.3, 1 copy edges, 1 of each per stu-
.
isometries—transla- . onto a congruent shape. of each per student and dent.
.
tions, rotations, reflec- .. These movements 1 transparency of each. ✔ Protractors (see Blackline
. strengthen students’ aware- (Note: the last 2 pages of Masters, copy on trans-
.
tions, and glide . ness of congruence and 2.3 should be run back-
. parencies), 1 per student.
. motivate introductory expe- to-back on cardstock.)
reflections—promote . ✔ 2-cm triangular grid pa-
. riences with isometries (re- ✔ Focus Masters A, B, and
. per (see Blackline Mas-
spatial awareness and . flections, translations, rota- J, 1 copy of each per stu-
. ters), 2 sheets per stu-
provide a dynamic con- .. tions, and glide reflections) dent and 1 transparency. dent and 1 transparency.
. and provide the basis for
. ✔ Focus Master C, 2 copies ✔ 2-cm squared grid paper
text for experiencing . creating friezes and tessel-
. per student and 1 trans- (see Blackline Masters),
. lations.
geometry. Isometries . parency.
. 2 sheets per student and
provide a mathematical .. ✔ Focus Masters D, E, and 1 transparency.
. I, 1 transparency of each.
basis for understanding .. ✔ Marking pens for each
. ✔ Focus Masters F, G, H, group.
and creating frieze pat- .. 1 copy of each per stu-
. ✔ Blank transparencies
terns and tessellations .. dent and 2 transparen- (1 ⁄ 4 -sheets) for use at the
. cies of each. overhead.
.
used in wallpaper de- . ✔ Patty paper, 8 sheets of
. ✔ Butcher paper strips,
signs. . hamburger “patty pa-
. several for each group.
. per” (or 1 ⁄ 4 -sheets of
.
. tracing paper) per stu-
.
. dent.
.
.
.
.
.
. FOLLOW-UP
.
.
. OVERVIEW MATERIALS FOR STUDENT ACTIVITY
.
. Students create and deter- ✔ Student Activity 2.4,
.
. mine the symmetry of 1 copy per student.
.
. polyamonds. They investi-
. ✔ 1-cm squared grid paper,
. gate and build arguments
. 1 sheet per student.
. supporting or refuting sev-
. ✔ 1-cm triangular grid pa-
. eral conjectures involving
. per, 1 sheet per student.
. isometries. They perform
.
. transformations of shapes ✔ 2-cm triangular grid pa-
.
. in the plane and create per, 3 sheets per student.
.
. frieze patterns and tessella-
.
. tions.

Math Alive! Course III / 25

Lesson 2 Introduction to Isometries

LESSON IDEAS
.
FOLLOW-UP JOURNALS . QUOTE
.
Students may find it helpful If students are keeping jour- . Students discover rela-
.
to cut out triangles to ex- nals (see Starting Points for . tionships and develop
.
plore arrangements that ideas), throughout this les- . spatial sense by construct-
.
form different polyamonds son you might have them . ing, drawing, measuring,
.
for Problem 1. Some stu- begin or add to a glossary . visualizing, comparing,
.
dents may be especially in which they represent the . transforming, and classify-
.
challenged by finding all meanings of terms using . ing geometric figures.
.
the hexamonds and may diagrams and minimal . Discussing ideas, conjec-
.
benefit by periodic opportu- numbers of words. Periodi- . turing, and testing hypoth-
.
nities to compare results cally, you might select a . eses precede the develop-
.
with classmates. term and ask for volunteers . ment of more formal
.
to show their pictorial ex- . summary statements. In
.
BULLETIN BOARDS planations from their glos- . the process, definitions
.
You might create a bulletin saries. Note that in the last . become meaningful, rela-
.
board display of the tessel- action of the Focus activity, . tionships among figures
.
lations from Actions 19 and the students summarize . are understood, and stu-
.
20 of the Focus activity and their understanding of ter- . dents are prepared to use
.
a display of the friezes from minology. . these ideas in informal
.
Problem 9 of the Follow-up. . arguments.
.
If you let students know . NCTM Standards
that this is your plan, they
may put more care into
their designs.

SELECTED ANSWERS

1. Polyamond Symmetries 2-3. Rotations about S: 120°, 240°, 360°;

no reflective 1 reflective 2 reflective 3 reflective 6 reflective about P, Q, R: 60°, 120°, 180°, 240°,
no symmetry 2 rotational no rotational 2 rotational 3 rotational 6 rotational 300°, 360°. Translations along the
triamond and vectors shown, their opposites, and
diamond
their multiples.

tetramonds

pentamonds

P
hexamonds
S
Q

5. a) T b) T c) T d) T
e) F f) T g) F

26 / Math Alive! Course III

Introduction to Isometries Lesson 2

Connector Teacher Activity

OVERVIEW & PURPOSE MATERIALS
Students construct and analyze the symmetry of various ✔ 1-cm grid paper, 1 sheet per student and 1 transpar-
polyominoes—shapes made by joining together squares. ency.
During the Focus activity, the students determine which of ✔ Scissors for each student.
these shapes tessellate the plane.

ACTIONS COMMENTS

1␣ ␣ Arrange the students in groups and give each student 1␣ ␣ The expression “joined edgewise” implies that
a pair of scissors and a sheet of 1-cm grid paper. Ask the squares must be joined edge to edge, not corner to
students to each cut out a tetromino, an arrangement of 4 corner, and squares should meet full edge to full edge
squares joined edgewise. Then have the groups deter- without overlaps.
mine how many noncongruent tetrominoes are pos-
sible. Discuss their conclusions and the methods they Students could silhouette the different cutout tetro-
use to decide they have found all the tetrominoes. minoes on the overhead. Note that, if one tetromino
can be moved to coincide exactly with another, then the
tetrominoes are congruent. In the Focus activity stu-
dents will explore in depth the motions, or transforma-
tions, that move a shape so that it coincides with a
congruent shape.

Following are two methods students’ have suggested for

determining the 5 possible noncongruent tetrominoes.

Method 1: Determine the ways in which one square can

be attached to these 2 different arrangements of 3
squares:

Method 2: Consider the case in which 4 squares are in a

row:

Then the cases where the maximum number of squares

in a row is 3:

And, finally, the cases where the maximum number of

squares in a row is 2:

Math Alive! Course III / 27

Lesson 2 Introduction to Isometries
Connector Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

2␣ ␣ Ask the groups to determine and cut out all the 2␣ ␣ Students formed all the different pentominoes in
possible noncongruent pentominoes, arrangements of 5 Lesson 1 of Math Alive! Course II . The 12 different
squares joined edgewise. Then have them sort and pentominoes fall into 5 different symmetry types. Note
classify the pentominoes according to their symmetry that half of the pentominoes have no reflectional sym-
types, and to label each classification. Discuss. metry and half do.

no reflectional no reflectional
no rotational 2 rotational

1 reflectional 2 reflectional 4 reflectional

no rotational 2 rotational 4 rotational

3␣ ␣ Ask the groups to classify the different tetrominoes 3␣ ␣ The 5 tetrominoes each have one of the 5 types of
formed in Action 1 according to their symmetry types. symmetry listed above.
Discuss.

4␣ ␣ Ask the groups to see if they can construct a hex- 4␣ ␣ Shown below are hexominoes for 4 of the above
omino, an arrangement of 6 squares joined edgewise, for types of symmetry. No hexomino has 4 reflectional and
each of the 5 symmetry types found in Action 2. 4 rotational symmetries.

no reflectional no reflectional 1 reflectional 2 reflectional

no rotational 2 rotational no rotational 2 rotational

28 / Math Alive! Course III

Introduction to Isometries Lesson 2

Focus Teacher Activity

OVERVIEW & PURPOSE MATERIALS
Students explore different ways of moving a shape onto a ✔ Focus Student Activities 2.1, 2.2, and 2.3, 1 copy of
congruent shape. These movements strengthen students’ each per student and 1 transparency of each. (Note:
awareness of congruence, motivate introductory experiences the last 2 pages of 2.3 should be run back-to-back on
with isometries (reflections, translations, rotations, and glide cardstock.)
reflections) and provide the basis for creating friezes and ✔ Focus Masters A, B, and J, 1 copy of each per student
tessellations. and 1 transparency.
✔ Focus Master C, 2 copies per student and 1 transpar-
ency.
✔ Focus Masters D, E, and I, 1 transparency of each.
✔ Focus Masters F, G, H, 1 copy of each per student and
2 transparencies of each.
✔ Patty paper, 8 sheets of hamburger “patty paper” (or
1 ⁄ 4 -sheets of tracing paper) per student.

✔ Scissors and straightedges, 1 of each per student.

✔ Protractors (see Blackline Masters, copy on transparen-
cies), 1 per student.
✔ 2-cm triangular grid paper (see Blackline Masters),
2 sheets per student and 1 transparency.
✔ 2-cm squared grid paper (see Blackline Masters),
2 sheets per student and 1 transparency.
✔ Marking pens for each group.
✔ Blank transparencies (1 ⁄ 4 -sheets) for use at the over-
head.
✔ Butcher paper strips, several for each group.

ACTIONS COMMENTS

1␣ ␣ Arrange the students in groups and give each student 1␣ ␣ Patty paper is available in some supermarkets, from
a copy of Focus Master A (see next page), a sheet of patty restaurant suppliers, and from the MLC catalog. Stan-
paper, a straightedge, and a pair of scissors. Ask the dard sheets of tracing paper (generally more expensive)
students to investigate the problem posed on Master A, cut into 1 ⁄ 4 -sheets can be used in place of patty paper.
discussing their ideas with their groupmates as they
work. Discuss. As groups share their methods, encourage Students are likely to use a variety of strategies. Some
them to explain their motions as fully as possible. may trace and cut out a copy of Square F and actually
move it to coincide with Square D. Others may only
Use the students’ descriptions of motions they use trace a copy and move the tracing (patty) paper. Still
during Actions 1-3 as a context for introducing one or others may imagine moves.
more of these terms: transformation, reflection, rotation,
mapping, translation vector, magnitude, pre-image, image, To facilitate student sharing at the overhead, you could
isometry, one-to-one correspondence, and composite, noting have volunteers trace a shape on a quarter sheet of
that learning terminology is not the primary purpose transparency and demonstrate the transformations that
here and it isn’t expected that all the terms be intro- move the shape onto its image.
duced in this action.
The intent here is for students to informally describe
motions (several examples are shown on the next page)

(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 29

Lesson 2 Introduction to Isometries
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

1 (continued.)
Introduction to Isometries Lesson 2
Focus Master A
that involve the use of transformations called rotations,
reflections, and translations, and for the teacher to attach
more formal language as appropriate. Students will
Investigate ways to use slides, flips, and/or turns to become familiar with technical language through usage
move Square F exactly onto Square D. Use words
over time. The explanations that follow are teacher
and/or mark diagrams to explain the movements
that you use.
background information for use in clarifying student
comments throughout Actions 1-3. Not all this informa-
tion will necessarily be discussed during this action.

In general, a transformation is a mapping of one set of

points, called the pre-image, onto another set of points,
called the image. There is a one-to-one correspondence
between the points on a pre-image and the points on its
image because, for every point on the pre-image there is
D a corresponding point on the image and, conversely, for
F every point on the image there is a corresponding point
on the pre-image.

In this lesson, students explore transformations that

map shapes onto congruent shapes. Dilations—enlarge-
ments and reductions—that students constructed in
Lesson 30 of Math Alive! Course II, are transformations
that map shapes onto similar shapes.

Since Square F and Square D are congruent, a transfor-

mation of Square F onto Square D must not change the
size or shape of Square F. Any transformation that pre-
serves the size and shape of a figure is called an isometry.
Hence, two figures are congruent if there is an isometry
that maps one exactly onto the other.

Method 1. Slide Square F A translation is an isometry that can be modeled by a

directly on top of Square D. F F slide. Under a translation, all of the points on a figure
slide the same distance along parallel paths to its image
(see Method 1 at the left). A translation is defined by its
direction and distance. A translation vector (e.g., an arrow
in the diagram at the left) is used on a drawing to show
the direction and distance of the translation. The length
of the vector from its starting point to the tip of the
arrowhead tells how far each point slides. The distance is
called the magnitude of the translation. The direction the
vector points indicates the direction of the translation.
All points slide along paths that are parallel and equal in
length to the translation vector.

Method 2. Trace Square F A rotation is an isometry that can be modeled by turning

and, using point G as the a figure about a fixed point, called the center of the
turning (or pivot) point, rotation, as illustrated in Method 2 at the left. Every
rotate the tracing until it F point on the original figure must rotate about the same
fits on Square D. F G point and through the same angle (180° in this ex-
ample). The amount and direction of a rotation is indi-

30 / Math Alive! Course III

Introduction to Isometries Lesson 2
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

cated by a rotation vector, which is an arc (with an arrow-

head on one end) of a circle whose center is the center
of the rotation. The degree measure of the arc is the
angle of rotation and is called the magnitude of the
rotation. The arrowhead indicates the direction of the
rotation.

Note that identifying centers and angles of rotation may

challenge students. Throughout this lesson, provide
time and encouragement for students to invent and
discover informal methods of their own. To approxi-
mate the center of rotation of Square F onto Square D,
for example, one can trace Square F onto tracing paper,
predict a center of rotation and place a pencil point at
that point on the tracing paper. Then, keeping Focus
Master A in place and using the pencil point to hold the
tracing paper, rotate the tracing of Square F to see if it
will map exactly onto Square D. If it does, then the
position of the pencil point is a center of rotation (a
very close approximation). If not, then the process can
be repeated until a close approximation of the center is
identified.

The following method works to determine the angle of

rotation of one shape onto another congruent shape:
mark a point X on the pre-image; trace the pre-image;
locate the center of rotation and label it point O; rotate
the tracing about point O onto the image; mark the
image of point X and label it X′; draw a line segment
from point O to point X on the pre-image and another
segment from point O to X′. The measure of the angle
X0X′ is the measure of the angle of rotation (180° in this
case).
X′
180° F
F O

Method 3. Flip Square F over A reflection is an isometry that can be modeled by a flip,
line l onto Square D. F F as illustrated in Method 3 at the left. In this isometry,
every point on a figure is flipped, or reflected, across a
l line to a corresponding point on the image of the figure.
A line of reflection is the perpendicular bisector of every
segment that connects a point on the original figure
with its corresponding point on the image of the figure
(some students may notice this now, and if not, it will
come up later). A figure and its reflection are mirror
images of one another across the line, or axis, of reflection.
Folding along the line of reflection should map Square F
onto Square D.

(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 31

Lesson 2 Introduction to Isometries
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

Method 4. Slide Square F, 1 (continued.)

without turning, along the The students will likely also describe several transforma-
paths of the arrows until tions that are combinations of translations, rotations,
Square F fits onto Square D. and/or reflections. Such combinations are called compos-
ites of the transformations. Methods 4, 5, and 6 shown
F F in the left-hand column are examples. Notice that
Method 4 uses a combination of 2 translations, Method
5 uses a rotation followed by a translation, and Method
6 uses a reflection followed by a translation.
Method 5. D
i) Rotate Square F clockwise F Some groups may conclude there are an infinite number
a 1 ⁄ 4 -turn (90°) about point of movements. Others may restrict their count in some
G and then, way. For example, some may not count two movements
i)
F

D as “different” unless the sides of the pre-image and

ii) slide Square F onto Square G image match in distinctly different ways. Under such
D. restrictions, Methods 1, 2, 3, 5, and 6 describe different
ii) movements; however, Methods 1 and 4 are the “same.”
F

One of the problems that may come up is to mark

Square F so that the different movements can be recog-
nized. Methods used in the Lesson 1 Connector may be
helpful.

Method 6. D
i) Flip Square F over a line of F
symmetry and then,
i) D
ii) slide Square F onto Square
D.

ii)

2␣ ␣ Distribute a copy of Focus Master B to each student 2␣ ␣ Students can use their tracings of Square F from
and ask them to find all the different mappings of Square Action 1 to explore this problem. Keep in mind that
F onto Square D, assuming different mappings means methods students use to locate centers of rotation and
the sides of the pre-image and image match in distinctly axes of reflection will be informal (e.g., paperfolding to
different ways. Ask the students to identify ways they locate lines and experimenting with pencil points about
locate axes of reflection and centers of rotation. Discuss. which tracings can be rotated). Following are examples
of 4 of the 8 different possible mappings of Square F
onto Square D. Note that students may use different
combinations of movements to achieve the 8 different
mappings. However, just as there are 8 different posi-
tions for a square in its frame, there are exactly 8 differ-
ent ways the sides of the pre-image can map to the sides
of the image. Labeling the vertices of the pre-image and
vertices of the image as in the Lesson 1 Connector may
be helpful.

32 / Math Alive! Course III

Introduction to Isometries Lesson 2
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

Method 1: Method 3:
Lesson 2 Introduction to Isometries
Focus Master B
Translate Square F onto Rotate Square F 180°
Square D. clockwise about point G.

F G
F

Method 2: Method 4:
i) Reflect Square F across i) Rotate Square F clock-
line l and then, wise 90° about point G
F
and then,
ii) translate Square F onto ii) translate Square F onto
Square D. Square D.
D
i)
F F

l
D D

ii) i)

F
G

ii)
F

3␣ ␣ Give each group several strips of butcher paper and 3 It is helpful to keep a supply of butcher paper strips
marking pens. Give each student two additional sheets on hand throughout the lesson, so that students can
of patty paper, a protractor, and a copy of Focus Student record conjectures, questions, and generalizations and
Activity 2.1 (see next page) to complete. Ask them to use attach them to a poster for consideration by the class.
their protractors to determine the measures of angles of
rotation. Encourage the students to confer with their See Comment 1 for an example of a method for deter-
groupmates as they work and record on butcher paper mining the measure an angle of rotation.
strips any conjectures or generalizations that come up.
Post these on the “We conjecture… We wonder… ”
poster from Lesson 1 (or on a new poster). Discuss as a
large group as needed. (Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 33

Lesson 2 Introduction to Isometries
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

3 (continued.)
Introduction to Isometries Lesson 2
Note: in general, angles are referred to by their vertex or
Focus Student Activity 2.1 by 3 points—the vertex and a point on each side of the
angle. The notation ∠XOX′, for example, denotes the
NAME DATE

angle with vertex O, one ray extending through the

1␣ ␣ Shown below are several pairs of congruent shapes. Investigate
ways to use one or more translations, reflections, rotations, or com- point X, and the other ray extending through the point
binations of them, to move each first shape exactly onto the second.
X′. The small arc inside the angle suggests that ∠XOX′ is
For each pair of shapes, write an explanation in words only of your
“favorite” motion or combination of motions; explain in enough → →
the acute angle formed by rays OX and OX′ rather than
detail that a reader would be able to duplicate your motions without
additional information.
the reflex angle.
a) c)

X′

d) ∠XOX′
b)
O
X

e) Problem 3) Some students may correctly conjecture that

the number of different mappings of any shape onto
another congruent shape is equal to the number of
symmetries of the shape. For example, in Lesson 1
2␣ ␣ Challenge. Each motion or combination of motions that you
students determined that a nonsquare rectangle has
determined for Problem 1 produces a mapping of the first shape (the symmetry of order 4 (2 reflectional and 2 rotational
pre-image) exactly onto the second (the image). How many different
mappings are there for each of a)-e), if different means the sides of symmetries). Notice in a) there are 4 different mappings
the pre-image and the sides of the image match in distinctly differ-
ent ways. of a nonsquare rectangle onto a congruent rectangle: a
3␣ ␣ Record your “I wonder…” statements, conjectures, or conclu-
translation followed by a translation; a horizontal trans-
sions. lation followed by a reflection; a vertical translation
© 1998, The Math Learning Center
3rd DRAFT Math Alive! Course III / 35 followed by a reflection; and a rotation.

4␣ ␣ Remind the students that reflections, translations, 4␣ ␣ Here are some possibilities for moving Shape A to
and rotations are isometries because they are motions Position 1:
that do not change the size or shape of an object. Place a
transparency of Focus Master C on the overhead and ask
the students to describe ways to move Shape A to Posi-
tion 1 (shown by the shape numbered 1) using one or
more reflection, translation, and/or rotation. Have
volunteers demonstrate their ideas at the overhead.

Method 1 Method 2 Method 3

m
s
r

A A A
l O
1 1 1

Flip Shape A over line l Rotate Shape A 180° Reflect Shape A over line
and then over line m. about point O. r and then over line s.

34 / Math Alive! Course III

Introduction to Isometries Lesson 2
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

Introduction to Isometries Lesson 2

Focus Master C

A 2

8 6
7

5␣ ␣ Give each student another sheet of patty paper and a 5␣ ␣ It is possible to move Shape A directly to each of the
copy of Focus Master C (see above). Place a transparency given positions except 7 by using only one of the 3
of Focus Master D on the overhead revealing Part I only given isometries.
for the students to complete. When Part I is completed,
ask the students to discuss their results and observations Here are some questions you might use to encourage
with their groupmates. Discuss as a large group, using students to explain their thinking: How did you decide
the students’ observations as a context for introducing what motions might be possible? How did you deter-
the terms direct transformation and indirect transformation mine where to put lines of reflection? How did you
(see Comment 5). Encourage conjectures and generaliza- locate centers of rotation?
tions.
The intent of this action is to informally strengthen
students’ awareness about these motions. It is likely that
Lesson 2 Introduction to Isometries students will experiment when locating axes of reflec-
Focus Master D
tion or centers of rotations; however, conjectures about
methods of identifying axes and centers may begin to
Part I surface. For example, if it hasn’t come up previously,
It is possible to move Shape A directly to several of students may notice that a line of reflection is the per-
the numbered positions using exactly one of these pendicular bisector of the segments connecting a point
isometries only once: translation, reflection, or rota-
on the pre-image to its corresponding point on the
tion. Find each position for which this is possible,
and tell the single motion that moves Shape A to
image.
that position.

(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 35

Lesson 2 Introduction to Isometries
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS
R
5 (continued.)
T U
Translations and rotations are called direct transforma-
tions, because they preserve the orientation of a shape. For
S S
R W T example, if the vertices of a polygon are labeled R, S, T,
W V U U, etc., in a clockwise direction, after a direct transfor-
mation they still read clockwise, as shown in the ex-
ample at the left. Other rotations, regardless of their
magnitude or direction, also preserve the clockwise
orientation of the letters.

Similarly, a translation preserves the orientation of the

letters. However, notice in the following example that
after a reflection, letters on vertices switch from clock-
wise to counterclockwise. R

S
W T
V U
V U
L
W T
S

Reflections are called indirect transformations because

they reverse the orientation of a shape and thus change
the direction in which labeled vertices read.

6␣ ␣ Give each student another sheet of patty paper and 6␣ ␣ Groups may have discovered some solutions to this
another copy of Focus Master C. Reveal Part II on the problem while investigating Part I in Action 5.
transparency of Focus Master D. When the students
have completed their work, discuss their methods and A glide reflection is a two-step isometry involving: 1) a
conclusions. Introduce the term glide reflection. translation and 2) a reflection across a line parallel to
the translation vector. A pair of footprints is an example
of a glide reflection—notice it is possible to slide and
Lesson 2 Introduction to Isometries then flip, or flip and then slide (the order of the motions
Focus Master D
does not matter):

Part I
It is possible to move Shape A directly to several of
the numbered positions using exactly one of these
isometries only once: translation, reflection, or rota-
tion. Find each position for which this is possible,
and tell the single motion that moves Shape A to
that position.
Shape A can be moved onto position 7 by a glide reflec-
tion. A glide reflection is an indirect isometry because
Part II the orientation of the image is reversed with respect to
Describe ways to move Shape A from its starting
the pre-image.
position to each numbered position using a combi-
nation of exactly two reflections, rotations, and/or
translations. Note: combinations of more than one
type of motion are allowed as long as no more than
two motions are used.

36 / Math Alive! Course III

Introduction to Isometries Lesson 2
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

7␣ ␣ Distribute one copy of Focus Student Activity 2.2 to 7␣ ␣ Students may need additional patty paper. Here are
each student for completion. Encourage “I conjecture…” two methods for Problem 1:
and “I wonder…” statements. Discuss their results.
Method 1: Reflection

Lesson 2 Introduction to Isometries

Focus Student Activity 2.2 D

NAME DATE
F

1␣ ␣ Shown at the right are 2 congruent squares. Determine ways to

use exactly one isometry (translation, reflection, rotation, or glide D

reflection) to move Square F exactly onto Square D. F

Method 2: Rotation about point C. Note there are other

2␣ ␣ Repeat Problem 1 for the 2 equilateral triangles shown here: possible placements of the center of rotation.

m
3␣ ␣ Sketch the reflected image of Shape A across line m. Next to
your sketch write several mathematical observations about

F
A
relationships you notice. Then explain how you verified that the
image is a reflection of Shape A across line m.
F
C
n
4␣ ␣ Challenge. Develop a method of accurately reflecting Shape B
across line n. Show and describe your method of locating the
reflected image of Shape B and tell how you verified that your B

method was correct. Can you generalize?

Notice that the composite of the translation and reflec-
tion shown below move Square F onto Square D. How-
5␣ ␣ Sketch the image of Shape C after a 120° clockwise rota-
tion about point P. Next to your sketch write several math- C ever, note this is not a glide reflection because the line
ematical observations about relationships that you notice.
Then explain how you verified that the image is a 120° of reflection is not parallel to the translation vector.
rotation about point P. P

i)
6␣ ␣ Challenge. Invent a method of rotating Shape D 170° clock-
wise about point P, without using a grid. Show and describe your
method of locating the rotated image of Shape D and tell how
D
F
you verified that your method was correct. P

36 / Math Alive!, Course III

3rd DRAFT © 1996, The Math Learning Center D
F

ii)
F

For Problems 1 and 2 students may be interested in

determining all the different possible ways, where differ-
ent implies different pairings of the sides of the pre-
image and sides of the image. The students may cor-
rectly conjecture that the number of possibilities equals
the number of ways the shapes fit in their frames (see
Lesson 1).

Math Alive! Course III / 37

Lesson 2 Introduction to Isometries
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

8␣ ␣ Place a transparency of the top half (cut apart from 8␣ ␣ a) The top transparency of the pattern can be flipped
the bottom half ) of Focus Master E on the overhead. along a horizontal line down the centerline of the E’s, or
it can be translated in the direction of the strip, or both.
Introduction to Isometries Lesson 2
Focus Master E
b) An isometry transformation of a strip pattern or frieze
onto itself is called a symmetry of the strip pattern. A frieze
can have reflectional, rotational, translational, and/or
Frieze A
glide reflectional symmetry.

The symmetries of the frieze shown are: reflectional

about a horizontal line through the middle of the strip,
translational in the direction of the strip; and glide
reflectional. This frieze has no rotational symmetry.
Ask the students to suppose this strip pattern, or frieze,
extends indefinitely to the left and the right. Allow a
few moments for the students to examine the pattern.
Then place the bottom half of Focus Master E over the
top half so the patterns coincide.

a) Ask the students to mentally determine ways the top

transparency can be moved so that the patterns on the
two transparencies again coincide, keeping in mind the
pattern extends indefinitely in both directions. Discuss
their ideas.

b) Have the groups discuss their ideas about the symme-

try of the strip pattern, identifying any centers of rotation,
translation vectors, and lines of reflection. Discuss as a
large group. Clarify as needed.

9␣ ␣ Give each student a copy of Focus Master F (see next 9␣ ␣ Students can work with a partner, superimposing
page) and ask the groups to determine the symmetries of their copies of the friezes so tracing is unnecessary. If
the friezes shown and methods of moving the frieze students have difficulty seeing through one copy, they
onto itself. Have them label centers of rotation, transla- could hold the superimposed copies up to a window.
tion vectors, and lines of reflection. Invite volunteers to
show their group’s ideas at the overhead using two A symmetry of Frieze A is either a) a translation in the
transparencies of Master F. direction of the strip, b) a reflection about a horizontal
line through the center of the X’s, c) a reflection about a
vertical line through the center of any X, d) a reflection
about a vertical line midway between adjacent X’s, e) a
half turn about the center of any X, f ) a half turn about
the midpoint of the line segment connecting the centers
of adjacent X’s, or g) any combination of the above six
types. Representative axes of symmetry and centers of
rotation are shown below.

38 / Math Alive! Course III

Introduction to Isometries Lesson 2
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

The symmetries of Frieze B are: a) a translation in the

Lesson 2 Introduction to Isometries
Focus Master F
direction of the strip, b) a glide reflection (e.g., a transla-
tion in the direction of the strip followed by a reflection
about a horizontal line through the center of the pat-
Frieze A
tern), or c) combinations of a) and b).

You might ask the students to create notation for identi-

fying the types of symmetry for the friezes. Or, you
could introduce the following (this notation is used
throughout the remaining actions and comments):

T–translational
H–reflectional about a horizontal line
Frieze B
V–reflectional about a vertical line
R–rotational through a half turn
G–glide reflectional

Frieze A on Focus Master F has all of the above types.

Frieze B has types T and G.

10␣ ␣ Give each student a copy of Focus Master G and 10␣ ␣ Using the notation defined above, the three strip
repeat Action 9 for the friezes on the master. patterns have, respectively, the following types of sym-
metry: T and R; T only; and T and V.
Introduction to Isometries Lesson 2
Focus Master G

Frieze A

Frieze B

Frieze C

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Math Alive! Course III / 31

3rd DRAFT

Math Alive! Course III / 39

Lesson 2 Introduction to Isometries
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

11␣ ␣ Give each group several marking pens and a sheet 11 One example of a frieze with T, G, and R type
of 2-cm squared grid paper. Ask the groups to design a symmetries is the following:
frieze which has T, G, and R type symmetries. Invite
volunteers to show their group’s patterns to the class for
verification. Discuss the students’ conjectures and gener-
alizations about friezes with T, G, and R type symme-
tries, and the reasoning behind their conjectures and
generalizations.

Students may notice that the above pattern also has type
V symmetry. To draw out conjectures and generaliza-
tions about frieze patterns with T, G, and R type symme-
tries, you could post several groups’ friezes and ask the
class to make observations about similarities and differ-
ences they notice. For, example, every frieze which has
G and R type symmetries also has V type symmetry,
since the combination of a glide reflection followed by a
half turn is the same as a reflection about a vertical line.

12␣ ␣ Give each student a copy of Focus Master H and ask 12␣ ␣ The friezes have, respectively, the following sets of
the groups to determine the set of symmetries of each symmetries:
pattern. Discuss.
Frieze A: T and V;
Lesson 2 Introduction to Isometries
Focus Master H
Frieze B: T only;

Frieze C: T, R, V, and G.
Frieze A

Frieze B

Frieze C

32 / Math Alive! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center

3rd DRAFT

40 / Math Alive! Course III

Introduction to Isometries Lesson 2
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

13␣ ␣ Ask the groups to determine all the possible sets of 13␣ ␣ It is helpful to have available a supply of 2-cm
symmetries for a frieze and to design a frieze for each squared grid paper and 2-cm triangular grid paper (see
possible set, using a grid of choice. Have the groups Blackline Masters).
exchange their completed patterns for verification.
Discuss. Some groups may take some time identifying all the
possible sets of symmetries for a strip pattern. There are
7 possibilities:

1. T only
2. T and V
3. T and R
4. T and G
5. T, H, and G
6. T, R, V, and G
7. T, R, H, V, and G

Shown below are examples of strip patterns which have,

respectively, the above seven sets of symmetries.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

Math Alive! Course III / 41

Lesson 2 Introduction to Isometries
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

14␣ ␣ Place a transparency of Focus Master I on the over- 14␣ ␣ It may be helpful to discuss students’ ideas about
head. Ask the students to imagine that the pattern the geometric meaning of the term plane and ask them
shown continues indefinitely in all directions and tell to identify surfaces that are portions of a plane. For
them it is an example of a tessellation, i.e., a tiling by a example, a sheet of paper, a wall, the floor, a table top,
set of one or more congruent figures that cover the plane the ceiling, windows, etc., are all portions of a plane,
without gaps or overlaps. Ask the students for their since they are all bounded by edges. A plane extends
observations about this tessellation, including its sym- indefinitely and has no boundaries:
metries. Discuss. Have students use a second transpar-
ency of Focus Master I to illustrate their ideas about the
symmetries of the tessellation at the overhead.

Introduction to Isometries Lesson 2

Focus Master I

A tessellation is symmetrical if there is an isometry

which maps it back onto itself, i.e., a tracing of the tes-
sellation which can be rotated, translated, reflected and/
or glide reflected from one position in which it is coinci-
dent with the tessellation to another position coincident
with it. Notice there is a pattern to the way the tessellat-
ing figures fit together at vertices of the tessellation.

Here are examples of observations students have made

about the tessellation on Focus Master I:

The tessellation is made by repeating the same L-

shape over and over, but changing its orientation.

We see a tiling made up of rectangles formed by 2 L-shapes.

The tessellation has rotational symmetry. If a copy of the

tessellation is positioned so that it coincides with the origi-
nal, and then the copy is rotated 180° about either of the
points shown in Figure 1, it will again coincide with the
tessellation.

centers of axes of
rotation symmetry

Figure 1 Figure 2

The tessellation has reflective symmetry. A copy that coin-

cides with the tessellation can be flipped across any of the
horizontal or vertical lines of the tessellation and the copy
will again coincide with the tessellation (see Figure 2 above).

42 / Math Alive! Course III

Introduction to Isometries Lesson 2
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

The tessellation has translational symmetry, with many

B translation vectors. For example, if we place a copy so it
coincides with the tessellation, we can slide the copy the
→ →
distance and direction of either of vectors AB or BC (see
Figure 3), and the copy will again coincide with the original.
Slides that are along the same translation vectors but twice
as long also work. The vectors can also go in the opposite
A C direction. We also see lots of different horizontal and vertical
Figure 3
slides that are possible. And there are more!

Many glide reflections are possible. For example, translate

along a horizontal translation vector and then reflect across
one of the horizontal lines of symmetry; or translate along a
vertical translation vector, and then reflect across a vertical
line of symmetry. We could also reverse the process by flip-
ping and then sliding. Note: the translation vector and
line of reflection must be parallel.

Use two reflections: flip across one of the vertical lines of

symmetry, then flip across one of the horizontal lines of
symmetry.

We notice that there is a pattern to the ways the corners of

the L-shapes meet and there are two different types of inter-
sections.

15␣ ␣ Give each student one sheet of 2-cm squared grid 15␣ ␣ Some groups may prefer to cut out copies of the
paper. Ask them to cut the sheet in half. Point out that pentomino and fit the pieces together to create tessella-
the pentomino shown below is the basic tile for the tions. Then they can copy the tessellation on grid paper.
tessellation on Focus Master I. Here is one possibility that has no reflective symmetry:

Ask each group to draw on half sheets of grid paper

(using marking pens, and completely filling each half Notice the tessellation above has 180° and 360° rota-
sheet with one tessellation) several other tessellations tional symmetry.
based on the above tile, including one that has no
reflective symmetry. Invite volunteers from the groups You may need to remind the students that a tessellation
to hold up their tessellations for the class to see. Discuss covers all points of the plane so it has no gaps. Also each
the symmetry types, centers of rotation, axes of reflec- point is covered once only, so there are no overlaps. To
tion, translation vectors, etc. tessellate a half sheet, students should fill the sheet,
including partial pentominoes that fit along the edges.

Math Alive! Course III / 43

Lesson 2 Introduction to Isometries
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

16␣ ␣ Give each student another sheet of 2-cm squared 16␣ ␣ Students drew the 12 different pentominoes in the
grid paper and ask them to cut the sheet in half. Ask the Connector activity. You might remind the groups to use
groups to, if possible, draw two different tessellations marking pens so their tessellations will be easy to see
which are based on other pentominoes and so the tessel- when you post them. To facilitate sharing, for each of
lations have symmetry as described in a) below. Post parts a)-e), you could label a sheet of butcher paper
some of these tessellations for verification and discus- headed with the given symmetry type, then groups
sion by the class. Repeat for one or more of b)-d). could attach their tessellations to the poster.

a) translational symmetry only, c) There is only one possibility:

b) only translational and 2 rotational symmetries,

c) only translational and 4 rotational symmetries,

d) only translational and reflectional symmetry, with

axes of symmetry that extend in one direction only.

17␣ ␣ Give each student a copy of Focus Master J and ask 17␣ ␣ To test for tessellations students could trace copies
them to determine which, if any, of the regular poly- of the shapes on blank paper, or they could cut out the
gons shown on Master J tessellate the plane. For any shapes and combine them with their groupmates’ cutout
that do not tessellate, have them explain why they shapes.
think this is so. Then ask them to determine whether
there are other regular polygons that tessellate. Discuss. The equilateral triangle, square, and hexagon are the
only regular polygons that tessellate the plane. Since the
measures of the angles of an equilateral triangle are 60°,
Lesson 2 Introduction to Isometries
Focus Master J
6 triangles can be arranged about a point to exactly fill
out 360°, with no gaps or overlaps. Similarly, because
the angles of a square all measure 90° and because the
angles of a regular hexagon are each 120°, 4 copies of a
square can be arranged about a point to exactly fill out
360°, as can 3 copies of a regular hexagon. However, the
remaining regular polygons do not have angle measures
that are factors of 360°.

Note: the students computed interior angle measures for

these regular polygons on the Lesson 1 Follow-up Stu-
dent Activity. The following diagram together with the
fact that the sum of the measure of the angles in any
triangle is 180°, provides the basis for one line of reason-
ing that the measure of the interior angle of a regular
n-gon is (n− 2)180° .
n

3-gon 4-gon 5-gon 6-gon

180°
____ 180° × 2
________ 180° × 3
________ 180° × 4
________
= 60°
3 4 5 6

Students may discover they can tile the plane with

certain combinations of two or more noncongruent

44 / Math Alive! Course III

Introduction to Isometries Lesson 2
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

shapes at each vertex. These are called semi-pure tessella-

tions, whereas those that involve only one shape are pure
tessellations. The focus of this lesson is on pure tessella-
tions for which there is a pattern in the order the shapes
meet at vertices.

18␣ ␣ Ask the groups to complete a)-c) below. Invite 18␣ ␣ All triangles tessellate. This is because the sum of
volunteers to share their group’s conclusions and rea- the measures of the angles of any triangle is 180°, and
soning. Repeat for d) through f). hence, 6 copies of a triangle can be arranged around a
point to exactly cover 360°, as illustrated here:
a) Use a straightedge to draw a scalene triangle.
c
a b a

b) Label the angles of the triangle a, b, and c. c b

a
c b
b c b c
a
c) Determine whether the triangle will tessellate. Why or a a
c b
why not?
Notice that, although any combination of the angles a,
d) Determine all the different possible edge-to-edge a, b, b, c, and c fills the space around a vertex, not all
tessellations of the triangle, where two tessellations are combinations meet edge-to-edge, as shown here:
different if the arrangement of the triangles at each a
vertex in one tessellation differs from the arrangement
at the vertices in the other. a b
b
c c
c b a
a
e) Determine whether all triangles tessellate. Why or c a
c
b
b
why not? c
a b

f) Determine whether all quadrilaterals will tessellate. Similarly, all quadrilaterals tessellate since the sum of
the angles of a quadrilateral always total 360°. Four
copies of any quadrilateral can be arranged about a
point to exactly fill out 360°. However, not all arrange-
ments form edge-to-edge tessellations. Here is an edge-
to-edge arrangement that tessellates the plane:

d a b c d a

c b a d c b
b c d a b c

a d c b a d

19␣ ␣ Give each student a copy of Focus Student Activity 19␣ ␣ Focus Student Activity 2.3 contains 8 pages. It is
2.3 (see next 3 pages) and several half-sheets of blank important to copy page 7 of the activity on cardstock or
paper. Ask them to carefully read Procedure A and lightweight tagboard (old file folders also work), and to
Project A. Discuss their questions. If needed to clarify copy the shading sheet (page 8) on the back side of page
the students’ questions, you might demonstrate Proce- 7 (this enables students to distinguish between the front
dure A at the overhead before having the students begin and back of their patterns when tessellating.) Note: if
Project A. students each have a Student Activities Packet, there is a
cardstock copy of page 7 (with the backside shaded)
Once the students have completed Project A, allow time included.
for them to examine one another’s tessellations, to
discuss the symmetries of the tessellations, and to point
out conjectures or questions that surfaced while they
worked. (Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 45

Lesson 2 Introduction to Isometries
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

19 (continued.)
Introduction to Isometries Lesson 2
Circulate while students are working. Problems can
Focus Student Activity 2.3 occur if students trim pieces inaccurately to fit, if they
flip or turn a piece before sliding, or if tape extends
NAME DATE

beyond the edges of their pieces. Students may wish to

The following procedures create tessellations similar to the type
created by the Dutch artist, Maurice C. Escher, who is famous for his trace extra rectangle patterns to experiment with differ-
tessellations of birds and animals. Escher’s first inspirations came
from the Alhambra, which was built in the 13th century in Granada, ent cuts before deciding on a shape to tessellate and
Spain, and is famous for its variety of tessellations.␣ Procedure A below
gives a method of creating a tessellation based on rectangles. decorate for Project A.

Procedure A—a translation tessellation based on rectangles.

It is helpful if students use a sharp pencil and lightly
Step 1: Beginning at one corner and ending at an adjacent corner,
cut out a portion of the rectangle.
trace around the shape so they can easily make any
needed erasures or adjustments. After the page is tessel-
Step 2: Slide the cutout portion across the rectangle to the opposite
side, matching the straight edges and the corners, as shown at the lated, they may darken their tracings and add color and
right. Then tape the pieces in place.
details to the figures. They may find it necessary to
Hint: be careful not to flip the pieces over and don’t let the tape
extend beyond the edge of the figure. “fudge” slightly to make up for slight gaps or overlaps
Step 3: Beginning at an endpoint of one of the remaining two unal- caused by inaccuracies in tracing.
tered sides and ending at the other endpoint, cut another portion
from the rectangle. An example is shown here.

Step 4: Slide this cutout portion to the opposite side, matching

edges and endpoints, as illustrated at the right. Tape the pieces in Lesson 2 Introduction to Isometries
place.
Focus Student Activity 2.3 (page 2)

Hint: It is important that nothing be trimmed or altered to fit!

Step 6. Add color details to the figure to produce an interesting and
Step 5: Tile a page with this new shape by repeatedly tracing the
creative work of art.
shape so the tracings fit together, with no gaps or overlaps (a
portion of a tiled page is shown at the right). Describe the sym-
metries of the tessellation.

Hint: Remember not to flip the piece over when you tile with it.

(Continued on back.)

It could be puppy dogs on the run… …or, puppy dogs at rest!

© 1996, The Math Learning Center Math Alive!, Course III / 37
3rd DRAFT

Project A

Part I Using a rectangle from page 7 of this activity and Procedure

A, create an original tessellating shape. On another sheet of paper,
trace enough copies of your figure to show that it forms a transla-
tion tessellation.

Part II Challenge. Using a shape that is not a rectangle, adapt Proce-

dure A and create another figure that can form a translation tessella-
tion. On another sheet of paper, trace enough copies of the figure to
verify it forms a translation tessellation.

(Continued.)

40 / Math Alive! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center

4th Draft

46 / Math Alive! Course III

Introduction to Isometries Lesson 2
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

20␣ ␣ Discuss your guidelines and expectations regarding 20␣ ␣ If students had difficulty with Project A, or are
the completion of the remainder of Focus Student Activ- confused by Procedure B, you might work through
ity 2.3. Then have the students complete the activity Procedure B together.
accordingly. Display their results in the classroom.
To motivate high quality work, you could show ex-
amples from students in other classes or illustrations
from art books or other resources. You might also have
the students help you develop a guide for assessing the
completed projects, or you could provide them with a
guide created by you (see the Assessment chapter of
Starting Points for ideas).

Completed tessellations can be used for a bulletin board

or hall display. Laminating helps to preserve them.
Some teachers make slides of student work to show to
future classes.

This activity could be carried out as an extended project

outside of class, while you continue in class with the
next lesson (see the Assessment chapter of Starting Points
for a discussion of Extended Projects).

Introduction to Isometries Lesson 2 Lesson 2 Introduction to Isometries

Focus Student Activity 2.3 (page 3) Focus Student Activity 2.3 (page 4)

Procedure B—a rotation tessellation that is based on equilateral A

triangles. Procedure C—a reflection tessellation that is based on rhombuses.
P
Step 1. Mark the midpoint, P, of side AC on equilateral triangle ABC, Before you read on, trace a rhombus from page 7 and explore your
as shown at the right. Beginning at vertex C and ending at P, cut a ideas regarding ways to create a reflection tessellation based on
portion from the triangle. C B nonsquare rhombuses. Then compare your ideas to the following
procedure.
A
A
Step 1. Lightly trace the rhombus from page 7 on a blank sheet and
Step 2. Place a finger on P and rotate the cutout portion 180° about P label its vertices A, B, C, and D. Draw a curve from A to B (notice the D B
P. Then tape the rotated portion in place. curve can extend outside the rhombus). Note: in the remainder of
C B this activity, the notation c (A-B) means the curve from point A to C
point B.
Step 3. Beginning at vertex C and ending at vertex B, cut out a por- A
tion of the triangle. A
Step 2. Reflect c (A-B) about line AC. Hint: use tracing paper to in-
crease accuracy of copied curves. D B
Step 4. Place a finger on vertex B and rotate the new cutout portion
C B
clockwise 60°. Tape the rotated portion in place. C

Step 3. Rotate c (A-D) 90° about point D to form c (D-C) so that A

Step 5. Tessellate the page by repeatedly tracing and fitting together maps to C. A
(with no gaps or overlaps) the shape. Add detail and color to pro-
duce a creative piece of art that fills the page. D B

Hint: To tessellate with this shape it is necessary to rotate the Step 4. Reflect c (D-C) about line AC so that D maps to B. C
figure.

Project B Step 5. Erase the lines of the original rhombus that are not part
of the curve, and tessellate! Notice the lines of reflection in this
Part I Use an equilateral triangle from page 7 of this activity and the tessellation.
method of Procedure B, or another procedure that you invent, to
create an original shape that can be copied to form a rotation tessel-
lation. On another sheet of paper, trace enough copies of your Project C
shape to verify that it forms a rotation tessellation.
Use a rhombus from page 7 of this activity and the method of
Part II Challenge. Invent a way to alter a regular hexagon from page Procedure C, or another method that you invent, to create an origi-
7 to create a shape that forms a rotation tessellation of the plane. nal shape that can be used to form a reflection tessellation. On an-
Verify. Show a tracing of several copies to illustrate the beginning of other sheet of paper, trace enough copies of your shape to verify
a tessellation. that it forms a reflection tessellation.

(Continued on back.) (Continued.)

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Math Alive! Course III / 41

4th Draft

Math Alive! Course III / 47

Lesson 2 Introduction to Isometries
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

20 (continued.)

Introduction to Isometries Lesson 2 Lesson 2 Introduction to Isometries

Focus Student Activity 2.3 (page 5) Focus Student Activity 2.3 (page 6)

Procedure D—a glide reflection tessellation that is based on equilat- Project E

eral triangles.
Part I
Before you read on, trace an equilateral triangle from page 7 and
explore your ideas regarding ways to create a glide reflection tessel- Pick your favorite tessellating shape from those you created for
lation based on equilateral triangles. Then compare your ideas to Projects A-D, or create a new tessellating shape based on Procedures
the following procedure. A-D, or combinations of them, and:
A
Step 1. Lightly trace the equilateral triangle from page 7 on a blank a) completely tessellate a sheet of paper with the shape,
sheet and label its vertices A, B, and C. Draw a curve from A to C (as
in Procedure C, the curve can extend outside the triangle). b) be creative in ways that you color and fill in the details of this
tessellating figure,
C B

c) mount the completed tessellation on a sheet of colored paper, or

A
frame it creatively.
Step 2. Reflect c (A-C) about the line parallel to the base BC and
passing through the midpoint of AC. Then translate this reflected Note: to make a poster-sized tessellation you could enlarge the poly-
curve to connect from A to B. gon that is the basis for your tessellation (e.g., double each edge of
C B the hexagon pattern from page 7), create a new tessellating shape
based on that enlarged polygon, and then tessellate a sheet of poster
A
paper.
Step 3. Locate point P, the midpoint of side BC. Draw c (C-P).

Part II
C B
Step 4. Rotate c (C-P) 180° about point P to form c (P-B). P
On the back of your tessellation (after you have mounted it):
A
a) Trace the original polygon on which you based your tessellation.

Step 5. Tessellate! b) Trace the tessellating shape.

C B
P
c) Describe all symmetries, if any, of your tessellating shape, and all
symmetries of your tessellation. Describe translation vectors and the
Project D locations of lines of reflection and centers of rotation for your tessel-
lation.
Use Procedure D, or another method that you invented, to create an
original shape that can be used to form a glide reflection tessella-
tion. Verify by showing a tracing of several copies of your shape.

Introduction to Isometries Lesson 2

Focus Student Activity 2.3 (page 7)
(Continued on back.) (Continued.)

44 / Math Alive! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center

4th Draft

© 1996, The Math Learning Center Visual Mathematics, Course III / 43

1st DRAFT

48 / Math Alive! Course III

Introduction to Isometries Lesson 2
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

21␣ ␣ (Optional) Give the groups each a sheet of butcher 21␣ ␣ You might have the students work on this pri-
paper and a marking pen. Ask the groups to each spend vately, perhaps as homework, prior to beginning work
several minutes brainstorming terminology related to on a group or class poster. If students are keeping glossa-
symmetry and isometries. Then give each group a sheet ries in their journals, they might use the information
of butcher paper and ask them to create a poster show- from the posters as a basis for editing or adding to their
ing a glossary of symmetry terms, so that each term is glossaries.
explained using a carefully labeled diagram and as few
words as possible.

Math Alive! Course III / 49

Lesson 2 Introduction to Isometries

TEACHER NOTES:

50 / Math Alive! Course III

Introduction to Isometries Lesson 2

Follow-up Student Activity 2.4

NAME DATE

Complete all of your work for this assignment on separate paper. In-
clude a statement of each problem next to your work about the problem.

1␣ ␣ A shape made from 2 equilateral triangles joined edge-to-edge is

called a diamond. In general, a shape made of 2 or more equilateral tri-
angles joined edge-to-edge with no gaps or overlaps is called a poly-
amond. Use triangular grid paper to determine and make a chart that
shows all the different diamonds, triamonds, tetramonds, pentamonds,
and hexamonds and their symmetry types.
Diamond
2␣ ␣ Draw the polyamond with the least number of equilateral triangles
that has exactly 3 rotational symmetries but no reflective symmetry.
Label its center and angles of rotation.

3␣ ␣ Completely fill a 1⁄ 2-sheet of 2-cm triangular grid paper with a tessel-

lation of your polyamond from Problem 2. Describe the symmetries of
your tessellation. Label centers of rotations, lines of reflection, and/or
translation vectors.

4 ␣ Explain in your own words the meanings of the term isometry. De-
scribe the important features of each isometry explored in class.

5␣ ␣ Sherrill made conjectures a)-g) below. Examine several examples for

each conjecture and decide whether you agree or disagree. For each con-
jecture, state your conclusion, show the examples you examine, and
give solid mathematical evidence to support your conclusion. If you
disagree, give a counter-example and tell how you would change her
conjecture so it is true.

a) If I draw 2 intersecting lines and reflect a shape, first over one of the lines
and then over the other, I think the end result is the same as the result of a
single rotation. The center and the measure of the rotation have a special rela-
tionship to the angle of intersection of the lines.

b) An enlargement is a transformation, but it is not an isometry.

c) For any translation, I can always locate 2 parallel lines so that the result of
the translation is the same as the result of a reflection first across one of the
parallel lines and then across the other.

(Continued on back.)
Math Alive! Course III / 51
Lesson 2 Introduction to Isometries
Follow-up Student Activity (cont.)

d) Every rotation about a point can be replaced by a reflection across first

one line and then another.

e) It is not possible that a shape and its reflection can overlap. The same
is true for a shape and its rotation, translation, or glide reflection.

f ) A line of reflection is the perpendicular bisector of the line segments

that connect each point on the pre-image to its corresponding point on the
image.

g) There is no isometry that maps a shape back onto itself.

6 ␣ Use a protractor and ruler to complete a)-c).

a) Draw a nonregular hexagon. Label one vertex of the hexagon H.
Draw a line M that does not intersect the hexagon.
Draw the reflection of the hexagon across line M.
Label the image of point H as H′.
Tell how you verify that your method is correct.

b) Draw a nonregular pentagon. Label one vertex P.

Mark a point Q that is not on the pentagon.
Draw a 45° rotation of the pentagon about point Q.
Label the image of point P as P′. Explain how you verify that
point P rotated 45°.

c) Draw a scalene triangle. Label a point on the triangle C.

Label a point R that is not on the triangle. Draw a ray so that
point R is the endpoint of the ray and so the ray does not inter-
sect the triangle. Label a point S on your ray.
Sketch a translation of the triangle, using your ray with endpoint
R as a translation vector with magnitude RS.
Label the image of point C as C′.

7 Create an original frieze pattern and describe its symmetries. Then

adapt your design to create 6 new friezes that each illustrate a differ-
ent possible symmetry type for friezes. Record the symmetries of
each of your 7 friezes.

8␣ ␣ Study the following method of forming a tessellating figure that

is based on a parallelogram. Investigate to see whether the method
works for a trapezoid. If it works, complete such a tessellation of a
trapezoid. If the method does not work, explain why not.

52 / Math Alive! Course III

Introduction to Isometries Lesson 2
Focus Master A

Investigate ways to use slides, flips, and/or turns to

move Square F exactly onto Square D. Use words
and/or mark diagrams to explain the movements
that you use.

D
F

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 2 Introduction to Isometries
Focus Master B

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Introduction to Isometries Lesson 2
Focus Master C

A 2

8 6
7

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 2 Introduction to Isometries
Focus Master D

Part I
It is possible to move Shape A directly to several of
the numbered positions using exactly one of these
isometries only once: translation, reflection, or rota-
tion. Find each position for which this is possible,
and tell the single motion that moves Shape A to
that position.

Part II
Describe ways to move Shape A from its starting
position to each numbered position using a combi-
nation of exactly two reflections, rotations, and/or
translations. Note: combinations of more than one
type of motion are allowed as long as no more than
two motions are used.

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Introduction to Isometries Lesson 2
Focus Master E

Frieze A

Frieze B

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 2 Introduction to Isometries
Focus Master F

Frieze A

Frieze B

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Introduction to Isometries Lesson 2
Focus Master G

Frieze A

Frieze B

Frieze C

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 2 Introduction to Isometries
Focus Master H

Frieze A

Frieze B

Frieze C

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Introduction to Isometries Lesson 2
Focus Master I

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 2 Introduction to Isometries
Focus Master J

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Introduction to Isometries Lesson 2

Focus Student Activity 2.1

NAME DATE

1␣␣Shown below are several pairs of congruent shapes. Investigate

ways to use one or more translations, reflections, rotations, or com-
binations of them, to move each first shape exactly onto the second.
For each pair of shapes, write an explanation in words only of your
“favorite” motion or combination of motions; explain in enough
detail that a reader would be able to duplicate your motions without
additional information.

a) c)

d)
b)

e)

2␣␣Challenge. Each motion or combination of motions that you

determined for Problem 1 produces a mapping of the first shape (the
pre-image) exactly onto the second (the image). How many different
mappings are there for each of a)-e), if different means the sides of
the pre-image and the sides of the image match in distinctly differ-
ent ways.

3␣␣Record your “I wonder…” statements, conjectures, or conclu-

sions.

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 2 Introduction to Isometries

Focus Student Activity 2.2

NAME DATE

1␣␣Shown at the right are 2 congruent squares. Determine ways to

use exactly one isometry (translation, reflection, rotation, or glide D

reflection) to move Square F exactly onto Square D. F

2␣␣Repeat Problem 1 for the 2 equilateral triangles shown here:

m
3␣␣Sketch the reflected image of Shape A across line m. Next to
your sketch write several mathematical observations about
relationships you notice. Then explain how you verified that the A

image is a reflection of Shape A across line m.

n
4␣␣Challenge. Develop a method of accurately reflecting Shape B
across line n. Show and describe your method of locating the
reflected image of Shape B and tell how you verified that your B
method was correct. Can you generalize?

5␣␣Sketch the image of Shape C after a 120° clockwise rota-

tion about point P. Next to your sketch write several math- C
ematical observations about relationships that you notice.
Then explain how you verified that the image is a 120°
rotation about point P.
P

6␣␣Challenge. Invent a method of rotating Shape D 170° clock-

wise about point P, without using a grid. Show and describe your
method of locating the rotated image of Shape D and tell how
you verified that your method was correct. D
P

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Introduction to Isometries Lesson 2

Focus Student Activity 2.3

NAME DATE

The following procedures create tessellations similar to the type

created by the Dutch artist, Maurice C. Escher, who is famous for his
tessellations of birds and animals. Escher’s first inspirations came
from the Alhambra, which was built in the 13th century in Granada,
Spain, and is famous for its variety of tessellations.␣Procedure A below
gives a method of creating a tessellation based on rectangles.

Procedure A—a translation tessellation based on rectangles.

Step 1: Beginning at one corner and ending at an adjacent corner,

cut out a portion of the rectangle.

Step 2: Slide the cutout portion across the rectangle to the opposite
side, matching the straight edges and the corners, as shown at the
right. Then tape the pieces in place.

Hint: be careful not to flip the pieces over and don’t let the tape
extend beyond the edge of the figure.

Step 3: Beginning at an endpoint of one of the remaining two unal-

tered sides and ending at the other endpoint, cut another portion
from the rectangle. An example is shown here.

Step 4: Slide this cutout portion to the opposite side, matching

edges and endpoints, as illustrated at the right. Tape the pieces in
place.

Hint: It is important that nothing be trimmed or altered to fit!

Step 5: Tile a page with this new shape by repeatedly tracing the
shape so the tracings fit together, with no gaps or overlaps (a
portion of a tiled page is shown at the right). Describe the sym-
metries of the tessellation.

Hint: Remember not to flip the piece over when you tile with it.

(Continued on back.)

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 2 Introduction to Isometries
Focus Student Activity 2.3 (page 2)

Step 6. Add color details to the figure to produce an interesting and

creative work of art.

It could be puppy dogs on the run… …or, puppy dogs at rest!

Project A

Part I Using a rectangle from page 7 of this activity and Procedure

A, create an original tessellating shape. On another sheet of paper,
trace enough copies of your figure to show that it forms a transla-
tion tessellation.

Part II Challenge. Using a shape that is not a rectangle, adapt Proce-

dure A and create another figure that can form a translation tessella-
tion. On another sheet of paper, trace enough copies of the figure to
verify it forms a translation tessellation.

(Continued.)

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Introduction to Isometries Lesson 2
Focus Student Activity 2.3 (page 3)

Procedure B—a rotation tessellation that is based on equilateral A

triangles.
P
Step 1. Mark the midpoint, P, of side AC on equilateral triangle ABC,
as shown at the right. Beginning at vertex C and ending at P, cut a
portion from the triangle. C B

Step 2. Place a finger on P and rotate the cutout portion 180° about P
P. Then tape the rotated portion in place.
C B

Step 3. Beginning at vertex C and ending at vertex B, cut out a por- A

tion of the triangle.

Step 4. Place a finger on vertex B and rotate the new cutout portion
C B
clockwise 60°. Tape the rotated portion in place.

Step 5. Tessellate the page by repeatedly tracing and fitting together

(with no gaps or overlaps) the shape. Add detail and color to pro-
duce a creative piece of art that fills the page.

Hint: To tessellate with this shape it is necessary to rotate the

figure.

Project B

Part I Use an equilateral triangle from page 7 of this activity and the
method of Procedure B, or another procedure that you invent, to
create an original shape that can be copied to form a rotation tessel-
lation. On another sheet of paper, trace enough copies of your
shape to verify that it forms a rotation tessellation.

Part II Challenge. Invent a way to alter a regular hexagon from page

7 to create a shape that forms a rotation tessellation of the plane.
Verify. Show a tracing of several copies to illustrate the beginning of
a tessellation.

(Continued on back.)

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 2 Introduction to Isometries
Focus Student Activity 2.3 (page 4)

Procedure C—a reflection tessellation that is based on rhombuses.

Before you read on, trace a rhombus from page 7 and explore your
ideas regarding ways to create a reflection tessellation based on
nonsquare rhombuses. Then compare your ideas to the following
procedure.
A
Step 1. Lightly trace the rhombus from page 7 on a blank sheet and
label its vertices A, B, C, and D. Draw a curve from A to B (notice the D B
curve can extend outside the rhombus). Note: in the remainder of
this activity, the notation c (A-B) means the curve from point A to C
point B.

A
Step 2. Reflect c (A-B) about line AC. Hint: use tracing paper to in-
crease accuracy of copied curves. D B

Step 3. Rotate c (A-D) 90° about point D to form c (D-C) so that A

maps to C. A

D B

Step 4. Reflect c (D-C) about line AC so that D maps to B. C

Step 5. Erase the lines of the original rhombus that are not part
of the curve, and tessellate! Notice the lines of reflection in this
tessellation.

Project C

Use a rhombus from page 7 of this activity and the method of

Procedure C, or another method that you invent, to create an origi-
nal shape that can be used to form a reflection tessellation. On an-
other sheet of paper, trace enough copies of your shape to verify
that it forms a reflection tessellation.

(Continued.)

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Introduction to Isometries Lesson 2
Focus Student Activity 2.3 (page 5)

Procedure D—a glide reflection tessellation that is based on equilat-

eral triangles.

Before you read on, trace an equilateral triangle from page 7 and
explore your ideas regarding ways to create a glide reflection tessel-
lation based on equilateral triangles. Then compare your ideas to
the following procedure.
A
Step 1. Lightly trace the equilateral triangle from page 7 on a blank
sheet and label its vertices A, B, and C. Draw a curve from A to C (as
in Procedure C, the curve can extend outside the triangle).

C B

Step 2. Reflect c (A-C) about the line parallel to the base BC and
passing through the midpoint of AC. Then translate this reflected
curve to connect from A to B.
C B

A
Step 3. Locate point P, the midpoint of side BC. Draw c (C-P).

C B
Step 4. Rotate c (C-P) 180° about point P to form c (P-B). P
A

Step 5. Tessellate!
C B
P

Project D

Use Procedure D, or another method that you invented, to create an

original shape that can be used to form a glide reflection tessella-
tion. Verify by showing a tracing of several copies of your shape.

(Continued on back.)

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 2 Introduction to Isometries
Focus Student Activity 2.3 (page 6)

Project E

Part I

Pick your favorite tessellating shape from those you created for
Projects A-D, or create a new tessellating shape based on Procedures
A-D, or combinations of them, and:

a) completely tessellate a sheet of paper with the shape,

b) be creative in ways that you color and fill in the details of this
tessellating figure,

c) mount the completed tessellation on a sheet of colored paper, or

frame it creatively.

Note: to make a poster-sized tessellation you could enlarge the poly-

gon that is the basis for your tessellation (e.g., double each edge of
the hexagon pattern from page 7), create a new tessellating shape
based on that enlarged polygon, and then tessellate a sheet of poster
paper.

Part II

On the back of your tessellation (after you have mounted it):

a) Trace the original polygon on which you based your tessellation.

b) Trace the tessellating shape.

c) Describe all symmetries, if any, of your tessellating shape, and all

symmetries of your tessellation. Describe translation vectors and the
locations of lines of reflection and centers of rotation for your tessel-
lation.

(Continued.)

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Introduction to Isometries Lesson 2
Focus Student Activity 2.3 (page 7)

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 2 Introduction to Isometries
Focus Student Activity 2.3 (page 8)

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Introduction to Isometries Lesson 2

Follow-up Student Activity 2.4

NAME DATE

Complete all of your work for this assignment on separate paper. In-
clude a statement of each problem next to your work about the problem.

1␣␣A shape made from 2 equilateral triangles joined edge-to-edge is

called a diamond. In general, a shape made of 2 or more equilateral tri-
angles joined edge-to-edge with no gaps or overlaps is called a poly-
amond. Use triangular grid paper to determine and make a chart that
shows all the different diamonds, triamonds, tetramonds, pentamonds,
and hexamonds and their symmetry types.
Diamond
2␣␣Draw the polyamond with the least number of equilateral triangles
that has exactly 3 rotational symmetries but no reflective symmetry.
Label its center and angles of rotation.

3␣␣Completely fill a 1⁄ 2-sheet of 2-cm triangular grid paper with a tessel-

lation of your polyamond from Problem 2. Describe the symmetries of
your tessellation. Label centers of rotations, lines of reflection, and/or
translation vectors.

4 ␣Explain in your own words the meanings of the term isometry. De-
scribe the important features of each isometry explored in class.

5␣␣Sherrill made conjectures a)-g) below. Examine several examples for

each conjecture and decide whether you agree or disagree. For each con-
jecture, state your conclusion, show the examples you examine, and
give solid mathematical evidence to support your conclusion. If you
disagree, give a counter-example and tell how you would change her
conjecture so it is true.

a) If I draw 2 intersecting lines and reflect a shape, first over one of the lines
and then over the other, I think the end result is the same as the result of a
single rotation. The center and the measure of the rotation have a special rela-
tionship to the angle of intersection of the lines.

b) An enlargement is a transformation, but it is not an isometry.

c) For any translation, I can always locate 2 parallel lines so that the result of
the translation is the same as the result of a reflection first across one of the
parallel lines and then across the other.

(Continued on back.)

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 2 Introduction to Isometries
Follow-up Student Activity (cont.)

d) Every rotation about a point can be replaced by a reflection across first

one line and then another.

e) It is not possible that a shape and its reflection can overlap. The same
is true for a shape and its rotation, translation, or glide reflection.

f ) A line of reflection is the perpendicular bisector of the line segments

that connect each point on the pre-image to its corresponding point on the
image.

g) There is no isometry that maps a shape back onto itself.

6 ␣Use a protractor and ruler to complete a)-c).

a) Draw a nonregular hexagon. Label one vertex of the hexagon H.
Draw a line M that does not intersect the hexagon.
Draw the reflection of the hexagon across line M.
Label the image of point H as H′.
Tell how you verify that your method is correct.

b) Draw a nonregular pentagon. Label one vertex P.

Mark a point Q that is not on the pentagon.
Draw a 45° rotation of the pentagon about point Q.
Label the image of point P as P′. Explain how you verify that
point P rotated 45°.

c) Draw a scalene triangle. Label a point on the triangle C.

Label a point R that is not on the triangle. Draw a ray so that
point R is the endpoint of the ray and so the ray does not inter-
sect the triangle. Label a point S on your ray.
Sketch a translation of the triangle, using your ray with endpoint
R as a translation vector with magnitude RS.
Label the image of point C as C′.

7 Create an original frieze pattern and describe its symmetries. Then

adapt your design to create 6 new friezes that each illustrate a differ-
ent possible symmetry type for friezes. Record the symmetries of
each of your 7 friezes.

8␣␣Study the following method of forming a tessellating figure that

is based on a parallelogram. Investigate to see whether the method
works for a trapezoid. If it works, complete such a tessellation of a
trapezoid. If the method does not work, explain why not.

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Measurement—Inventing Formulas
Measurement—Inventing Formulas Lesson 3 Lesson 3

.
.
.
.
THE BIG IDEA .. CONNECTOR
.
. OVERVIEW MATERIALS FOR TEACHER ACTIVITY
Experiences such as .
.
. Students recall the mean- ✔ Connector Master A, ✔ Connector Master B,
cutting, moving, and .
. ings of several terms re- 1 copy per group and 1 copy per student and
.
reshaping parallelo- . lated to circles, polygons, 1 transparency. 1 transparency.
.
. and measurements of plane ✔ Scissors, 1 pair per stu-
grams, trapezoids, tri- .
. figures. dent.
.
angles, and circles en- .
.
.
able one to "see" .
. FOCUS
relationships, to invent ..
.
area and perimeter for- ..
OVERVIEW MATERIALS FOR TEACHER ACTIVITY
. Students invent area and ✔ Focus Master A, 1 trans- ✔ String, 1 piece (approx.
.
mulas, and, hence, to . perimeter formulas for par- parency. 75 cm) per pair of stu-
.
. allelograms, trapezoids, tri- dents.
retain, recall, adapt, . ✔ Focus Master B, 4 copies
. angles, and circles. They for each pair of students ✔ Metric ruler or meter
and apply those formu- .. also invent surface area and
. and 1 transparency. stick, 1 per pair of stu-
. volume formulas for prisms
las. Such experiences . ✔ Focus Master C (4 pages) dents.
. and cylinders, and solve
. copied on cardstock, 1 ✔ Round or cylindrical ob-
also enable one to . problems involving area,
. copy per student. jects (e.g., soup cans,
make sense of formulas .. perimeter, surface area, and
potato chip containers,
. volume. ✔ Focus Master D, 1 copy
. coffee cups, plates, etc.),
invented by others. . per pair of students and
. 1 set of 5 objects per
. 1 transparency.
. group of 4 students.
. ✔ Focus Student Activities
.
. 3.1-3.4, 1 copy of each ✔ Calculators, 1 per stu-
.
. per student and 1 trans- dent.
.
. parency of each. ✔ 1-cm grid paper, 2 sheets
.
. ✔ Geoboard and rubber per pair of students.
.
.
. bands (or geoboard re- ✔ Grid paper of various
.
. cording paper, see Black- sizes (1⁄4", 1-cm, etc.; op-
.
. line Masters), 1 per pair tional), available as need-
.
. of students. ed (see Comment 12).
.
. ✔ Butcher paper, marking ✔ Protractor (see Blackline
.
. pens, tape, and scissors Masters), 1 per student.
.
. for each pair of students. ✔ Cubes, 30 per student.
.
.
.
.
. FOLLOW-UP
.
.
. OVERVIEW MATERIALS FOR STUDENT ACTIVITY
.
.
. Students solve problems in- ✔ Student Activity 3.5,
.
. volving area, perimeter, arc 1 copy per student.
.
. length, surface area and
.
. volume. They investigate
.
. and form conjectures re-
.
. garding the types of figures
.
. which have minimum pe-
.
. rimeter for given areas, and
.
. the relationship between ar-
.
. eas and volumes of figures
.
. whose linear dimensions
.
. are doubled, tripled, etc.

Math Alive! Course III / 53

Lesson 3 Measurement—Inventing Formulas

LESSON IDEAS TEACHER NOTES:

.
. QUOTE
.
. Students who can use the
.
. relationship between the
.
. shape of the “parallelo-
.
. gram” and its area and the
.
. circumference of the circle
.
. to develop the formula for
.
. the area of the circle are
.
. demonstrating plausible
.
. and deductive reasoning.
.
. The argument is plausible
.
. if it makes common sense
.
. and is mathematically cor-
.
. rect.
.
. NCTM Standards

SELECTED ANSWERS

1. a) 1490.6 m2 (If the 2 outer ends of the track are com- b) In general, if the dimensions of a 3-D figure are multi-
bined, they form a circular track with outer radius of plied by n, the new surface area is n2 times the surface
26 m and inner radius 20 m. The remaining inner sec- area of the original figure, and the volume is n3 times
tions form two 6 m × 52 m rectangles.) the volume of the original figure.

b) 37.7 m 4. area: 495.3 ft2 15

perimeter: 84.4 ft 8.66 8.66
2. a) The circumference of the circle to 3 decimal places is
8.66 8.66
35.449, the perimeter of the square is 40. Selecting 15
lengths and widths of a rectangle whose product is 100,
produces a perimeter greater than 40. For example, if With a 10 foot chain, the dog can move approximately
the dimensions are 9 and 111 ⁄ 9 , the perimeter is 402 ⁄ 9 . 8.66 feet away from the center line (dotted line) under
So the circle, square, and rectangle in this order have the clothesline.
the least to greatest perimeters.
10
5
b) The circle has the greatest area, 796.2cm2 in this ex-
8.66
ample; the square has the next greatest area, 625 cm2,
and the rectangle has the least area. 5. 80 cents

3. a) Each new perimeter is twice the preceding perimeter 7. The height of the string above the earth is 1.3 feet to the
and each new area is 4 times the preceding area. In gen- nearest tenth of a foot. Increasing the circumference by
eral, if the dimensions are multiplied by n, the new pe- 8 feet will increase the diameter by x feet, where C + 8 =
rimeter is n times the preceding perimeter and each π(d + x ) and x = 8⁄ π . Thus, the diameter of the new circle
new area is n2 times the preceding area. is increased by 8 ⁄ π and so the radius is increased by
1⁄2 × 8 ⁄ π ≈ 1.3 feet. This height is large enough so that

many people could crawl under it.

54 / Math Alive! Course III

Measurement—Inventing Formulas Lesson 3

Connector Teacher Activity

OVERVIEW & PURPOSE MATERIALS
Students recall the meanings of several terms related to ✔ Connector Master A, 1 copy per group and 1 transpar-
circles, polygons, and measurements of plane figures. ency.
✔ Connector Master B, 1 copy per student and 1 trans-
parency.
✔ Scissors, 1 pair per student.

ACTIONS COMMENTS

1␣ ␣ Arrange the students in groups and ask each group to 1␣ ␣ In general, perimeter is the distance,
in linear units, around a figure. For
area unit
write an explanation of the meanings of the terms area
and perimeter, and to give an example that illustrates example, assuming 1 linear unit is the
each explanation. Discuss the students’ explanations length of the edge of 1 small square in
and their ideas about relationships between area and the figure shown at the right, then this
linear units. figure has perimeter 12 linear units. linear unit

The area of a figure is the number of area units required

to exactly cover the figure, with no gaps or overlaps.
Squares are most commonly used as area units. For
example, the area of the figure above is 7 square units,
assuming 1 of the small squares is the area unit.

If is the area unit, then the area of the above

figure is 13 ⁄ 4 square units. If is the area unit, then
the area of the above figure is 14 area units.

Although not required, it is common practice to choose

the linear unit as the length of the edge of a square area
unit. Without this convention, the area model for multi-
plication does not hold.

2␣ ␣ Give each group a copy of Connector Master A (see 2␣ ␣ The pieces of the rectangle and hexagon can be
next page) and a pair of scissors. Ask the groups to solve reassembled to form the following squares:
the problem posed on the master, and then invite vol-
unteers to demonstrate their group’s methods.
5
Next, write the following terms on the overhead and ask
7
the groups to identify which, if any, of pieces 1-8, are
illustrations of the terms. Discuss, as needed. 4
1
triangle, equilateral triangle, isosceles triangle, 6
scalene triangle, nonequilateral triangle, right 2 3 8
triangle, parallelogram, rectangle, rhombus,
square, isosceles trapezoid, nonisosceles trapezoid,
polygon, quadrilateral, pentagon, regular penta- Since the rectangle has area 4 square units, so does the
gon, hexagon, regular hexagon. square formed by rearranging the pieces of the rectangle.

(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 55

Lesson 3 Measurement—Inventing Formulas
Connector Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

2 (continued.)
Measurement—Inventing Formulas Lesson 3
Connector Master A
Hence, the square formed by pieces 1, 2, and 3 has side
length 2 linear units. This can be used to show that a
close approximation of the length of the side of the
The rectangle below has area 4 square units. When cut along
the given lines, the rectangle can be reassembled to form a square made from the hexagon is 3 linear units. Thus, a
square. Similarly, the hexagon can be cut along the given close approximation of the area of the hexagon is 9
lines and reassembled to form another square. Use this infor-
mation to help you find a close approximation of the area of square units. The solution of this problem is based on
the hexagon. Then write a brief explanation of your methods.
Note: use the same area and linear units for the rectangle and
understanding conservation of area—i.e., area is pre-
the hexagon. served when a region is dissected and rearranged.

2 Having students identify the names of the pieces pro-

1 vides an opportunity to review the meanings of some
3
terminology (e.g., see Math Alive! Course II, Lessons 11-
14). Rather than giving definitions, you might allow
time for students to discuss and clarify their ideas and
4 questions among themselves. If a group needs clarifica-
tion, you might suggest they ask for input from the class
before you enter into the discussion. A dictionary can
5
also be helpful. The following terms are illustrated by
6
the cut apart pieces: triangle, equilateral triangle, isosce-
les triangle, scalene triangle, nonequilateral triangle,
7 right triangle, parallelogram, rhombus, nonisosceles
8
trapezoid, polygon, quadrilateral, pentagon, and hexa-
gon.

3␣ ␣ Distribute 1 copy of Connector Master B to each 3␣ ␣ Note that, technically, students cut out a circular
student. Ask the students to cut out the circle and to region (also called a disc) and its boundary is a circle. As
locate and label the center, a diameter, a radius, the cir- is common practice, however, throughout this lesson we
cumference, a central angle, a sector, and an arc of the will refer to the region as a circle. (Note: A circle is
circle. Discuss, clarifying as needed. Introduce students defined in Comment 5 of the Focus.)
to the meaning of the term chord.

circle circular region

The center of the circle can be located by folding the

circle into quarters, as illustrated below:

center

56 / Math Alive! Course III

Measurement—Inventing Formulas Lesson 3
Connector Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

A radius of a circle is a segment that extends from the

Lesson 3 Measurement—Inventing Formulas
Connector Master B center to the edge of the circle. The length of this seg-
ment is also called the radius. A diameter of a circle is a
segment that extends from the edge of the circle
through the center to the opposite edge of the circle.
The length of this segment is also called the diameter
and it is twice the radius. The edge of the circle is called
the circumference, and its length is also called the circum-
ference.
circumference

diameter radius

A central angle of a circle (i.e., an angle whose vertex is

the center of the circle and whose sides intersect the
circle) determines a region that is called a sector, as
illustrated below. The section of the circumference
determined by the central angle is called an arc.

arc
sector
central angle

Any line segment whose endpoints are on the circumfer-

ence of a circle is called a chord of the circle. Hence, a
diameter is also a chord. Not all chords are diameters
since it is not necessarily the case that a chord will pass
through the center of the circle.

chord

diameter

Math Alive! Course III / 57

Lesson 3 Measurement—Inventing Formulas

TEACHER NOTES:

58 / Math Alive! Course III

Measurement—Inventing Formulas Lesson 3

Focus Teacher Activity

OVERVIEW & PURPOSE MATERIALS
Students invent area and perimeter formulas for parallelo- ✔ Focus Master A, 1 transparency.
grams, trapezoids, triangles, and circles. They also invent ✔ Focus Master B, 4 copies for each pair of students and
surface area and volume formulas for prisms and cylinders, 1 transparency.
and solve problems involving area, perimeter, surface area,
✔ Focus Master C (4 pages) copied on cardstock, 1 copy
and volume.
per student.
✔ Focus Master D, 1 copy per pair of students and 1
transparency.
✔ Focus Student Activities 3.1-3.4, 1 copy of each per
student and 1 transparency of each.
✔ Geoboard and rubber bands (or geoboard recording
paper, see Blackline Masters), 1 per pair of students.
✔ Butcher paper, marking pens, tape, and scissors for
each pair of students.
✔ String, 1 piece (approx. 75 cm) per pair of students.
✔ Metric ruler or meter stick, 1 per pair of students.
✔ Round or cylindrical objects (e.g., soup cans, potato
chip containers, coffee cups, plates, etc.), 1 set of 5
objects per group of 4 students.
✔ Calculators, 1 per student.
✔ 1-cm grid paper, 2 sheets per pair of students.
✔ Grid paper of various sizes (1⁄4", 1-cm, etc.; optional),
available as needed (see Comment 12).
✔ Protractor (see Blackline Masters), 1 per student.
✔ Cubes, 30 per student.

ACTIONS COMMENTS

1␣ ␣ Arrange the students in pairs and place a transpar- 1␣ ␣ If geoboards are not available, you could distribute
ency of Focus Master A (see next page) on the overhead. sheets of geoboard paper (see Blackline Masters). If stu-
Give each pair a sheet of butcher paper, marking pens, 2 dents ask for clarification, the trapezoid on Focus Master
sheets of 1-cm grid paper, a geoboard and rubber bands A is not isosceles. It may be helpful to discuss the mean-
(or geoboard recording paper), tape, and scissors. Ask the ing of a variable and the fact that the drawings on Focus
pairs to do the following for each polygon on Focus Master A represent “generic” polygons of each type.
Master A:
You may need to discuss properties of an altitude (e.g.,
a) invent a formula for the area of each polygon shown, see segments labeled h on Focus Master A) of a parallelo-
using only the given variables, gram, trapezoid, or triangle. The length of an altitude
(also called the height) of a parallelogram or trapezoid is
b) create a visual proof to show why and how each the perpendicular distance between opposite parallel
formula works, sides. Notice in figure C on Focus Master A, the altitude
is drawn outside the parallelogram. It could also be
c) give an example to illustrate each formula. shown in other positions, such as shown in the diagram:

When completed, have the pairs share and compare

their formulas and proofs.

(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 59

Lesson 3 Measurement—Inventing Formulas
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

1 (continued.)
Measurement—Inventing Formulas Lesson 3
Focus Master A

A Rectangle B Square h h h

a s b
An altitude of a triangle is a perpendicular segment that
b s
connects a vertex to the opposite side (also called the
base) of the triangle. The length of this segment is also
C Parallelogram D Trapezoid
b1
called the altitude. Sometimes the altitude lies outside
the triangle and connects to an extension of the base, as
h h
illustrated in figure F on Focus Master A.

b b2
A), B) Based on the area model for multiplication, if a
rectangle has sides of length a and b, then its area is the
product of a × b. Students may use examples on grid
E Right Triangle F Nonright Triangle
paper to illustrate this. Since a square is a rectangle
whose sides are equal in length, the area of a square
a h with side length s is s × s = s2.

b b C) A parallelogram with base b and height h can be

dissected and rearranged to form a rectangle with the
same base and height, as illustrated below (other dissec-
tions are also possible). Hence, the area of a parallelo-
gram is b × h.

b
b1
D) Students may invent a variety of formulas and proofs
for the area of a trapezoid. Following are four examples
h students have given:

b2 Method 1. We combined 2 copies of the trapezoid to form a

b1 + b2 parallelogram, found the area of the parallelogram, and then
Total Area = (b1 + b2)h divided by 2 (see diagram at the left).
(b1 + b2)h
Area of Trapezoid = __________
2

Method 2. We dissected the trapezoid into 2

triangles and a rectangle. Then we rearranged
b1 b1 the pieces of the trapezoid to form a rectangle
and one triangle. The rectangle has area b1h.
The triangle can be enclosed in a rectangle with
h h h
area (b2 – b1 )h, and we can see that the triangle
covers half of the rectangle, so the area of the
b2 b2 – b 1 triangle is 1 ⁄ 2 (b2 – b1 )h. Therefore, the total area
of the trapezoid is b1h + 1 ⁄ 2 (b2 – b1 )h.

60 / Math Alive! Course III

Measurement—Inventing Formulas Lesson 3
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

Method 3. We tested several trapezoids on the geoboard and

conjecture that we can “slide” the top of a trapezoid to form
a new trapezoid with the same area and one side that is
perpendicular to the bases. We subdivided that new trapezoid
into a rectangle with area b1h, and a right triangle that is
half of a rectangle with dimensions h by (b2 – b1 ). Therefore,
the trapezoid has area b1h + 1 ⁄ 2 (b2 – b1 )h. We aren’t sure if
this always works, but we think so!
(b2 – b1)h
__________
2
b1 b1 b1

b1h h

b2 b2 b2 – b1
b2
b1
b1h
____
Method 4. We got stuck on the trapezoid, so we worked on
2 a formula for the area of a triangle first. Once we realized the
h b2h
____ h area of a triangle is one half the length of the base times the
2 height, we divided the trapezoid into 2 triangles. Then we
b2 added the areas of the triangles together to get the area of the
trapezoid, or b1h ⁄ 2 + b2h⁄ 2 .

E) A right triangle with legs a and b can be enclosed in a

a ab
___ rectangle with area ab. Since the triangle covers 1 ⁄ 2 of the
2
rectangle the area of the right triangle is 1 ⁄ 2 ab.
b

F) One method is to put 2 copies of a triangle together

to form a parallelogram with the same base and height
h
as the triangle. Find the area of the parallelogram, bh,
and divide by 2 to get the area of the triangle, bh ⁄ 2 .
b
As another method, some students may recall from
experiences in earlier Math Alive! courses that triangles
with equal bases and equal heights have the same area.
Hence, they may reason that they can “slide” the top
h h
vertex of the triangle over to form a right triangle with
base b and height h. Since this right triangle has area 1⁄ 2
b b bh, so must the given nonright triangle.

2␣ ␣ Ask the pairs to determine, if possible,

formulas for 2␣ ␣ The perimeters are as follows: square, 4s; rectangle,
the perimeters of the polygons on Focus Master A using 2a + 2b; parallelogram, not enough information; trap-
only the given variables. If the information given is ezoid, not enough information; right triangle, a + b +
insufficient to determine the perimeter, have the stu- a2 + b 2 ; nonright triangle, not enough information.
dents indicate “not enough information.” Discuss. Note: finding the length of the hypotenuse of a right
triangle requires use of the Pythagorean Theorem which
was introduced in Lesson 28 of Math Alive! Course II and
is investigated further in Lesson 9 of this course.

Math Alive! Course III / 61

Lesson 3 Measurement—Inventing Formulas
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

3␣ ␣ Give each student a copy of Focus Student Activity 3␣ ␣ Some students may rely on visual strategies such as
3.1 to complete. Discuss their results and reasoning. cutting and rearranging the polygons. Others may rely
on formulas. To discourage “mindless” plugging into
formulas, you might suggest that students be prepared
Measurement—Inventing Formulas Lesson 3
to show how and why their methods work.
Focus Student Activity 3.1
Note that the Pythagorean Theorem is required for
NAME DATE

determining some values on Focus Student Activity 3.1

For each of the following polygons, use the given information to
help you find the missing information. Mark each diagram or write as well as Focus Student Activity 3.3 (see Action 14) and
equations or brief comments that communicate the steps of your
thought processes. If it is not possible to find some of the missing Follow-up Student Activity 3.5. If students are unfamil-
information write NP and explain why. Note: diagrams are not
drawn to scale; the dotted lines in the diagrams are altitudes; a rep- iar with the Pythagorean Theorem you could explore
resents area; p, perimeter; h, height (the length of the altitude); and
x, s, and b are lengths that are marked on the diagrams.
Lesson 28 of Math Alive! Course II or the Connector of
Lesson 9 of this course before assigning this activity.
1 h = _____ 4 h = _____
7
17 a = _____
300 7 a = _____
p = _____ p = _____

20
12 2 Answers for Focus Student Activity 3.1:

1. h = 15, p = 74
2. a = 640, p = 118
32 14
2 5 h = _____
12 3. a = 450, s = 20
a = _____
27
20 13 12 13
p = _____ 4. a = 84, p = 38.6 (rounded)
h = _____
20
a = _____ 24
5. a = 228, p = 64
p = _____
6. a = 3600, s = 60
7. h = 15, b = 30, s = 25, p = 80
8. h = 13.6, s = 17
30 50 9. h = 20, a = 70, p = 53.6 (rounded), x = 15
3 h = _____ 6 h = _____

15
a = _____ a = _____ 10. h = 15, there is not enough information to find p
s p = _____
100 50 48 s p = _____
260
s = _____ s = _____ 11. a = 306, p = 108
100 12. h = 12.75, p = 76.5
(Continued on back.)

Lesson 3 Measurement—Inventing Formulas

Focus Student Activity 3.1 (cont.)

10
7 h = _____ 10 h = _____
a = _____
300 a = _____
150
15 s p = _____ p = _____
s = _____
b = _____ 20
b

10
8 h = _____ 11 h = _____
12
a = _____
204 a = _____
37 12 20
15 s p = _____
62 p = _____
s = _____
51
20

9 h= _____ 12 h = _____
25 a = _____ a = 216.75
_____
20 p= _____ p = _____
x= _____
7
x
=

34

62 / Math Alive! Course III

Measurement—Inventing Formulas Lesson 3
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

4␣ ␣ Provide each pair of students a blank sheet of paper, 4␣ ␣ It is helpful if the lengths of the pairs’ segments
a straightedge, and a piece of string about 75 cm long. differ. Segments should be drawn using a straightedge.
Ask the pairs to draw a line segment across the middle of To encourage students to use informal techniques for
the blank sheet, so that the length of the segment is at measuring and comparing lengths during Actions 5 and
least half the shorter dimension of the paper. 6, do not distribute rulers yet.

5␣ ␣ Ask the pairs to devise a method of drawing, as 5␣ ␣ One method of using string to construct a circle is
accurately as possible, a circle whose diameter is the the following: fold the segment to locate the midpoint
segment drawn for Action 4. Ask them to use no tools of the diameter, i.e., the center of the circle; tie 2 knots
other than string, scissors, and pencils or pens to draw in a piece of string so that the distance between the
their circles. Tell them they may cut the string if they knots is half of the length of the diameter; place a pencil
wish. Allow time for students to experiment with differ- point through each knot; hold one knot at the center of
ent approaches. Ask for volunteers to demonstrate their the diameter; holding the string taut, trace a circular
methods at the overhead. Then discuss the students’ path with the pencil at the other knot. This method is
ideas about how to define a circle. illustrated in the diagram below:

Another method is to mark a string length equal to the

diameter and tie knots at the endpoints; mark the center
of the string length; line up the center of the diameter
and the center of the string length, holding the string
taut and in a straight line; mark the positions of the
knots; repeat the preceding 2 steps several times; con-
nect the “knot points” to form a polygon. As the num-
ber of knot points gets very large, the shape of the
polygon more closely resembles a circle.

By definition, a circle is the set of all points in a plane at

a given distance, called the radius, from a given point,
called the center. Note that if the points are not restricted
to a plane, but allowed to be any points in space, then a
sphere is defined.

Math Alive! Course III / 63

Lesson 3 Measurement—Inventing Formulas
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

6␣ ␣ Ask each pair of students to, without measuring with 6␣ ␣ Students will use a variety of approaches to deter-
a ruler, make observations about relationships between mine relationships. Some may notice that a piece of
the length of the diameter and the measure of the cir- string the length of the diameter will fit along the cir-
cumference of the circle they formed in Action 5. Ask cumference about 3 times. Others may lay a piece of
for volunteers to share their observations. string along the circumference of the circle, cut off that
length, and compare it to the length of the diameter,
noting that the circumference is a little more than 3
times the length of the diameter. Some students may
estimate by folding a diameter into fourths to show that
the circumference is a little less than 31⁄ 4 diameter
lengths. Folding again shows that the circumference is
about half way between 3 and 3.25 diameter lengths.
Students may note that, while their circles are of varying
sizes, the relationship between the measures of the
diameter and the circumference of each circle seems to
be the same.

7␣ ␣ Give each pair of students a metric ruler, and give 5 7␣ ␣ It isn’t necessary that all groups have the same 5
round or cylindrical objects to each group of 4 students objects. In fact, more conjectures may emerge from
(2 pairs will share the objects). Ask the pairs to use their objects with varied diameters.
string and rulers to measure, as accurately as possible,
the diameter and circumference of each object. On the Some students may remember a formula for the circum-
overhead or chalkboard, make a chart listing each of the ference of a circle. If so, ask them to use the tools pro-
objects students measure. Ask the students for assistance vided to find the diameter and circumference of each
in recording the circumference and diameter of each object, to verify the formula works, and to try to deter-
object on the chart. mine the reasoning behind the formula.

Object C D To measure the diameter of a circular object, students

(Circum- (Diameter) may trace its outline and then paperfold to form a
ference) diameter. Or, they may lay a ruler across the end of a
cylinder and move it to obtain the maximum distance
across the cylinder. To measure the circumference of an
object, they may wrap a piece of string tightly once
around the object and then measure the string length.

8␣ ␣ Ask each pair to use a calculator to approximate the 8␣ ␣ Most students will probably observe that each cir-
relationship between the circumference of each object cumference is about 3 times the length of the corre-
measured in Action 7 and the diameter of the object. sponding diameter, and some may make more exact
Ask for volunteers to record this information on the approximations. Some students may want to “check
class chart. Discuss, encouraging generalizations. out” this relationship on various other circular objects
in the room, or they may need to remeasure objects if
some measurements seem unreasonable.
Object C D Relationship
(Circum- (Diameter) between Note: it is assumed that students have free access to a
ference) C and D calculator during any Math Alive! lesson (unless they are
specifically asked to work mentally).

64 / Math Alive! Course III

Measurement—Inventing Formulas Lesson 3
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

9␣ ␣ Tell the students that, for any circle, the ratio of its 9␣ ␣ A decimal such as π that never terminates and never
circumference to its diameter is the constant number repeats is an irrational number. If the students’ calcula-
called pi and is written π, a letter from the Greek alpha- tors have a π button, you might ask them to press it to
bet. Hence, if c represents the circumference of a circle, see what approximation their calculator uses for π.
and d represents the diameter, c ⁄ d = π. Many approxima-
tions of π are commonly used, such as 3, 3.1, 3.14, 22 ⁄ 7 , For hundreds of years, approximating the value of the
and 3.1416. Here is an approximation of π with 15 ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter was
decimal places: 3.141592653589793. a challenge. The ancient Egyptians approximated the
ratio of the circumference to the diameter as 31 ⁄ 6 ; the
No matter how many decimal places are used, π cannot estimate in the ancient Orient was 3. Archimedes (about
be expressed exactly as a decimal, because the decimal 287-212 B.C.) computed π to the equivalent of 2 decimal
part never repeats and never terminates. If they haven’t places. In 1596 Ludolph van Ceulen published a value of
already done so, ask the pairs to use their measurements π to 20-places. Later he determined a 35-place approxi-
from Action 7 to compute the ratio of each circumfer- mation, which his wife had engraved on his tombstone!
ence to its corresponding diameter and to compare these In 1841 Zacharaias Dase computed π to 200 places. By
ratios to the value of π. Discuss. 1947, it was computed correctly to 710 places. In the
present age of electronic computers, it can be computed
quickly to thousands of decimal places and beyond. In
An Introduction to the History of Mathematics by H. W.
Eves, several mnemonics for remembering the first few
decimal places of π are suggested. For example, in “May I
have a large container of coffee?” the number of letters
in each word is a digit in π.

10␣ ␣ Give each student a copy of Focus Student Activity 10␣ ␣ Note that it isn’t expected that students discuss
3.2 (see below and next page) to complete. Discuss their circumference formulas before completing this activity.
results and methods, as needed. Rather, formulas may naturally surface as the students
work on these problems and in Action 11 students
Measurement—Inventing Formulas Lesson 3
discuss/invent formulas.

Focus Student Activity 3.2 This activity could also be completed as homework.
NAME DATE
Solutions to Problems 1-3 are as follows:
Draw a diagram or sketch to solve each of the following problems.
Use your calculator to carry out computations, and record all of the
calculations that you do. Express each answer to the nearest tenth.
1. 22.0 cm, to the nearest tenth
2. 1.8 m, to the nearest tenth
1␣ ␣ A circular lid has a diameter of 7 cm. What is its circumference,
to the nearest tenth of a centimeter? Remember to show a sketch, 3. The circumference of the larger circle is twice the
the keys you press to compute the answer, and your answer.
circumference of the smaller circle.

Students’ answers may differ slightly based on the value

used to approximate π. If preferred, you could assign a
2␣ ␣ A circular fish pond has a circumference of 5.8 meters. What is value, such as 3.14, for students to use.
its diameter?

3␣ ␣ The diameter of one circle is twice as long as the diameter of

another circle. How do the circumferences of the circles compare?

(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 65

Lesson 3 Measurement—Inventing Formulas
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

10 (continued.)
Lesson 3 Measurement—Inventing Formulas
Focus Student Activity 3.2 (cont.)
Solutions to Problems 4-6 are as follows:

4␣ ␣ A circular patio has a circumference of 18.7 meters. What is its 4. 3.0 m, to the nearest tenth
radius?
5. 2.6 miles, to the nearest tenth; (the 10 foot pole
represents the radius of the circular path)
6a. 90 ⁄ 360 of 24π ≈ 18.8
6b. 30 ⁄ 360 of 24π ≈ 6.3 or 1 ⁄ 3 of the length of part a
5␣ ␣ For a pony ride at the fair, Pete Pony is tied to the end of a 10 6c. 60 ⁄ 360 of 24π ≈ 12.6
foot pole. The other end of the pole is connected to a “hub” that
rotates 360°. One day at the fair, Pete completely circled the hub 6d. 180 ⁄ 360 of 24π ≈ 37.7
220 times. How many miles did Pete travel on that day? 5,280 feet =
1 mile.

6␣ ␣ For the circle shown at the right, find a close approximation of

the length of each of the indicated arcs (a, b, c, and d). Use math a
symbols to communicate your method of determining each arc
length. 12 cm
d
b
a = _______________ Method:

b = _______________ Method:

c = _______________ Method:

d = _______________ Method:

11␣ ␣ Ask the pairs to complete the following thought 11␣ ␣ Students’ observations may vary. If they don’t
starter. Discuss their results. suggest formulas, you might ask that, wherever possible,
they rewrite their generalizations in the form of formu-
Here are several observations and/or generaliza- las. Here are a few formulas that students have sug-
tions about a circle with diameter d, radius r, gested: c = πd; d = 2r; c = 2πr; d⁄ 2 = r; c ⁄ d = π; c ⁄ 2r = π.
and circumference c:

12␣ ␣ Distribute 4 copies of Focus Master B to each pair of 12␣ ␣ Focus Master B contains one large circle with a
students. Ask the students to devise 3 or 4 methods of radius labeled r.
approximating the area of the circle. Ask them to:
It is helpful to have a supply of variously sized grids
a) illustrate each method on a separate copy of Focus available. If students recall a formula, suggest they
Master B, devise methods of approximating the area in order to
offer evidence for the formula.
b) indicate whether they think each approximation is
high or low, and There are many possibilities. Acknowledge all that come
up. Following are several responses frequently offered by
c) if possible, write a general procedure or formula that students. Notice that Method 7 provides a general
represents each method. method of finding the exact area of any circle.

Allow plenty of time for pairs to explore and discuss Method 1: Cover the circle with a centimeter grid, count the
possibilities. Then invite volunteers to share several number of complete squares in an “inner covering” (I) and
methods at the overhead. the number in an “outer covering” (O) and then average
I+O
those two numbers. So area ≈ 2 . See diagram on next page.

66 / Math Alive! Course III

Measurement—Inventing Formulas Lesson 3
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

Some students will suggest improving this estimate by

splitting the centimeter squares into smaller squares and
then repeating the process of counting and averaging.

Method 2: Enclose the circle in a square. The sides of the

square have length equal to the length of the diameter, or
“inner” (I) covering “outer” (O) covering twice the length of the radius. The area of this square, 4r 2, is
a high approximation of the area of the circle. This method
I+O
Method 1: Area of circle ≈ 2
is illustrated at the left. Students’ methods of construct-
ing the square will be informal; it is not necessary to de-
d = 2r velop or discuss formal construction methods here.
However, you might use this as a context for introduc-
ing terminology such as tangent, circumscribe, and in-
r scribe. Note that all the sides of the square are tangent to
the circle because they intersect the circle in exactly one
point. That point is called the point of tangency. When all
sides of a polygon are tangent to a circle, the circle is in-
scribed in the polygon, and the polygon is circumscribed
Method 2: Area of circle ≈ d × d = 4r 2 about the circle.

Method 3: Draw a square inside the circle so that each of

the corners lies on the circle. Draw the diameters that connect
the vertices of the square, forming 4 congruent right triangles
2r

whose legs are the length of the radius. Move 2 of those

triangles to form a rectangle with dimensions r by 2r. The
area of this rectangle, 2r 2, is a low approximation of the area
r

of the circle. This method is illustrated at the left. Note

that, since the vertices of the polygon lie on the circle,
the polygon is inscribed in the circle and the circle is
circumscribed about the polygon. Notice each side of the
Method 3: Area of circle ≈ 2r × r = 2r 2 square is a chord of the circle.

Method 4: Average the high and the low approximations

from the previous two methods to get an average of 3r2, a
closer approximation of the area of the circle.
r
Method 5: Circumscribe a square about the circle. Mark off
each side of the square in thirds and cover the circle with a 3
by 3 grid. The area of the circle is approximately 7 ⁄ 9 of the
Area of large square = 4r 2 area of the square. This method is shown at the left.
Method 5: Area of circle ≈ 7⁄9(4r 2) = (28⁄9)r 2

Method 6: Cut the circle out and paperfold to locate the

vertices of an octagon. Draw the octagon and 8 congruent
≈r triangles formed by the radii drawn to the vertices. The base
r
d of each triangle is about 1 ⁄ 3 of the diameter and the height of
≈ _3
each triangle is approximated by the radius. The area of the
circle is approximated by the total area of the 8 triangles, or
( 8 ⁄ 3 )r 2. See diagram at the left.
Area of one triangle ≈ 1 ⁄ 2 × d⁄ 3 × r
Method 6: Area of circle ≈ 8 × (1⁄ 2 × 2 r ⁄ 3 × r ) = ( 8 ⁄ 3) r 2 (Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 67

Lesson 3 Measurement—Inventing Formulas
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

12 (continued.)
Method 7: Fold the circle to form 8 (or some other even
r number) congruent sectors. Then cut these sectors apart and
r rearrange them to approximate a parallelogram. The base of
1 circumference
the “parallelogram” is approximately half the circumference;
≈ __ the height is approximately equal to the radius.
2

Each of the 8 sectors can be cut in half and rearranged to

form a figure that more closely resembles a parallelogram. As
r more “triangular” regions are formed their bases become
“straighter” and the shape of the rearranged figure more
closely approximates a rectangle whose area is  2  r = πr 2.
2π r
1 circumference
≈ __
2
If students don’t come up with Method 7, notice you
Method 7: Area of circle =  2  r = π r 2
2π r
can bring it up for discussion in the next action.

13 ␣ If students didn’t suggest Method 7 from Comment 13 ␣ Malia and Jennie’s method provides a visual dem-
12, read aloud through part b) below. Allow time for the onstration of the fact that the area of a circle is π r 2.
pairs to explore and conjecture about Malia and Jennie’s Their approach is illustrated in Method 7 of Comment
thinking. Discuss. Then, if needed, read parts c)-f), 12. Note: If an odd number of sectors are formed in Step
allowing exploration time after each part. a) the figure approximated in b)-d) is a trapezoid, rather
than a parallelogram. The formula for the area of a circle
Malia and Jennie, a pair of students in another is then found by determining the area of a trapezoid.
class, determined the area of a circle to be πr 2.
Following is how they described their methods:

a) We subdivided the circle into an even num-

ber of congruent sectors.

b) Next we rearranged the sectors, alternating

point up and point down, to approximate a
parallelogram.

c) Then we cut each sector in half and rear-

ranged these parts, alternating point up and
point down, and noticed the shape was closer to
a parallelogram.

d) We think we could do the previous step over

and over. When the sectors get smaller, the edge
formed by the curved parts gets flatter and the
shape gets closer to a rectangle with base equal
to 1 ⁄ 2 of the circumference and height equal to
the radius.

e) We can “see” the area of the circle is equal to

the area of the rectangle or πr × r = πr 2.

68 / Math Alive! Course III

Measurement—Inventing Formulas Lesson 3
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

14␣ ␣ Give each student a protractor (see Blackline Mas- 14␣ ␣ Protractors were introduced in Math Alive! Course II,
ters) and a copy of Focus Student Activity 3.3 to com- Lesson 12. This activity could also be completed as
plete. Discuss their results and strategies, as needed. homework. Selected answers are shown below.

3) Sector A: area ≈ 56.5 cm2; arc length ≈ 9.4 cm

Measurement—Inventing Formulas Lesson 3 Sector B: area ≈ 113.1 cm2; arc length ≈ 18.8 cm
Focus Student Activity 3.3 Sector C: area ≈ 75.4 cm2; arc length ≈ 12.6 cm
Sector D: area ≈ 207.3 cm2; arc length ≈ 34.6 cm
NAME DATE
Sector E: area ≈ 363.2 cm2; arc length ≈ 42.7 cm
Write your responses to problems 1-7 on another sheet of paper. Be
sure to put a copy of the problem next to your responses.
Sector F: area ≈ 90.8 cm2; arc length ≈ 10.7 cm
1␣ ␣ Write and illustrate two methods that you could use to show a
Sector G: area ≈ 181.6 cm2; arc length ≈ 21.4 cm
younger student how to approximate the area of a circle with a ra- Sector H: area ≈ 272.4 cm2; arc length ≈ 32.0 cm
dius of 7 cm.
Sector I: area ≈ 4398.2 cm2; arc length ≈ 219.9 cm
2␣ ␣ Explain and sketch a diagram to show how a parallelogram can
be used to find the area of a circle with a radius of 17 cm.
Sector J: area ≈ 628.3 cm2; arc length ≈ 31.4 cm

3␣ ␣ For each of sectors A-J shown below, without using a protractor,

predict the area of the sector and the arc length along the edge of
4) $2.92
the sector. Record your predictions and reasoning. Then use a pro-
tractor to verify your predictions. Record your measurements and
calculations. 5) a) 4241.2 cm
A
B E
F b) 47.1 cm
12 cm G J 10π cm
cm I
D C 17
H 6) 114.5 inches. Note: this problem requires use of the
4␣ ␣ Papa Paulo’s Pizza Crust Company sells a crust with a 13 inch
Pythagorean Theorem (see Comment 3).
diameter for $2.29. They have decided to add a square crust to their
product line. Assuming Papa Paulo wants to price all of his crusts at
the same rate, what should he charge for a square crust with side 7) 4185.4 cm2
length 13 inches?

5␣ ␣ On Carmen’s clock, the second hand is 15 cm long and the hour

hand is 10 cm long. Explain your methods of solving each of the
Lesson 3 Measurement—Inventing Formulas
following problems about her clock. Give answers to the nearest
tenth of a centimeter. Focus Student Activity 3.3 (cont.)

a) How far does the tip of the second hand travel in 45 minutes?
b) How far does the tip of the hour hand travel in 45 minutes? 6␣ ␣ In order to get a sign post that rises 8 feet above the ground to
stand at right angles, Zane fastened one end of a wire to the top of
the post and the other end to the ground 3 feet from the base of the
(Continued on back.) post. If she needs 6 extra inches of wire on each end for fastening,
how long (to the nearest inch) must she cut the wire? Make a dia-
gram and show your reasoning.

7␣ ␣ What is the area (to the nearest square centimeter) of the largest
circle that can be cut from a square piece of sheet metal 73 cm on a
side? Explain your reasoning.

8␣ ␣ The following figures show the radius, diameter, circumference,

or area of a circle. Use the information given to mentally approximate
the requested measures. Use math symbols to communicate your
mental calculations.

a) Circumference ≈_______ b) Area ≈_______

Mental calculations: 6 cm Mental calculations:
17 cm

_______________________ _______________________

c) Area = 75 cm2 d) Circumference = 21 cm

? Radius ≈_______ Area ≈_______
Mental calculations: Mental calculations:

_______________________ _______________________

e) Circumference = 15 cm f) Area = 48 cm2

? Radius ≈_______ Circumference ≈_______
Mental calculations: Mental calculations:

_______________________ _______________________

Math Alive! Course III / 69

Lesson 3 Measurement—Inventing Formulas
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

15␣ ␣ Distribute about 30 cubes to each student. Discuss 15␣ ␣ You might encourage students to use the cubes to
the students’ ideas about the meanings of the terms illustrate their ideas about the meanings of the given
rectangular right prism, surface area, and volume. Include terms and relationships between units of measure. See
discussion of relationships among standard units of Lessons 1, 2, and 29 of Math Alive! Course II for other
measure for length, area, and volume. discussion ideas.

A prism, is a polyhedron (a 3-dimensional figure formed

by flat surfaces that are enclosed by polygons) with 2
parallel bases, upper and lower, which are congruent
polygons. A prism is named according to the shape of its
bases. The lateral faces of all prisms are parallelograms. A
square prism, for example, has square bases and lateral
faces that are parallelograms. Note: a prism whose bases
and lateral faces are parallelograms is also called a paral-
Rectangular Right Prism 3 of the 12 edges lelepiped.
Rectangular Parallelepiped
Box The lateral faces of a rectangular right prism—sometimes
called a box or a rectangular parallelepiped—are rectangles
which are perpendicular to the bases. Beginning in
Action 18, students explore other types of prisms.

The surface area of a polyhedron is the total area, gener-

ally in square units, of all of its faces. The volume of a
polyhedron is its capacity, usually in cubic units. It is
standard practice to relate units of volume, area, and
2 parallel bases (upper and 4 lateral faces linear measure as follows:
lower) that are rectangles that are rectangles

1 cubic unit 1 square unit (a side or 1 linear unit (the length of an

face of 1 cubic unit) edge of 1 cubic unit, also the
length of the edge of 1 square unit)

16␣ ␣ Write the following on the overhead: 16␣ a) volume, 6 cubic units; surface area, 22 square
units
Rectangular prisms with dimensions, in linear units:
b) volume, 24 cubic units; surface area, 52 square units
a) 3 × 2 × 1 b) 4 × 2 × 3 c) 5 × 3 × 2
c) volume, 30 cubic units; surface area, 62 square units
Ask the pairs to build the above rectangular prisms and
to determine the surface area and volume of each, as- Students may make generalizations about their strate-
suming that one of the small cubes that you distributed gies. If so, see Action and Comment 17 for discussion
is the volume unit, and assuming that volume, area, and ideas.
linear units are related as illustrated in Comment 15.
Discuss the strategies students use to compute surface
area and volume.

70 / Math Alive! Course III

Measurement—Inventing Formulas Lesson 3
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

17␣ ␣ If it didn’t come up during discussion for Action 17␣ ␣ Some students may recall formulas they have
16, ask the pairs to invent formulas for the surface area learned in other classes. If so, encourage them to dem-
and volume of a rectangular solid with the following onstrate why the formulas work.
dimensions, in linear units: length, l; width, w; and
height, h. Discuss. One way of “seeing” the volume of a rectangular prism
with dimensions l, w, and h is to slice it into h layers of
thickness 1 unit, as shown here:

h … h layers
…
… …
… …

…
…
l l
w w

Rectangular prism with dimen- Slice the prism into h layers, each with l × w
sions, in linear units l, w, and h. cubes. The volume, V, equals the product of
the number of cubes per layer times the
number of layers, or V = (l × w ) × h.

Notice that one can also slice the rectangular prism

vertically to get l layers each with w × h cubes, or to get
w layers each with l × h cubes:

…
…
… h …… h
… …
…
… …… … …
…

…
…

…
…

l layers l
w w layers

l layers of (w × h) cubes w layers of (l × h) cubes

V = l × (w × h) V = w × (l × h)

Each of the three slicing methods shown above demon-

strates the fact that the volume, V, of a rectangular
prism with dimensions l, w, and h, is V = l × w × h. The
three expressions given above are equivalent due to
order of operations and the commutative property for
multiplication.

Math Alive! Course III / 71

Lesson 3 Measurement—Inventing Formulas
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

18␣ ␣ Provide each student a copy of Focus Master C (4 18␣ ␣ To promote generalizations, you might invite
pages), a pair of scissors, and tape. Tell the students that students to post “We conjecture…/We wonder…” state-
each of figures I-V is a “net” for a 3-dimensional geomet- ments on a class poster.
ric figure. Ask the pairs to do a)-d) below for Net I on
Focus Master C. Discuss, clarifying terminology as Cutting, assembling, and manipulating the 3-D figures
needed and encouraging efforts to generalize. Then are simplified if Focus Master C is copied on cardstock.
repeat for Nets II–V. Be sure that pages 1-4 of Focus Master C are not copied
back-to-back. Each of Nets I-V forms either a prism or a
a) Predict what 3-D figure will be formed by cutting cylinder. You might point out that all edges should meet
along solid lines, folding along dotted lines, and taping without overlaps or gaps (i.e., full edge to full edge) and
the net together. that each face of a figure should be a flat region
bounded by a polygon. Further, each polygonal region
b) Cut out and assemble to form a 3-D figure. that is outlined by dotted and/or solid lines on Focus
Master C is a face of the figure.
c) Name the geometric figure formed in b) and make
mathematical observations about it. It is not expected that students know formulas for deter-
mining the surface area and volume of 3-D figures.
d) Determine the surface area and volume of the figure, Rather, the intent is for students to use their under-
investigating more than one strategy if possible. standing of the concepts of surface area and volume,
together with their knowledge about the area of 2-D
figures, as a basis for reasoning about these 3-D figures.
Measurement—Inventing Formulas Lesson 3
Focus Master C
Net I forms a triangular right prism, with right triangles
as bases, and rectangular lateral faces. The surface area is
282.5 square units, to the nearest tenth.

Some students may point out that 2 copies of this prism

fit together to form a rectangular prism with volume 8 ×
8 × 8 = 512 cubic units. Hence, the triangular prism has
volume 512⁄ 2 = 256 cubic units. Others may “see” 8 layers
of 64 ⁄ 2 cubic units, or 8 × 64 ⁄ 2 = 256 cubic units. And,
there are other possibilities.

I
I

Net II forms a prism that may be viewed in two different

ways: as a right prism with nonrectangular parallelo-
grams as bases and rectangles as lateral faces (see Dia-
gram A on the next page); or as an oblique prism with
rectangular bases, 2 lateral faces that are rectangles and 2
that are nonrectangular parallelograms (see Diagram B
on the next page). Note: a prism that has two or more
lateral faces that are not rectangular is called an oblique
prism.

72 / Math Alive! Course III

Measurement—Inventing Formulas Lesson 3
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

To compute the surface area of the prism formed by Net

Lesson 3 Measurement—Inventing Formulas
Focus Master C (page 2)
II, notice there are 2 congruent parallelograms each with
area 88, 2 congruent rectangles each with area 44, and 2
congruent rectangles each with area 34.2 to the nearest
tenth, for a total surface area of 2(88 + 44 + 34.2) =
332.4 square units.

Students who view this prism as in Diagram A below,

may “see” 4 layers, each with (8 × 11) cubes. Notice that
the number of cubes in each layer is equal to the num-
ber of square units in the parallelogram base; hence, the
volume is equal to the product of the area of the base of
the prism times the altitude of the prism, or (8 × 11) × 4
= 352 cubic units.

II

II
II

Diagram A Diagram B
Measurement—Inventing Formulas Lesson 3
Right prism with Oblique prism with
Focus Master C (page 3) nonrectangular paral- rectangular bases
lelograms as bases

III
Students who view the prism as in Diagram B above,
may suggest a “dissect and rearrange” strategy similar to
that used to determine the area of a parallelogram in
Action 1. Hence, the volume of the rectangular oblique
prism with length, l, width, w, and height, h, is equal to
the volume of the rectangular right prism with the same
length, width, and height. Note: the height, or altitude,
of an oblique prism is the perpendicular distance be-
tween its upper and lower bases.

IV

h h

II
II
l
l
w w

(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 73

Lesson 3 Measurement—Inventing Formulas
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

18 (continued.)
Net III forms a triangular right prism with scalene tri-
angles as bases. This prism has volume 50 cubic units.
5 One way of viewing the volume is as 4 layers of (5 2× 5)
cubes (see diagram at the left); one layer contains as
many cubes as there are square units in the base, and
III 4 the number of 1-unit layers is equal to the height of the
prism. Hence, the volume of the prism is equal to the
5 product of the height times the area of the base.

Here is another strategy for finding the volume of the

triangular prism formed by Net III: combine 2 copies of
III
the triangular prism to form a prism which has a paral-
III lelogram base (see diagram at the left); use strategies
such as those described for Net II to find the volume of
this prism; finally, divide the area of the prism by 2.

Some students may approximate the surface area of this

prism by counting the whole squares in the gridded net
and approximating partial squares. Others may use
Pythagorean Theorem to determine that the lengths of
the sides of the triangular base are √29 ≈ 5.4, 5, and √74
≈ 8.6 linear units. Hence, the lateral faces of the prism
have area (4 × 5) + 4√29 + 4√74 = 75.9 square units to
the nearest tenth. The area of the bases is 25 ⁄ 2 × 2 = 25
square units. So, the surface area of this triangular prism
to the nearest tenth is 75.9 + 25 = 100.9 square units.

Net IV forms a trapezoidal right prism with surface area

110.4 square units. The volume, 72 cubic units, can be
IV IV determined in several ways. For example, one can com-
bine 2 copies of this prism to form a right rectangular
prism, as shown at the left; find the volume of the
rectangular prism; and then, divide the volume of the
rectangular prism by 2 to get the volume of the trapezoi-
dal prism.

slice here
Or, one could find the volume by slicing the trapezoidal
prism into a triangular prism and a rectangular prism, as
shown at the left, and then find the sum of their vol-
IV umes.

Yet another method is to divide the trapezoidal prism

into two triangular prisms, as illustrated at the left, and
find the sum of their volumes, using methods similar to
those for Net III.

IV

74 / Math Alive! Course III

Measurement—Inventing Formulas Lesson 3
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

Two general strategies for computing the volume of

Lesson 3 Measurement—Inventing Formulas
Focus Master C (page 4)
prisms have been illustrated thus far:

Method 1. Dissect and rearrange the figure to form a

new figure with the same volume.

Method 2. Slice the prism into 1-unit layers that are

V parallel to the bases. Each layer contains as many cubes
as the number of square units that cover the base (i.e.,
the area of the base). Hence, since the height in linear
units indicates the number of 1-unit layers, the volume
of the prism is the product of the area of the base times
the height. This is often written, V = Bh, where B is the
area of the base, and h is the height or altitude.

Net V forms a right circular cylinder, the circular coun-

terpart of a prism. It has 2 parallel and congruent circu-
lar bases and a lateral surface that rises from one base to
the other. If the segment that connects the centers of
the bases is perpendicular to the bases, then the cylinder
is a right cylinder. The altitude, or height, of a cylinder
is the perpendicular distance between the bases. The
radius of a cylinder is the radius of its base.

lateral
surface
circular bases are
h parallel and congruent

height or
altitude

3 The surface area of a cylinder is the sum of the areas of

V the bases plus the area of the lateral surface. Each base of
the cylinder formed from Net V has area π(3)2 = 9π
square units. The lateral surface is a rectangle with
48π square units length equal to the circumference of the base, 6π, and
8 width equal to the height, 8, of the cylinder; hence, the
area of the lateral surface is (6π)(8) = 48π square units.
6π Therefore, the surface area of the cylinder is 18π + 48π =
66π square units.
9π square
units 3
To find the volume of the Net V cylinder
slice the cylinder into 8 circular layers, as V
shown here, with 9π cubes per layer. The
volume is 72π cubic units. In general, like
for a prism, the volume of a cylinder is
the area of the base times the height or
πr 2 h.

.
(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 75

Lesson 3 Measurement—Inventing Formulas
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

18 (continued.)
In Action 12, students subdivided a circle into sectors
and rearranged the sectors to approximate a parallelo-
gram, noting that as the number of sectors increased,
h h the shape of the “parallelogram” formed by the rear-
ranged sectors approached a rectangle with one dimen-
sion equal to 1 ⁄ 2 the circumference of the circle, and the
r
other dimension equal to the radius of the circle. Simi-
r larly, a right circular cylinder can be subdivided, as
1 2πr
___ =
__
2
circumference or
2
πr shown at the left, and rearranged to approximate a right
rectangular prism whose volume is πr × r × h = πr 2 h,
where h is the height and r the radius of the cylinder.

19␣ ␣ Give each pair of students a copy of Focus Master 19␣ ␣ The diagrams on Focus Master D are intended to
D, a sheet of butcher paper, and marking pens. Ask the serve as “thought starters” for investigations and dia-
pairs to generate a list of “We conjecture…/We won- logue among the students. Dimensions and other mea-
der…” statements regarding surface area and volume, surements have been left off in order to prompt conjec-
basing their statements on the figures on Focus Master D tures, what-if questions, and generalizations. Students
and/or other 3-D figures. Discuss their results. may add variables to indicate dimensions and for use in
formulas.

Measurement—Inventing Formulas Lesson 3 If students have difficulty getting started, you might
Focus Master D
initiate a class discussion of conjectures, questions, and
generalizations that one could make about a cube. For
example, if the length of an edge of a cube is s linear
units, then the volume is s3 cubic units and the surface
area is 6s 2 square units. If the volume is V, then the
Cube Noncubic Nonrectangular length of a side is 3√V linear units and the area of a face
Rectangular Prism Parallelepiped
is (3√V )2 square units. Some possible what-if questions
include: What if the length of each edge is enlarged by a
factor of 2—what is the effect on surface area and vol-
ume? What if the length of each edge is enlarged/re-
duced by a factor of n? What if only one dimension is
Trapezoidal RIght Circular Triangular Prism enlarged/reduced? What types of prisms are formed if a
Right Prism Cylinder cube is sliced along a diagonal of one of its faces? What
types of prisms can be formed using one cut of a cube?
two cuts?

Rather than selecting specific figures or questions for

Oblique Hexagonal Right Oblique students to investigate, you might allot a certain
Circular Cylinder Prism Triangular Prism
amount of time for this activity. Some pairs may exam-
ine one or two types of figures in depth, while others
may investigate several types and their relationships to
each other.

Quadrilateral Right Prism

This action provides an opportunity for you to “eaves-
drop” on student discussions, and thus to assess stu-
dents’ understanding of the concepts of surface area and
volume, their ability to see and generalize relationships
in 2-D and 3-D figures, and their comfort with inventing
formulas. It is intended that emphasis be placed on the

76 / Math Alive! Course III

Measurement—Inventing Formulas Lesson 3
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

mathematical process and the invention of formulas,

r r
rather than on memorization of formulas. (Note: even
on the SAT exam, standard formulas are provided to
h h students.)

A cylinder whose altitude is not perpendicular to the

plane of the bases is called oblique, as illustrated at the
Right Circular Cylinder Oblique Circular Cylinder left.

The volume of an oblique cylinder is equal to the vol-

ume of a right cylinder with the same bases and same
altitude. One way to illustrate this idea is to arrange a
stack of coins to form a right cylinder. Then, “shear” the
stack to approximate an oblique cylinder with the same
base, height, and volume as the original (see diagram at
the left).

20␣ ␣ Give each student a copy of Focus Student Activity 20␣ ␣ Focus Student Activity 3.4 could also be assigned as
3.4 (see below and next page) and ask the students to homework. Answers may vary based on the value used
solve selected problems from this sheet. Discuss their for π.
results and reasoning.
Note; the cube root notation in Problems 3 and 4 may
need some discussion. A cube whose volume is 125
Measurement—Inventing Formulas Lesson 3 3
cubic inches has an edge of length 125 inches, and
Focus Student Activity 3.4 3
this equals 5 because 5 = 125. In Problem 4 students
3
may try to evaluate 36 by using trial and error meth-
NAME DATE

ods to find a number which, when raised to the third

1␣ ␣ Suppose you need to fill 1⁄2
of a right cylindrical can with water.
Assuming that you have no measuring tools and no other contain- power, is close to 36. Or, this number can be found by
1
ers, how can you determine when the can is half full?
using a calculator to compute 36 ⁄ 3 ≈ 3.301927249.
2␣ ␣ When an object is placed in a container of water it changes the
level of the water. The amount of water that is displaced is equal to
the volume of the object. This fact is useful for finding the volume
1) One method is to tip the can until
of irregularly shaped objects. Suppose that:
the bottom just becomes visible.
a) You drop a rock into a 5" × 5" × 12" square prism that is filled
with water to a height of 7". The rock displaces the water level by 4".
What is the volume of the rock?
2a) 100 cubic inches
b) You drop some coins in a right circular cylinder with radius 7 cm
and altitude 15 cm. The coins displace the water level from 6 cm to b) 1078 cubic centimeters
13 cm. What is the volume of the coins to the nearest cubic centi-
meter? c) 84 cubic inches
c) Gilly Goldfish and his sisters all jump out of their “filled-to-the-
brim” rectangular-prism-shaped fish tank. The water level in this 12"
by 14" by 18" tank drops 1 ⁄ 2 " below the 18" height. What is the total 3) surface area, 150 square inches; volume, 125 cubic
volume of Gilly and his sisters?
inches
3␣ ␣ The perimeter of a face of Cube X is 4( 3 125 ) inches. Determine
4a) 1 × 1 × 36, 1 × 2 × 18, 2 × 2 × 9, 1 × 4 × 9,
the surface area and volume of Cube X. Show your methods and
reasoning.

4 × 3 × 3, 1 × 12 × 3, 2 × 6 × 3, 6 × 6 × 1
4␣ ␣ The following questions relate to a rectangular parallelepiped
with volume 36 cubic units:

a) What are all the possible whole number dimensions this parallel- b) The minimum surface area, if the dimensions are
whole numbers, is 66 square units for 4 × 3 × 3 parallel-
epiped could have?

b) What is the minimum possible surface area for this parallelepi-

ped if the dimensions are only whole numbers? if the dimensions epiped. The minimum surface area, if the dimensions
are not whole numbers? 3
are not whole numbers, is 6( 36 )2 = 65.4 square units
(Continued on back.) (to the nearest tenth).

(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 77

Lesson 3 Measurement—Inventing Formulas
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

20 (continued.)
Lesson 3 Measurement—Inventing Formulas
Focus Student Activity 3.4 (cont.)
c) There is no maximum surface area, as the surface area
can be arbitrarily large. For example, a parallelepiped
c) What is the maximum possible surface area for this parallelepi- whose dimensions are .001 × .001 × 36,000,000 has a
ped? Explain.
volume of 36 cubic units and a surface area of 144,000
5␣ ␣ A box (without a lid) can be formed by cutting squares out of square units.
corners of a rectangular sheet of paper, folding the “flaps” that re-
main after the cuts, and taping . Assume that you can cut out

5a) Cutting out 7 × 7 inch squares produces a 26 × 36 × 7

squares whose sides have only whole number lengths.

a) Determine the dimensions of the squares to cut from the corners

of a 40" by 50" sheet in order to to maximize the volume of the box. inch open-top box with maximum volume 6552 cubic
b) Repeat a) for a 36" by 36" square sheet. inches.
c) What are the dimensions of the box with minimum surface area
that can be formed from a 40" × 50" sheet? the box with maximum
surface area?
b) Cutting out 12 × 12 inch squares produces a 12 × 12 ×
12 inch box with maximum volume 1728 cubic inches.
6␣ ␣ Generalize about the dimensions, surface area, and volume of all
pairs of trapezoidal prisms for which:
c) Cutting out 19 × 19 inch square corners produces a
a) one prism is a reduction of the other by a scale factor of 1 ⁄ 2 .
12 × 2 × 19 inch box with minimum surface area 518
b) one prism is a reduction of the other by a scale factor of 2 ⁄ 3 .
square inches, and cutting out 1 × 1 inch square corners
c) one prism is an enlargement of the other by a factor of 7⁄ 3 .
produces a 48 × 38 × 1 inch box with maximum surface
d) one prism is an enlargement of the other by a factor of n.
area of 1996 square inches.

6a) The smaller prism has a surface area which is 1⁄4 that
of the larger prism and a volume which 1⁄8 that of the
larger prism.

b) The smaller prism has a surface area which is 4 ⁄ 9 that

of the larger prism and a volume which is 8 ⁄ 27 that of the
larger prism.

c) The larger prism has a surface area which is 49 ⁄ 9 times

that of the smaller prism and a volume which is 343 ⁄ 27
times that of the smaller prism.

d) The larger prism has a surface area which is n2 times

that of the smaller prism and a volume which is n3 times
that of the larger prism.

78 / Math Alive! Course III

Measurement—Inventing Formulas Lesson 3

Follow-up Student Activity 3.5

NAME DATE

For this activity use π ≈ 3.14. Record your responses on separate

paper, and include a statement of each problem next to your work.

1␣ ␣ The outer edge of the racetrack shown below encloses a square

region and 2 half circles.

52 m

52 m

a) If the racetrack is 6 meters wide, what is the area, to the nearest

tenth of a square meter, of only the racetrack (shown by the shaded
part of the diagram)? Explain your reasoning.

b) How much farther (to the nearest tenth of a meter) would a per-
son running along the outside edge of the racetrack run than a per-
son running along the inside edge? Explain.

2␣ ␣ For a square, a nonsquare rectangle, and a circle:

a) Suppose each encloses a region with area 100 cm2. Order these
figures from least to greatest perimeter. Explain your reasoning.

b)␣ ␣ Suppose each has perimeter 100 cm. Compare their areas. Ex-
plain.

3␣ ␣ Given: a nonsquare rectangle with dimensions l and w; a square

with side length s; a circle with radius r; a rectangular prism with
dimension l, w, and h; and a right circular cylinder with radius r and
height h. Support your conclusions about the following:

a) Suppose the sides of the square, both dimensions of the rect-

angle, and the radius of the circle are all doubled; tripled; multiplied
by 5; by 1⁄4; by n. What is the effect of each factor on the perimeter
and area of each figure?

(Continued on back.)
Math Alive! Course III / 79
Lesson 3 Measurement—Inventing Formulas
Follow-up Student Activity (cont.)

b) What is the effect on surface area and volume if the 3 dimen-

sions of the prism, and the radius and height of the cylinder are
doubled? all tripled? multiplied by 5? by 1⁄4? by n?

4␣ ␣ A guard dog is chained to a clothesline that is 15 feet long and 5

feet high. The dog’s chain is 10 feet long and can slide from one end
of the clothesline to the other. Determine the area and perimeter of
the dog’s territory. Show your reasoning and conclusions.

5␣ The Big Wheeler ferris wheel has a radius of 25 feet, and the
Little Wheeler has a radius of 20 feet. Both ferris wheels makes 4
complete revolutions in one ride. A ride on Big Wheeler costs $1.00.
What is a fair price for a ride on Little Wheeler? Explain your rea-
soning.

6 ␣ Outline a presentation about a) and b) below. Then give your

presentation to an adult. Turn in your outline, an explanation of
anything you did differently from your outline, and 3 “I appreci-
ate…” and 2 “I wish…” statements from the adult.

a) The relationships between the circumference, diameter, and ra-

dius of a circle.

b) Visual “proofs” of formulas for: the area of a square, nonsquare

rectangle, parallelogram, trapezoid, right triangle, nonright triangle,
and circle; and the volume and surface area of a rectangular prism
and a right circular cylinder. For each formula that you prove, give a
specific example.

7␣ ␣ Challenge. Suppose the earth is a smooth sphere and a piece of

string is wrapped tightly around it at the equator. At the point
where the string meets end-to-end with no overlap, 8 feet of string
is added. Then, at the equator, the earth is rewrapped by this longer
piece so that the distance from the equator to the string is equal all
around the earth. Which do you think is more likely to fit between
the earth and the lengthened piece of string (predict before problem
solving): a) a piece of paper, b) your fist, c) you crawling, or d) you
walking? Finally, determine which of a)-d) is actually most likely to
fit, and support your conclusion with mathematical reasoning.
(Hint: you do not need to know the measure of the earth’s radius.)

80 / Math Alive! Course III

Measurement—Inventing Formulas Lesson 3
Connector Master A

The rectangle below has area 4 square units. When cut along
the given lines, the rectangle can be reassembled to form a
square. Similarly, the hexagon can be cut along the given
lines and reassembled to form another square. Use this infor-
mation to help you find a close approximation of the area of
the hexagon. Then write a brief explanation of your methods.
Note: use the same area and linear units for the rectangle and
the hexagon.

2
1
3

5
6

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 3 Measurement—Inventing Formulas
Connector Master B

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Measurement—Inventing Formulas Lesson 3
Focus Master A

A Rectangle B Square

a s

b s

C Parallelogram D Trapezoid
b1

h h

b b2

E Right Triangle F Nonright Triangle

a h

b b

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 3 Measurement—Inventing Formulas
Focus Master B

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Measurement—Inventing Formulas Lesson 3
Focus Master C

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 3 Measurement—Inventing Formulas
Focus Master C (page 2)

II

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Measurement—Inventing Formulas Lesson 3
Focus Master C (page 3)

III

IV

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 3 Measurement—Inventing Formulas
Focus Master C (page 4)

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Measurement—Inventing Formulas Lesson 3
Focus Master D

Cube Noncubic Nonrectangular

Rectangular Prism Parallelepiped

Trapezoidal RIght Circular Triangular Prism

Right Prism Cylinder

Oblique Hexagonal Right Oblique

Circular Cylinder Prism Triangular Prism

Quadrilateral Right Prism

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 3 Measurement—Inventing Formulas

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Measurement—Inventing Formulas Lesson 3

Focus Student Activity 3.1

NAME DATE

For each of the following polygons, use the given information to

help you find the missing information. Mark each diagram or write
equations or brief comments that communicate the steps of your
thought processes. If it is not possible to find some of the missing
information write NP and explain why. Note: diagrams are not
drawn to scale; the dotted lines in the diagrams are altitudes; a rep-
resents area; p, perimeter; h, height (the length of the altitude); and
x, s, and b are lengths that are marked on the diagrams.

1 h = _____ 4 7
h = _____
17 300
a = _____ 7 a = _____
p = _____ p = _____
12 2
20

32 14
2 5 h = _____
12

27 a = _____
13 12 13
20 p = _____
h = _____
20
a = _____ 24
p = _____

30 50
3 h = _____ 6 h = _____
a = _____ a = _____
s 15 p = _____
100 50 48 s p = _____
260
s = _____ s = _____

100

(Continued on back.)

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 3 Measurement—Inventing Formulas
Focus Student Activity 3.1 (cont.)

10
7 h = _____ 10 h = _____
a = _____
300 a = _____
150
15 s p = _____ p = _____
s = _____
b = _____ 20
b

10
8 h = _____ 11 h = _____
12
a = _____
204 a = _____
37 12 20
15 s p = _____
62 p = _____
s = _____
51
20

9 h= _____ 12 h = _____
25 a = _____ a = 216.75
_____
20 p= _____ p = _____
x= _____
7
x
=

34

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Measurement—Inventing Formulas Lesson 3

Focus Student Activity 3.2

NAME DATE

Draw a diagram or sketch to solve each of the following problems.

Use your calculator to carry out computations, and record all of the
calculations that you do. Express each answer to the nearest tenth.

1␣ ␣ A circular lid has a diameter of 7 cm. What is its circumference,

to the nearest tenth of a centimeter? Remember to show a sketch,
the keys you press to compute the answer, and your answer.

2␣ ␣ A circular fish pond has a circumference of 5.8 meters. What is

its diameter?

3␣ ␣ The diameter of one circle is twice as long as the diameter of

another circle. How do the circumferences of the circles compare?

(Continued on back.)

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 3 Measurement—Inventing Formulas
Focus Student Activity 3.2 (cont.)

4␣ ␣ A circular patio has a circumference of 18.7 meters. What is its

radius?

5␣ ␣ For a pony ride at the fair, Pete Pony is tied to the end of a 10
foot pole. The other end of the pole is connected to a “hub” that
rotates 360°. One day at the fair, Pete completely circled the hub
220 times. How many miles did Pete travel on that day? 5,280 feet =
1 mile.

6␣ ␣ For the circle shown at the right, find a close approximation of

the length of each of the indicated arcs (a, b, c, and d). Use math a
symbols to communicate your method of determining each arc
length. 12 cm
d
b
a = _______________ Method:

b = _______________ Method:

c = _______________ Method:

d = _______________ Method:

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Measurement—Inventing Formulas Lesson 3

Focus Student Activity 3.3

NAME DATE

Write your responses to problems 1-7 on another sheet of paper. Be

sure to put a copy of the problem next to your responses.

1␣ ␣ Write and illustrate two methods that you could use to show a
younger student how to approximate the area of a circle with a ra-
dius of 7 cm.

2␣ ␣ Explain and sketch a diagram to show how a parallelogram can

be used to find the area of a circle with a radius of 17 cm.

3␣ ␣ For each of sectors A-J shown below, without using a protractor,

predict the area of the sector and the arc length along the edge of
the sector. Record your predictions and reasoning. Then use a pro-
tractor to verify your predictions. Record your measurements and
calculations.

A F
B E
12 cm G J 10π cm
cm I
D
C 17
H

4␣ ␣ Papa Paulo’s Pizza Crust Company sells a crust with a 13 inch

diameter for $2.29. They have decided to add a square crust to their
product line. Assuming Papa Paulo wants to price all of his crusts at
the same rate, what should he charge for a square crust with side
length 13 inches?

5␣ ␣ On Carmen’s clock, the second hand is 15 cm long and the hour

hand is 10 cm long. Explain your methods of solving each of the
following problems about her clock. Give answers to the nearest
tenth of a centimeter.

a) How far does the tip of the second hand travel in 45 minutes?

b) How far does the tip of the hour hand travel in 45 minutes?

(Continued on back.)

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 3 Measurement—Inventing Formulas
Focus Student Activity 3.3 (cont.)

6␣ ␣ In order to get a sign post that rises 8 feet above the ground to
stand at right angles, Zane fastened one end of a wire to the top of
the post and the other end to the ground 3 feet from the base of the
post. If she needs 6 extra inches of wire on each end for fastening,
how long (to the nearest inch) must she cut the wire? Make a dia-
gram and show your reasoning.

7␣ ␣ What is the area (to the nearest square centimeter) of the largest
circle that can be cut from a square piece of sheet metal 73 cm on a
side? Explain your reasoning.

8␣ ␣ The following figures show the radius, diameter, circumference,

or area of a circle. Use the information given to mentally approximate
the requested measures. Use math symbols to communicate your
mental calculations.

a) Circumference ≈_______ b) Area ≈_______

Mental calculations: 6 cm Mental calculations:
17 cm

_______________________ _______________________

c) Area = 75 cm2 d) Circumference = 21 cm

? Radius ≈_______ Area ≈_______
Mental calculations: Mental calculations:

_______________________ _______________________

e) Circumference = 15 cm f) Area = 48 cm2

? Radius ≈_______ Circumference ≈_______
Mental calculations: Mental calculations:

_______________________ _______________________

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Measurement—Inventing Formulas Lesson 3

Focus Student Activity 3.4

NAME DATE

1␣ ␣ Suppose you need to fill 1 ⁄ 2 of a right cylindrical can with water.

Assuming that you have no measuring tools and no other contain-
ers, how can you determine when the can is half full?

2␣ ␣ When an object is placed in a container of water it changes the

level of the water. The amount of water that is displaced is equal to
the volume of the object. This fact is useful for finding the volume
of irregularly shaped objects. Suppose that:

a) You drop a rock into a 5" × 5" × 12" square prism that is filled
with water to a height of 7". The rock displaces the water level by 4".
What is the volume of the rock?

b) You drop some coins in a right circular cylinder with radius 7 cm

and altitude 15 cm. The coins displace the water level from 6 cm to
13 cm. What is the volume of the coins to the nearest cubic centi-
meter?

c) Gilly Goldfish and his sisters all jump out of their “filled-to-the-
brim” rectangular-prism-shaped fish tank. The water level in this 12"
by 14" by 18" tank drops 1 ⁄ 2 " below the 18" height. What is the total
volume of Gilly and his sisters?

3␣ ␣ The perimeter of a face of Cube X is 4( 3 125 ) inches. Determine

the surface area and volume of Cube X. Show your methods and
reasoning.

4␣ ␣ The following questions relate to a rectangular parallelepiped

with volume 36 cubic units:

a) What are all the possible whole number dimensions this parallel-
epiped could have?

b) What is the minimum possible surface area for this parallelepi-

ped if the dimensions are only whole numbers? if the dimensions
are not whole numbers?

(Continued on back.)

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 3 Measurement—Inventing Formulas
Focus Student Activity 3.4 (cont.)

c) What is the maximum possible surface area for this parallelepi-

ped? Explain.

5␣ ␣ A box (without a lid) can be formed by cutting squares out of

corners of a rectangular sheet of paper, folding the “flaps” that re-
main after the cuts, and taping . Assume that you can cut out
squares whose sides have only whole number lengths.

a) Determine the dimensions of the squares to cut from the corners

of a 40" by 50" sheet in order to to maximize the volume of the box.

b) Repeat a) for a 36" by 36" square sheet.

c) What are the dimensions of the box with minimum surface area
that can be formed from a 40" × 50" sheet? the box with maximum
surface area?

6␣ ␣ Generalize about the dimensions, surface area, and volume of all

pairs of trapezoidal prisms for which:

a) one prism is a reduction of the other by a scale factor of 1 ⁄ 2 .

b) one prism is a reduction of the other by a scale factor of 2 ⁄ 3 .

c) one prism is an enlargement of the other by a factor of 7⁄ 3 .

d) one prism is an enlargement of the other by a factor of n.

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Measurement—Inventing Formulas Lesson 3

Follow-up Student Activity 3.5

NAME DATE

For this activity use π ≈ 3.14. Record your responses on separate

paper, and include a statement of each problem next to your work.

1␣ ␣ The outer edge of the racetrack shown below encloses a square

region and 2 half circles.

52 m

52 m

a) If the racetrack is 6 meters wide, what is the area, to the nearest

tenth of a square meter, of only the racetrack (shown by the shaded
part of the diagram)? Explain your reasoning.

b) How much farther (to the nearest tenth of a meter) would a per-
son running along the outside edge of the racetrack run than a per-
son running along the inside edge? Explain.

2␣ ␣ For a square, a nonsquare rectangle, and a circle:

a) Suppose each encloses a region with area 100 cm2. Order these
figures from least to greatest perimeter. Explain your reasoning.

b)␣ ␣ Suppose each has perimeter 100 cm. Compare their areas. Ex-
plain.

3␣ ␣ Given: a nonsquare rectangle with dimensions l and w; a square

with side length s; a circle with radius r; a rectangular prism with
dimension l, w, and h; and a right circular cylinder with radius r and
height h. Support your conclusions about the following:

a) Suppose the sides of the square, both dimensions of the rect-

angle, and the radius of the circle are all doubled; tripled; multiplied
by 5; by 1⁄4; by n. What is the effect of each factor on the perimeter
and area of each figure?

(Continued on back.)

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 3 Measurement—Inventing Formulas
Follow-up Student Activity (cont.)

b) What is the effect on surface area and volume if the 3 dimen-

sions of the prism, and the radius and height of the cylinder are
doubled? all tripled? multiplied by 5? by 1⁄4? by n?

4␣ ␣ A guard dog is chained to a clothesline that is 15 feet long and 5

feet high. The dog’s chain is 10 feet long and can slide from one end
of the clothesline to the other. Determine the area and perimeter of
the dog’s territory. Show your reasoning and conclusions.

5␣ The Big Wheeler ferris wheel has a radius of 25 feet, and the
Little Wheeler has a radius of 20 feet. Both ferris wheels makes 4
complete revolutions in one ride. A ride on Big Wheeler costs $1.00.
What is a fair price for a ride on Little Wheeler? Explain your rea-
soning.

6 ␣ Outline a presentation about a) and b) below. Then give your

presentation to an adult. Turn in your outline, an explanation of
anything you did differently from your outline, and 3 “I appreci-
ate…” and 2 “I wish…” statements from the adult.

a) The relationships between the circumference, diameter, and ra-

dius of a circle.

b) Visual “proofs” of formulas for: the area of a square, nonsquare

rectangle, parallelogram, trapezoid, right triangle, nonright triangle,
and circle; and the volume and surface area of a rectangular prism
and a right circular cylinder. For each formula that you prove, give a
specific example.

7␣ ␣ Challenge. Suppose the earth is a smooth sphere and a piece of

string is wrapped tightly around it at the equator. At the point
where the string meets end-to-end with no overlap, 8 feet of string
is added. Then, at the equator, the earth is rewrapped by this longer
piece so that the distance from the equator to the string is equal all
around the earth. Which do you think is more likely to fit between
the earth and the lengthened piece of string (predict before problem
solving): a) a piece of paper, b) your fist, c) you crawling, or d) you
walking? Finally, determine which of a)-d) is actually most likely to
fit, and support your conclusion with mathematical reasoning.
(Hint: you do not need to know the measure of the earth’s radius.)

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Arithmetic Sequences
Arithmetic Sequences Lesson 4 Lesson 4

.
.
.
.
THE BIG IDEA .
.
CONNECTOR
.
. OVERVIEW MATERIALS FOR TEACHER ACTIVITY
Determining the num- .
.
. Students predict the num- ✔ One small slip of paper
ber of handshakes if .
. ber of handshakes required per student.
.
everyone in a room . if all students in the class ✔ Connector Student Activ-
.
. shake hands with each ity 4.1, 1 copy per stu-
shakes hands provides .
. other. They design an orga- dent.
.
a context for introduc- . nized procedure for physi-
. ✔ Straightedge for each
. cally carrying out the shak-
ing the use of stair- . student.
. ing of hands so that
.
cases to represent and . counting the number of
.
. handshakes is possible.
add consecutive whole .
.
.
numbers and for .
.
.
illustrating the use of .
.
.
FOCUS
visual thinking in .
. OVERVIEW MATERIALS FOR TEACHER ACTIVITY
.
problem solving. .
. The students develop ✔ Cubes (1-cm or 2-cm ✔ Butcher paper, 1 sheet
.
Staircase models . “staircase methods” of linking cubes), 30 per per pair of students.
.
. computing the sums of student. ✔ Butcher paper strips (op-
enable students to .
. terms in arithmetic se- ✔ Focus Masters A and B, tional), 16 strips per pair
.
“see” formulas for . quences. These methods 1 transparency of each. of students, and 8 for the
.
. lead to formulas and other teacher.
computing the sum of . ✔ Focus Master C, 1 copy
. generalizations about arith-
. per pair of students and ✔ Marking pens for each
consecutive whole . metic sequences.
. 1 transparency. pair of students.
.
numbers and to de- . ✔ Focus Student Activity
.
. 4.2 (optional), 1 copy per
velop general formulas .
. student.
.
for the sum of the .
.
.
terms in any arithmetic .
. FOLLOW-UP
.
sequence. .
.
. OVERVIEW MATERIALS FOR STUDENT ACTIVITY
.
. Students use the staircase ✔ Student Activity 4.3,
.
. model to find the missing 1 copy per student.
.
. information in mystery se-
.
. quences, and to illustrate
.
. various algebraic expres-
.
. sions for the terms and the
.
. sum of an arithmetic se-
.
. quence.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

Math Alive! Course III / 81

Lesson 4 Arithmetic Sequences

LESSON IDEAS
FAITHFUL MODELS a particular model because most important ideas from clues (not solutions) from
Throughout Math Alive! the model has far reaching this lesson. Next to each the class. Or, you might
emphasis is placed on the mathematical implications. problem, record the answer record the Follow-up prob-
development of mathemati- The staircase model for and your methods or rea- lem numbers on the board
cally “faithful” models, i.e., summing arithmetic se- soning. and ask students to write
models that are meaningful quences is an example. their names next to specific
and useful as mathematical FOLLOW-UP problems for which they
topics become more com- JOURNAL It is important that students feel comfortable serving as
plex. It is not intended that At the completion of this have several days to work a resource to their class-
other models be discounted lesson, you might ask stu- on this Follow-up, and that mates. You could provide
or rejected, or that students dents to do the following in they have opportunities to time for students to confer
are given the feeling the their journals: discuss places they get with their “peer resources”
teacher’s way is the best Write 3 problems for a “stuck.” To help students during class and/or suggest
way. Rather, it is hoped that “test” about arithmetic se- get “unstuck,” you might they do so outside of class.
students will understand quences. Create problems regularly provide opportu-
that emphasis is placed on that you feel represent the 3 nities for them to ask for

SELECTED ANSWERS

2. 7. a) 1, 5, 9, 13, 17,… 225, 229, 233, 237, 241

b) 29, 37, 45, 53, 61,… 125, 133, 141, 149, 157
100 + 1

6 c) 7, 8, 9, 10, 11,… 42, 43, 44, 45, 46

187 – 7 = 180

100 × 101 = 5,050

_________ d
2 8. a) The height of the nth step, an, is d d
…
187

100
equal to the height of the first step,

a1 + (n – 1)d
…
6 …
3. b) ii) Since a 6 is added for every 6 6
a1, plus (n – 1) groups of d [i.e., the d d
step after the first step, there are 7 7 value of the last term, an, is found d d
(187 – 7)⁄6 + 1 = 31 steps in the staircase. 180
___ + 1 by adding (n – 1) groups of the d d
6
common difference, d, to the first a1 a1
7
iii) 194 × 31 = 3007
term, a1]. n
________ 6
2
187 + 7 = 194
…

b) The height of the n th step of the

6 … staircase is d more than the height
6 6 of the step that precedes [i.e., the
an – 1 = an – 2 + d

7 7 …
an = an – 1 + d

value of the nth term of the series is

a2 = a1 + d
a3 = a2 + d
a4 = a3 + d

d
31
d more than the value of the a1
5. a) Sn = 1 + 2 + 3 + ...+ n, where n is the number of stu- (n – 1)st term].
dents in your class, so the total cost is $1.50 × Sn.

b) The number of pennies Holly would 730 × 365

_________ c) The sum of the heights of the
2 n(a1 + an)
earn on the 365th day is the 365th odd = 133,225 steps in the staircase is 1 ⁄ 2 the area Sn = _________
2
pennies
729 + 1

number: 729 of the rectangle formed by joining 2

an + a1

of the staircases (i.e., the sum of the

…

Odd Numbers
1st 2nd 3rd … 365th 5 first n terms of the series is equal to
an
… 364 3 1 ⁄ 2 the product of the number of
365 1
a1
1 3 5 … 729 365 terms and the sum of the first and n
last terms). Or, the sum of the first n
The total number of pennies she would earn is 1 + 3 + terms is equal to the product of the number of terms
5 + ... + 729. So, Holly would earn $1332.25 for the year. times the average of the first and the last terms.

82 / Math Alive! Course III

Arithmetic Sequences Lesson 4

Connector Teacher Activity

OVERVIEW & PURPOSE MATERIALS
Students predict the number of handshakes required if all ✔ One small slip of paper per student.
students in the class shake hands with each other. They ✔ Connector Student Activity 4.1, 1 copy per student.
design an organized procedure for physically carrying out the
✔ Straightedge for each student.
shaking of hands so that counting the number of handshakes
is possible.

ACTIONS COMMENTS

1␣ ␣ Distribute a small slip of paper to each student. Ar- 1␣ ␣ Asking for individual guesses will encourage the
range the students in groups. Mention that when people students to formulate their own thoughts about the
get together, they often shake hands with one another. problem. The idea at this point is to get their first intui-
Ask the students to each privately guess the number of tions, not to calculate or problem solve.
handshakes there would be if everyone in the room
shook hands with everyone else, and to anonymously In this activity, 2 people shaking hands is counted as 1
record their guess on the slip of paper. Make certain the handshake. You could illustrate this by shaking hands
students understand what constitutes a single hand- with a student while saying, “This is one handshake.”
shake.

2␣ ␣ Collect the guesses and, without comment, record 2␣ ␣ Avoid reactions that might be construed as value
them on the chalkboard or overhead. judgements about students’ guesses.

3␣ ␣ Pick a student, or ask for a volunteer, to assist you. 3␣ ␣ The assistant will be asked to do an impossible job—
Explain to your assistant that you want her or him to this may influence who you pick.
help check the guesses against the actual number of
handshakes.

4␣ ␣ Ask the students to get up and shake hands with one 4␣ ␣ The students may be hesitant to start shaking hands
another. Ask your assistant to count the handshakes. If, with each other. Encourage them by moving around the
in a minute or so, your assistant does not inform you of room, randomly shaking hands with students. The
the hopelessness of this task, suggest that you would like intent is to create a setting in which it is impossible for
to ask the class for help in getting an accurate count. your assistant to count all the handshakes taking place.
This provides a graphic picture of the need for a system-
atic procedure.

5␣ ␣ Get the students’ attention. Ask them to suggest 5␣ ␣ A number of procedures may be suggested. You may
procedures for shaking hands that will allow your assis- need to clarify some of the suggestions, but avoid judg-
tant to count the number of handshakes. ing one better than another.

Following are two procedures frequently suggested by

students:

(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 83

Lesson 4 Arithmetic Sequences
Connector Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

2 5 (continued.)
Procedure A: Everyone lines up in a row. The first per-
1
son walks down the row, shaking hands with each
3 person (see the illustration at the left), then sits down.
Then the second person does the same. This procedure
1
continues with the third, fourth, etc., until only one
4 person is left in the row.

1 Procedure B: One person goes to the center of the

5 room. Then a second person goes to the center and
shakes hands with the person there. Next, a third person
1
goes to the center and shakes hands with the two per-
6 sons already there. One at a time, people continue going
to the center of the room and shaking hands with all the
1
people there until everyone is in the center of the room.
7
In the above procedures, the total number of hand-
1
shakes could be determined by adding the number of
handshakes completed by each person as they enter the
center of the room or pass down the row.

6␣ ␣ Select one of the procedures suggested by the stu- 6␣ ␣ You may want to let the students pick the procedure
dents in Action 5, and ask for 6 students to demonstrate to try. You might have the student who suggested the
that method for determining the number of handshakes procedure carry it out with a group of students, while
if everyone in a group of 6 students shakes hands with the rest of the class observes. The size of the group is not
one another. Discuss. important, although it should be large enough that
students can see how the procedure would be carried out
if everyone in the room participated. Be sure the stu-
dents see that the number of handshakes for a group of
Student No. of Shakes 6 is the sum of the counting numbers from 1 through 5.
First 1
Student Shown at the left is a diagram for 6 students carrying out
Procedure B in Comment 5. The first student goes to the
Second 1 2
center of the room. A second student goes to the center
1 of the room and shakes hands with the student there.
Student
Then a third student goes to the center and shakes hands
Third 1 3 2 3
with the 2 students who are already there. This process
+2 continues until the sixth student goes to the center and
Student
shakes hands with the 5 students who are there. As each
Fourth 1 4 2 4 3 4
student shakes hands, you can record the number of
+3 handshakes on the chalkboard or overhead. In this
Student
procedure, for 6 students, the number of handshakes is
Fifth 1 5 2 5 3 5 4 5
1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 = 15.
+4
Student
If Procedure A in Comment 5 is carried out with a group
Sixth 1 6 2 6 3 6 4 6 5 6
of 6 students, the first student in the row will shake 5
+5 hands before sitting down. The next person will shake
Student
hands with the 4 other students remaining in the row—
he or she has already shaken hands with the person who
Total +15 sat down. The next person will shake 3 hands, the next
2. The next to last person will shake hands once (with

84 / Math Alive! Course III

Arithmetic Sequences Lesson 4
Connector Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

the last person). There is no one left for the last person
to shake hands with. Thus, for 6 students, the number of
handshakes is 5 + 4 + 3 + 2 + 1 = 15.

Notice, in both procedures, the number of handshakes

for 6 students is the sum of the first 5 positive whole
numbers.

7␣ ␣ Discuss with the students how the method used in 7␣ ␣ You can ask the students to imagine carrying out the
Action 6 could be extended to determine the total num- procedure you used in Action 6 with everyone in the
ber of handshakes if everyone in the room shook hands room participating. If, for example, there are 32 people
with one another. What calculation would be needed to in the room, the number of handshakes will be 1 + 2 + 3
find this number? Note: at this point, it is not important + … + 31. Note: in the Focus activity students will de-
that students actually compute the answer; rather, they velop methods of computing this sum.
only need to identify which numbers must be added.

8␣ ␣ Ask the students to imagine carrying out the hand- 8␣ ␣ Again, it isn’t expected that students compute the
shake procedure in a room of 50 people (and/or some answer here; rather, they simply tell what calculations
other large number of people), and to describe the are required to determine the number of handshakes.
computation required to find the total number of hand-
shakes in that group. Recalling images of the class experience in Action 6 can
help students to visualize the situation for any size group
and see that, in general, the number of handshakes is
the sum of the whole numbers beginning with 1 and
ending with 1 less than the number of people shaking
hands.

9␣ ␣ (Optional) Read the following aloud and ask the stu- 9␣ ␣ If students have a difficult time imagining the ac-
dents to imagine the handshaking in their mind’s eye. tions described in the problem, you could have 9 stu-
dents act out the problem while the rest of the class
When the 9 justices of the Supreme Court con- observes.
vene, they each shake hands with one another.
a) 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 + 8 = 36. Some students may
Next read a) below and ask the students to discuss their compute this sum mentally.
ideas with their partners. Discuss as a large group. Then
repeat for b) and c). b) The first of the 4 to arrive will shake 5 hands, the next
6, the next 7, and the last to arrive will shake 8 hands.
a) What computation is needed to determine So there will be 5 + 6 + 7 + 8, or 26, more handshakes.
the number of handshakes among the 9 justices?
Students may have other ways of arriving at the answer.
b) Suppose only 5 of the judges shake hands
with each other; then the other 4 arrive. How c) Each of the 6 will shake 3 hands. So there will be
many more handshakes will there be? 6 × 3, or 18, more handshakes.

c) The judges form two groups. Suppose the 6 in

one group have shaken hands with each other;
so have the 3 in the other group. How many
more handshakes will there be if the 2 groups
meet?

Math Alive! Course III / 85

Lesson 4 Arithmetic Sequences
Connector Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

10␣ ␣ Give each student a copy of Connector Student 10␣ ␣ This could be used as homework. Students may
Activity 4.1 and ask them to complete Problem 1. Dis- find that using different colored pencils to sketch the
cuss their results. Then have the students complete and lines simplifies counting.
discuss Problems 2-4.

Arithmetic Sequences Lesson 4 Lesson 4 Arithmetic Sequences

Connector Student Activity (cont.)
Connector Student Activity 4.1
NAME DATE 3␣ ␣ A student in another class said she thought that finding the
number of segments was just like solving the “handshake problem.”
1␣ ␣ In each square below use a straightedge to draw straight line What do you think she meant?
segments that connect each dot to all other dots in the square.
Then, in the corner of each square, write how many segments you
drew.

Example:

4␣ ␣ Suppose you have to find the number of lines it takes to connect

125 dots. Describe a way to find this number without having to
3 draw the segments and dots. (Just tell your method—you don’t need
to compute the answer!)

2␣ ␣ Tell about any patterns you notice or conjectures you have about
counting segments between dots.

(Continued on back.)

Following are answers to Problems 1-4 on Connector

Student Activity 4.1.

1) 3 6 3 10
10 10 15 15
15 21 21 21

Notice that in the last square, there are 3 different sets of

3 collinear points. For each set of 3 collinear points
there are 3 segments (representing 3 handshakes)
formed when the 3 points are connected, as shown be-
low. Note: points that lie on the same line are collinear.

1 2

86 / Math Alive! Course III

Arithmetic Sequences Lesson 4
Connector Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

2) Here are examples of observations students have

given:

Sets containing the same number of points have equal num-

bers of connecting segments, regardless the arrangements of
the points.

The number of lines for increasing numbers of points form a

pattern: their differences are the consecutive whole numbers,
as illustrated here:

Number of Points: 2 3 4 5 6 7
Number of Lines: 1 3 6 10 15 21

Differences: 2 3 4 5 6

If the number of segments connecting n points is p, then the

number of segments connecting n + 1 points is n + p.

3) This activity is similar to the handshake problem (i.e.,

determining the number of handshakes completed
when everyone in the class shook hands) because 2
connecting arms are like a line segment connecting 2
points.

4) Find the sum of the whole numbers from 1 through

124.

Math Alive! Course III / 87

Lesson 4 Arithmetic Sequences

TEACHER NOTES:

88 / Math Alive! Course III

Arithmetic Sequences Lesson 4

Focus Teacher Activity

OVERVIEW & PURPOSE MATERIALS
The students develop “staircase methods” of computing the ✔ Cubes (1-cm or 2-cm linking cubes), 30 per student.
sums of terms in arithmetic sequences. These methods lead to ✔ Focus Masters A and B, 1 transparency of each.
formulas and other generalizations about arithmetic se-
✔ Focus Master C, 1 copy per pair of students and
quences.
1 transparency.
✔ Focus Student Activity 4.2 (optional), 1 copy per
student.
✔ Butcher paper, 1 sheet per pair of students.
✔ Butcher paper strips (optional), 16 strips per pair of
students, and 8 for the teacher.
✔ Marking pens for each pair of students.

ACTIONS COMMENTS

1␣ ␣ Arrange the students in pairs and distribute 30 cubes 1␣ ␣ Asking the students to think privately for a few
to each student. Write the expression “1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5” moments before arranging the cubes will help them
on the chalkboard or overhead. Ask the students to focus on the task and not wait to see what a classmate
think privately for a few moments regarding how they does.
would arrange the cubes to model the meaning of this
expression. Then ask them to make whatever arrange- Linking cubes, either 1-cm or 2-cm, are most convenient
ment came to mind. Emphasize that there are many for this activity. However, nonlinking cubes will also
ways to do this and you anticipate a variety of models. work.

2␣ ␣ Acknowledge, without judgement, the different 2␣ ␣ Students could demonstrate their methods by hold-
models that students form. Discuss ways the students ing their models up for the class to see, or they could
“see” the numbers 1 through 5 in their models and ways move about the room to see the different models dis-
they “see” addition represented in the different models. played on the students’ desks or tables.

Seeing the models will give you an idea about ways the
students relate numbers and objects. For example, some
may form numerals with the cubes. These students may
associate school mathematics with symbols and their
manipulation.

Models of 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 Some students may begin with rows or columns of cubes

representing the numbers 1-5, and then push the cubes
together so there are no gaps, thus showing addition as
the process of “joining together” the numbers. If several
students form staircases (see the staircase model at the
left), although the models may look the same, the ways
students view them as representations of 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5
may differ. For example, some may “see” horizontal
rows of 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 cubes beginning with the top
row and moving down the staircase, while others may
see vertical columns of cubes. Still others may see diago-
The Staircase Model nals.

Math Alive! Course III / 89

Lesson 4 Arithmetic Sequences
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

3␣ ␣ Focus the students’ attention on a “staircase” (see 3␣ ␣ If no students formed a staircase, pose one as another
diagram on the previous page) from the models formed way of viewing the sum 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5. It may be
in Action 2. Ask each student to form a staircase model helpful to discuss the fact that, while there are many
for the sum 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5. models possible, sometimes one model may reveal more
mathematical relationships, and hence provide more
Ask each pair of students to determine and record differ- insights, than another. For example, the staircase model
ent methods of “seeing” and counting (other than is especially useful in finding the sum of consecutive
standard counting procedures) the total number of cubes whole numbers and, later, sums of other arithmetic
in a staircase representing the sum 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5. For sequences of numbers.
each method that students invent, ask them to deter-
mine whether that method works for staircases repre- Note that students may invent formulas to represent
senting 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 + 8 and 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 their methods, or they may only give verbal explana-
+ 6 + 7 + 8 + 9 + 10. Discuss the various methods. En- tions. Either is okay at this point. Notice that formulas
courage attempts to generalize. are developed in Action 4. Following are several meth-
ods that students have suggested.

Method A. We reshaped the staircase to form a 3 × 5

rectangle.

After studying other staircases, we conjecture that staircases

with an odd number of steps can always be reshaped to form
a rectangle with nothing left over. The length of the rectangle
is equal to the number of steps in the staircase. We also
6 conjecture that staircases with an even number of steps can
be reshaped to form a rectangle whose length is equal to the
number of steps in the staircase, but there is an extra half of
one row of the rectangle (e.g., see the sum 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5
3 + 6 at the left).

Some students may go on to generalize in more detail.

For example, if one uses Method A to find the sum of
the numbers from 1 to n, when n is odd, one dimension
of the rectangle formed is n and the other dimension
(n + 1) ⁄ 2 . If n is even, the shape formed contains a row of
n ⁄ 2 cubes plus an n by n ⁄ 2 rectangle.

Method B. We imagined leveling off the staircase to make a

rectangle. We think of leveling off the staircase as finding the
average height of the steps. Our conjecture is that the aver-
age, or leveled-off, height of any staircase with an odd num-
ber of steps is the height of the middle step. If there is an even
number of steps, we think the average height of the staircase
1
3 __
2
is the average height of the two middle steps (also the average
height of the first and last steps). The number of cubes in the
staircase is the number of steps times the average height of
6 the staircase.

90 / Math Alive! Course III

Arithmetic Sequences Lesson 4
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

Method C: We placed 2 copies of the staircase together to

30 ÷ 2 form a rectangle that contains 5 × 6 = 30, cubes (see dia-
gram at the left). Since the rectangle is made from 2 identi-
cal staircases, each staircase contains 30 ÷ 2, or 15, cubes.
Also, since each staircase was built to contain 1 + 2 + 3 + 4
30 ÷ 2 + 5 cubes, then 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 = (5 × 6) ⁄ 2 = 30 ⁄ 2 = 15.

Two Staircases 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 = 30 ÷ 2 = 15 If students bring up formulas for generalizing the

Form a Rectangle method of combining 2 staircases to form a rectangle,
you may wish to refer to the discussion in Comment 5.

Method D: We viewed the staircase for 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 as

part of a 5 by 5 square (see diagram at the left). The num-
ber of cubes below the diagonal line is half of a 5 × 5 square.
Since there are 5 half-squares above the diagonal, the total
number of cubes in the staircase is (52 ÷ 2) + (5 × 1 ⁄ 2 ) =
121 ⁄ 2 + 21 ⁄ 2 = 15. We think that this method works for any
staircase sum. For example, a staircase representing the sum
1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 + 8 can be viewed as half of an
8 × 8 square plus 8 half squares, or 64 ⁄ 2 + 4 = 36. So, a
staircase representing the counting numbers from 1 to n
contains a total of (n2 ÷ 2) + (n ÷ 2) cubes.

4␣ ␣If the method of combining two staircases to com- 4␣ ␣ See Comment 3, Method C, for discussion ideas.
pute the sum 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5, as illustrated in Method
C of Comment 3, was not suggested, have the students
try it now. Discuss.

5␣ ␣ Place a transparency of Focus Master A (see next 5␣ ␣ The intent here is for students to develop comfort
page) on the overhead, revealing the first sentence of with using staircase methods to compute sums of con-
Part a) only. Have students think privately about this secutive counting numbers. Emphasis is on the method
situation, then slowly reveal Parts i)-iii) one at a time, of combining 2 staircases because it conveniently ex-
having students think privately about the questions. tends in later actions to staircases with steps that in-
Then have the students talk over their ideas with their crease by numbers other than 1.
partners. Invite volunteers to illustrate their reasoning
at the overhead. Repeat for b)-e). It is helpful to pause for a few moments before revealing
the questions about each situation. This allows students
to form images of the situation and “see“ relationships
before focusing on getting answers. Students may be
excited by the strength of this model, and hence, may
ask for other problems to solve that are similar to those
on Focus Master A. Or, they may enjoy posing problems
110 ÷ 2 for one another to solve.

a) Two staircases form a 10 × 11 rectangle containing

110 cubes. Hence each staircase contains 110 ⁄ 2 = 55
110 ÷ 2 cubes. Thus 1 + 2 + 3 + … + 10 = 55.

1 + 2 + 3 + … + 10 = 110 ÷ 2 = 55
(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 91

Lesson 4 Arithmetic Sequences
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

5 (continued.)
Arithmetic Sequences Lesson 4
Focus Master A
b) You might remind the
students that a “rough” sketch
need not show every step. A
a) Imagine, build, or sketch a staircase of cubes for the sum of the first
staircase representing the sum 101
10 positive integers, 1 + 2 + 3 + … + 10.
1 + 2 + 3 + … + 100 contains
i) What are the dimensions of a rectangle formed by combining 2 of (100 × 101) ⁄ 2 cubes, as illustrated
these staircases? 100 × 101
__________
ii) How many cubes does this rectangle contain? here: 2
iii) How many cubes are in each of the 2 staircases?
100
b) Now imagine or sketch a staircase of cubes representing the sum
1 + 2 + 3 + … + 100.
n
i) What are the dimensions of a rectangle formed by combining 2 of
these staircases? c) If the sum 1 + 2 + 3 + … + n
ii) How many cubes does the rectangle contain? is represented as a staircase, 2
iii) How many cubes are in each staircase?
copies of the staircase fit to-
gether to form an n × (n + 1)

n+1
c) Imagine or sketch a staircase of cubes representing the sum
1 + 2 + 3 + … + n, where n is a whole number.
rectangle. Thus, 1 + 2 + 3 + … +
i) What are the dimensions of a rectangle formed by combining 2 of
n = (n × (n + 1)) ⁄ 2 , as illustrated at
these staircases? n × (n + 1)
__________
ii) How many cubes does the rectangle contain? the right.
iii) How many cubes are in each staircase? 2
d) Suppose a staircase contains a total of 465 cubes. The first step con-
tains 1 cube, and each step is 1 cube higher than the preceding step. =1+2+3+…+n
i) Reason from a sketch to determine how many steps it contains. = n × (n + 1) ⁄ 2
e) Challenge. Sketch a staircase of cubes to represent the sum 23 + 24 + d) Some students may begin by adding whole numbers
25 + … + 77.
1 + 2 + 3 + … to obtain the sum 465. However, this will
i) Reason from the sketch to find the number of steps in the be tedious, even with a calculator, and is intended to
staircase.
ii) Use your sketch to find the number of cubes in the staircase. motivate the use of other strategies.

Notice that 2 staircases can be

placed together, as shown
here, to form a rectangle with 465
2 × 465 = 930 cubes and with n+1
dimensions that are consecu-
tive whole numbers. A calcula- 465
tor can be used to find that
30 × 31 = 930, so there are 30 n
steps.

e) Allow plenty of time for

the pairs to “puzzle” over this
problem. One line of reason-
ing is that, since the differ-
77 – 23 = 54

ence between the first and

last step is 77 – 23 = 54, there
must be 54 + 1 = 55 steps. 1 77
That is, each step is 1 cube 1
higher than the previous 1
step, so the difference be-
23
23

tween the first and last step

indicates the number of steps …
1 + (77 – 23)
after the first step. Thus, the
total number of steps is 1
more than the difference.

92 / Math Alive! Course III

Arithmetic Sequences Lesson 4
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

55 × 100 = _____
5500
The total number of cubes in the staircase can be deter-
________
2 2 mined by combining matching staircases (see diagram at
= 2,750 the left) to form a rectangle with dimensions 55 by

77 + 23 = 100
(23 + 77); one staircase contains (55 × 100) ÷ 2 = 2,750
cubes.

1 77
1
1
23
…
55

6␣ ␣ Slowly read the following statements in bold print 6␣ The questions that you read are intended to promote
aloud to the students, pausing frequently between sen- private reflection and are to be answered only in each
tences to allow students to form mental images. Ask the student’s mind.
students to think privately, closing their eyes if they wish:
If there are 32 people in the room, for example, the
Create a picture in your mind’s eye of the hand- number of handshakes will be the sum of 1 + 2 + 3 + …
shake procedure used earlier by our class. Recall… + 31. A staircase representing this sum will have 31 steps.
Two staircases, each representing this sum, will form a
(Note to teacher: describe here the way your students 31 × 32 rectangle. The number of handshakes will be
lined up to shake hands, the way your students came to half this amount: (31 × 32) ÷ 2 = 496. This computation
the center of the room to shake hands, or whatever can be done with a calculator or mentally (31 × 32) ÷ 2 =
method was used by your class in Action 6 of the Con- 31 × 16 = (30 × 16) + (1 × 16) = 480 + 16 = 496.
nector.)

Now imagine that all the students in our class

today use this process to shake hands with each
other. What are the numbers that must be
added to determine the total number of hand-
shakes made by the class?

Next imagine a staircase representing these

numbers. What does the staircase look like?
How many steps does it have?

Now imagine another staircase, identical to the

one representing the total number of hand-
shakes in the class. Imagine joining these 2
staircases together to form a rectangle. What are
the dimensions of this rectangle?

Finally, make a rough sketch showing your 2

staircases joined to form a rectangle; label the
dimensions of this rectangle; and use that rect-
angle to determine the total number of hand-
shakes if all the students in the class shake
hands with each other.

Discuss, comparing the students’ results to the class’

predictions that were made during the Connector.

Math Alive! Course III / 93

Lesson 4 Arithmetic Sequences
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

7␣ ␣ Ask the students to imagine a room of 50 people. 7␣ ␣ There are (49 × 50) ÷ 2 = 1225 handshakes in a room
Have the pairs of students determine the number of of 50 people. This computation is easily done with a
handshakes if everyone in that room shakes hands with calculator.
every other person. Discuss their reasoning. Repeat, as
needed, for a room of 100 people; 75 people; the class You might ask the pairs of students to write instructions
next door; p people. for computing the number of handshakes. They will
have various ways of describing how to do this. Work
with the students to arrive at descriptions which give
correct answers and are unambiguous. Refrain from
judging one correct method as better than another;
allow the students to make their own judgements.

You can use this situation to remind the students how

formulas evolve from written descriptions (see Math
Alive! Course II, Lesson 3). For example, [the number of
handshakes] = 1 + 2 + 3 + … + [one less than the number
of people]. Representing the phrases in brackets by
letters, so that h stands for the number of handshakes
and p for the number of people in the room, one gets
this formula: h = 1 + 2 + 3 + … + (p – 1), or
(p – 1)((p – 1) + 1) ⁄ 2 = (p – 1)p ⁄ 2 .

8␣ Place a transparency of Focus Master B on the over- 8␣ ␣ The intent here is to extend the staircase methods to
head, revealing only Part I, Problem a) for the pairs to sums involving steps of 2. Allow plenty of time for
investigate. Discuss their results and reasoning. Repeat students to make and test conjectures.
for one or more of Part I, Problems b)-d). Encourage the
use of rough sketches to represent sums involving many a) Twin staircases can be used to determine this sum, as
numbers and to represent large numbers. illustrated below:
10 8 6 4 2
Lesson 4 Arithmetic Sequences
Focus Master B

Part I

a) Use cubes to form and combine matching staircases to com-

pute the sum 2 + 4 + 6 + 8 + 10.

b) Sketch a staircase representing the first 20 consecutive even

numbers. Then determine S20, where the symbol S20 represents
the sum of the first 20 consecutive even numbers. Then find S100,
the sum of the first 100 even numbers. Finally, based on your dia-
gram, invent a formula for Sn.

c) Reasoning from relationships you can “see” in a staircase and

without counting, determine the number of even numbers from
28 through 104. 2 4 6 8 10
d) Find the sum of the even numbers from 28 through 104; from
8 through 818; from 152 through 346.
2 + 4 + 6 + 8 + 10 = (5 × 12) ⁄ 2 = 30
Notice the 2 staircases form a 5 by 12 rectangle contain-
ing 60 cubes, so 1 staircase contains 30 cubes.

b) Note: the symbol S20 is read “S sub 20.” The 20 is

called a subscript. If students have difficulty determining
the 20th, 100th, and nth even numbers, you might ask
them to recall the sequence of cubes arrangements

94 / Math Alive! Course III

Arithmetic Sequences Lesson 4
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

representing even numbers as explored in Lesson 4 of

Math Alive! Course II and Lesson 6 of Course I. This se-
quence is illustrated here:

number of arrangement: 1 2 3 4 n
… …
number of cubes in
the arrangement: 2 4 6 8 2n

Notice that the number of cubes in each arrangement is

dependent upon n, the number of the arrangement.
Since a “2 by n” rectangle of 2n cubes represents the nth
even number, a formula for an (read as “a sub n”), the
nth term of the sequence of even numbers, is an = 2n.
Hence, an arrangement representing the 20th even
number contains 2 × 20 = 40 cubes.

Each arrangement of cubes can be rearranged into single

columns that differ by 2 cubes, as shown here:

2 4 6 8 2n
… …

…
… …
…
…
…

40 + 2 2n + 2 Then staircase methods can be used to compute the

…
…

sum, S20 = 2 + 4 + 6 + … + 40, as in Figure A at the left.

Similarly, Sn , the sum of the first n even numbers could
be determined as shown in Figure B at the left.

… … Rather than rearranging the representations of the even

20 n numbers into single columns, some students may form
20(40 + 2) n (2n + 2) or sketch “fat” stair steps that are 2 cubes wide, as illus-
S20 = = 420 Sn =
2 2 trated at the left in Figure C.
Figure A Figure B
Figures B and C illustrate that n(2 n + 2) ⁄ 2 and 2 n ( n + 1) ⁄ 2 are
equivalent expressions (i.e., they are different representa-
2n (n + 1) tions of the same amount).
Sn =
2
n+1
…

c) The statement “even numbers 28 through 104” im-

plies that 28 and 104 are both included. One line of
…
2n
Figure C (Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 95

Lesson 4 Arithmetic Sequences
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

8 (continued.)
reasoning about Problem c) is shown in Figure D at the

104 – 28 = 76
left.
…

104
d) Figure E at the right shows 28 + 30 + 32 +… + 104 =
2

104 + 28 = 132
one method of adding the even 39(132) = 2574
________
2
2 numbers from 28 to 104.
28 28
… 104
76
1 + ___
2
28 30
Figure D
…
104 – 28
________
Since each step is 2 cubes higher than the 1+ 2
= 39
previous step and the difference between the
Figure E
first and last step is 104 – 28 = 76, there are
76 ⁄ 2 = 38 steps after the first step. So there are

38 + 1 = 39 steps. Another approach to adding the even numbers from 28

to 104 is to determine the difference between the sum of
the first 14 even numbers (i.e., from 2 to 28) and the
sum of the first 52 even numbers (from 2 to 104).

9␣ ␣ Write the expression 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 on the over- 9␣ Students may benefit by revisiting the model for odd
head. Reveal Part II a) from Focus Master B for the pairs numbers explored in Courses I and II. Based on the
to investigate. Discuss. Then repeat for one or more of following diagram, an, the nth term in the sequence of
Part II b)-d). odd numbers, has value 2n – 1 or, the equivalent expres-
sions, n + (n – 1) or 2(n – 1) + 1.
Lesson 4 Arithmetic Sequences
Focus Master B
… n–1
n
1 3 5 7
Part I n + (n – 1) = 2n – 1
a) Use cubes to form and combine matching staircases to com-
= 2(n – 1) + 1
pute the sum 2 + 4 + 6 + 8 + 10.
Staircase methods of computing sums of consecutive
b) Sketch a staircase representing the first 20 consecutive even
numbers. Then determine S20, where the symbol S20 represents odd numbers are similar to those for consecutive even
the sum of the first 20 consecutive even numbers. Then find S100, numbers.
the sum of the first 100 even numbers. Finally, based on your dia-
gram, invent a formula for Sn.
5(9 + 1)
c) Reasoning from relationships you can “see” in a staircase and
Part II a) 2 (see diagram at the
without counting, determine the number of even numbers from right for computing the sum of odd
28 through 104.
numbers from 1 through 9.)
d) Find the sum of the even numbers from 28 through 104; from
9+1

8 through 818; from 152 through 346.

Part II

a) Use cubes to form and combine matching staircases to com-

pute the sum of 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9.
5
b) Sketch and label a staircase representing Sn , the sum of the
first n consecutive odd numbers. By reasoning from your sketch,
invent a formula for Sn , the sum of the first n odd numbers. b) Students’ formulas may vary. For example, some may
c) Reasoning from relationships you can “see” in a staircase and say that Sn = n(first term2+ last term ) . Since the first term of
without counting, determine the number of odd numbers from 79
through 245.
the sequence 1, 3, 5, 7,… 2n – 1 is 1 and the last term is
2n – 1, a formula is Sn = n(1 + (2n – 1)) .
d) Use staircases to find the sum of the odd numbers from 79 to 2
245; from 31 through 331.

96 / Math Alive! Course III

Arithmetic Sequences Lesson 4
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

c) Using reasoning similar to that for Part I, Problem c)

in Comment 8, there are 1 + ((245 – 79) ÷ 2 ) = 84 steps
in a staircase of odd numbers from 79 through 245.
…
d) The sum of odd numbers
84(245 + 79)
___________
from 79 through 245 is = 13,608
2
13,608, as illustrated here.
The sum of odd numbers
from 31 through 331 is
27,331.

324
245
83
81
79
…
245 – 79
________ + 1 = 84
2

10␣ ␣ Give each pair of students a copy of Focus Master 10␣ ␣ Depending on time available and your students’
C, a sheet of butcher paper, and marking pens. When comfort with the mathematical ideas explored, you may
the requested work is completed, have the pairs post and want to assign only selected problems from Focus Mas-
discuss their results. ter C (or have students choose problems). And, you may
want to preview the review process they will use in
Action 11 as well as your intentions for evaluation of
Arithmetic Sequences Lesson 4
Focus Master C
the posters (see Starting Points for suggestions). If stu-
dents are simultaneously working on the Follow-up as
homework, this activity will lend insights to their work
Any sequence of numbers that can be represented by a staircase
whose steps increase by a constant amount is called an arith- on the Follow-up and vice versa.
metic sequence. That is, in an arithmetic sequence there is a con-
stant difference between any term and the term that follows it.
The constant is called the common difference. (Note: each num- Prior to beginning work on their posters, it is helpful to
ber in a sequence of numbers is called a term of the sequence.)
first spend some time discussing students’ ideas regard-
For example, the sequence of even numbers and the sequence of ing what effective group work looks and sounds like in
odd numbers are each an arithmetic sequence whose common
difference is 2. the classroom and your expectations regarding group
Explore the following problems and display your responses on a
participation.
poster. Next to each response write the corresponding problem.

a) Create 2 different arithmetic sequences that each contain 7 Note that when the terms of a sequence are added, the
terms and with common difference 3. Show a staircase model of indicated sum is called a series. For example, 1, 3, 5, 7, 9
each sequence. Note: you don’t need to show every cube in your
diagram, but label the size of each step. is an arithmetic sequence, whereas 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 is an
b) Create an arithmetic sequence that contains 10 terms. The 1st
arithmetic series. A sequence or series that has a finite
term is 18 and the 2nd term is 23. Show how to use staircase number of terms is finite; otherwise, it is infinite.
methods to find the sum of the numbers in this sequence.

c) Do you think the staircase method sometimes/always/never a) Sequences may vary, depending on the students’
works for finding the sum of the first n terms in any arithmetic
sequence? Use diagrams and/or formulas to support your conclu- choices for a first term. For example: 8, 11, 14, 17, 20,
sions. Be sure to label your diagrams carefully and tell what any 23, 26; or 15, 18, 21, 24, 27, 30, 33.
variables you use represent.

d) Following are descriptions of 3 arithmetic sequences. Sketch

a staircase model (you don’t have to show every step) of each
b) There is only one possibility here: 18, 23, 28, 33, 38,
sequence and label the values of the first and last term, the com- 43, 48, 53, 58, 63.
mon difference, and the number of terms for each sequence.

(Continued on back.)

(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 97

Lesson 4 Arithmetic Sequences
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

10 (continued.)
c) Allow plenty of time for groups to investigate this. It
may be helpful to prompt groups to explore whether/
how their methods work for sequences with various
common differences and various first terms.

The method of combining 2 identical staircases to form

a rectangle whose total area is double the area of one
staircase can be used to find the sum of the terms in any
arithmetic sequence. Here are examples of 3 formulas
given by students:

(L X– F + 1)(L + F )
Sum = 2 , where X = the common difference, L =
the last term, and F = the first term.

n(l + f )
2
= sum of the first n terms in any arithmetic
sequence, where l is the last term, and f is the first term.

Sum = n( H2+ V ) and H = V + (n – 1)r, where n = the num-

ber of terms, H = the number of cubes in the highest
step, V = the number of cubes in the first step, and r =
the common difference.

Lesson 4 Arithmetic Sequences d) i) Reasoning from the following diagram, the height
Focus Master C (cont.) of the last step can be determined by adding the common
difference 60 times to the height of the first step. Since
Next to each model explain how you determine d, the common the height of the last step is 208 and the height of the
difference. first step is 28, then the amount added is 208 – 28 = 180.
i) The first term of this sequence is 28 and the last term is 208. Therefore, the common difference must be 180 ÷ 60 = 3.
There are 61 terms.
ii) There are 37 terms in this sequence, the first term is 8, and
the last term is 332.
60d = 208 – 28 = 180

iii) Challenge. This sequence has n terms, the first term is a1,
and the last term is an.

e) Write a formula for an , the value of the n th term of the arith- d = 180 ÷ 60 = 3
metic sequence: 11, 18, 25, 32, 39, … (Examples: a1 = 11 and a2 =
18.)
208

f) Challenge. Write a formula (using only the variables l, n, a, and

d ) for l, the last term of any arithmetic sequence with first term a, d
common difference d, and n terms. Use a diagram and a brief ex-
planation to show how and why your formula works. Label your
d d
diagram to show what each variable represents.
28 28 28 28
g) Repeat Problem d) for these 3 sequences, but this time explain …
how you determined n, the number of terms in each sequence. 61
i) The first term of this sequence is 32, the common difference
is 2, and the last term is 160.
ii) The first term is 7, the common difference is 10, and the last d) ii) The height of the last step, 332, is found by adding
term is 97.
iii) Challenge. The first term is a1, the common difference is d, 36 times the common difference to the first term, 8.
and the last term is an. Hence, the common difference is (332 – 8) ⁄ 36 = 9. Students
may use various approaches to determine this, and it is
not expected that they solve algebraic equations. Rather,
emphasize reasoning from the diagram. Symbolic proce-
dures will be developed later in the course, as ways of
recording the students’ reasoning processes.

98 / Math Alive! Course III

Arithmetic Sequences Lesson 4
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

d) iii) This problem may be frustrating for some students

an – a1
________ if they try to devise a formula. It is appropriate to keep
d=
n–1 explanations verbal here, and some students may be

(n – 1)d
sufficiently challenged by describing specific situations
d an such as i) and ii). The diagram at the left illustrates that,
d d since the height of the last step is determined by adding
d d d n – 1 groups of d to the height of the first step, one can
a1 a1 a1 a1 a1 subtract the heights of the first and last steps (to find the
… amount added) and then divide by n – 1 to find d.
n
e) One possibility is an = 11 + (n – 1)7.

f ) l = a + (n – 1)d

g) i) One line of reasoning is shown in the diagram

below.

160 – 32 = 128
2
2 2
2 2 2
2 2 2 2
32 32 32 32 32 32
…
160 – 32
________
1
2
160 – 32
1 + ________
2

Since there are 128 ⁄ 2

= 64 groups of 2 added to
the height of the first step to make the height of
the last step, there must be 64 + 1 = 65 steps.

(n – 1) groups of the g) ii) Reasoning similar to that used for i) leads to the
common difference, solution, n = 10. Note that students may at first overlook
or (n – 1)d = an – a1 counting the first term, and hence, incorrectly state
there are 9 terms.

g) iii) Like d) iii) above, this problem may be frustrating

an – a1

for some students if they try to devise a formula. As

d an appropriate, emphasize verbal explanations here, or
d d limit the exploration to specific situations such as i) and
d d d ii).
a1 a1 a1 a1 a1
… Notice the number of groups of d that are contained in
n the difference between the first and last term is 1 less
than n, the number of steps. Hence, n = (an −d a1 ) + 1.
an – a1
1 + ________
d

Math Alive! Course III / 99

Lesson 4 Arithmetic Sequences
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

11␣ ␣ (Optional) Distribute 1 copy of Focus Student 11␣ ␣ If pairs of students review more than 2 posters,
Activity 4.2 to each student. Have the pairs do the they will need additional Peer Feedback Sheets. See
following: Starting Points for other ideas regarding peer feedback by
students.
a) Each pair of students exchanges posters with another
pair, then reviews the poster and completes a Feedback Arithmetic Sequences Lesson 4
Sheet about it, attaching the completed Feedback Sheet
to the back of the poster. Focus Student Activity 4.2
Peer Feedback Sheet
REVIEWEES REVIEWERS
b) Pairs exchange posters with yet another pair of stu-
dents, reviewing that poster and completing a new
Feedback Sheet (without reading Feedback Sheets at- We appreciate… We question…

tached previously). When completed, these new Feed-

back Sheets are attached to the back of the poster, and
students compare their feedback to that given previ-
ously.

c) Repeat b) as time allows.

d) Return the posters to their authors, allowing time for

the authors to read the feedback and make additions We wish… We learned…

and adjustments, as they see fit.

Post the edited posters and Feedback Sheets in the class-

room and discuss as needed.

12␣ ␣ (Optional) Discuss the students’ ideas about their 12␣ ␣ This provides a way to “check back in” on the goals
development in relation to the class goals (see Focus discussed in Action 12 of the Focus of Lesson 1 of this
Master A from Lesson 1 of this course). course, and to help students see that they have been
working on many goals during this activity.

Before discussing, you might have the students briefly

describe in their journals examples of moments from the
lesson that illustrate evidence of their work/progress in
each goal area. For example, here are some examples of
student comments:

I remember “seeing” how the staircase method worked on

staircases with any sized steps when Dylan shared his
method at the overhead. I felt ownership of the method after
that, because I could use it to solve problems. This shows my
growth in the goals visual thinking, concept understanding,
reasoning and problem solving, and openness to new ideas.
(It also shows that Dylan is growing in his mathematical
communication.)

100 / Math Alive! Course III

Arithmetic Sequences Lesson 4
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

I used to only think of even numbers as 2, 4, 6,… , and I

Exploring Symmetry Lesson 1
Focus Master A
couldn’t determine things like the 100th even number or the
Our Goals as Mathematicians sum of the 50th and 70th even numbers without lots of
tedious counting. Now, I just picture 2 rows of 100 tile or 2
We are a community of mathematicians rows of 50 tile added to 2 rows of 70 tile! This is an example
working together to develop our: of growth in my visual thinking, concept understanding,
reasoning and problem solving, and ability to make generali-
a) visual thinking, zations. I am also more confident when I understand how
something works.
b) concept understanding,
I think the method we learned for adding staircase numbers
c) reasoning and problem solving, is what visual thinking is all about. First we used the cubes
to build staircases that represent arithmetic sequences. Next
d) ability to invent procedures and make
generalizations, we joined two staircases to form rectangles so we could easily
find the sum of the terms in the sequences. Then we imag-
e) mathematical communication, ined and sketched bigger staircases to find their sums and
solve other problems about them. Finally, we shared our
f) openness to new ideas and varied ideas and invented formulas that we could see in our pic-
approaches,
tures. We didn’t have to memorize anything that someone
g) self-esteem and self-confidence,
else invented. I think this shows we are developing in every
goal area!
h) joy in learning and doing mathematics.

Math Alive! Course III / 101

Lesson 4 Arithmetic Sequences

TEACHER NOTES:

102 / Math Alive! Course III

Arithmetic Sequences Lesson 4

Follow-up Student Activity 4.3

NAME DATE

Record all of your responses on separate paper. Include a statement

of each problem next to your work about the problem.

1␣ ␣ Describe your understanding of the meaning of an arithmetic

sequence. Then give an example of a sequence that is an arithmetic
sequence and one that is not.

2␣ ␣ Show how to use staircases to find the sum of the first 100 count-
ing numbers.

3␣ ␣ For each of series a) and b) below do the following:

i) Sketch and label a staircase that represents the series.
ii) Explain how to reason from your sketch to determine the
number of steps in the staircase.
iii) Show how to use staircase methods to add the numbers in the
series.

a) 2 + 4 + 6 + … + 164

b) 7 + 13 + 19 + 25 + … + 181 + 187

4␣ ␣ Draw a diagram to show how the staircase method can be used

to find the sum of the first n terms of any arithmetic sequence. La-
bel your diagram to show what any values or variables you use rep-
resent. Write a brief step-by-step explanation of the staircase
method for adding the terms in an arithmetic sequence.

5␣ ␣ Draw diagrams to show how staircase methods can be used to

solve each of the following problems. Label your diagrams in detail,
and make sure that each step of your solution process is clearly com-
municated. Show all calculations that you do, and explain what
they represent. Then tell how you verified your solution.

a) Suppose that your class takes a field trip to the fair, and every
student goes on exactly one ride with each of the other students in
the class. If only 2 students can ride together and each ride costs
$1.50, how much will the class spend?

(Continued on back.)
Math Alive! Course III / 103
Lesson 4 Arithmetic Sequences
Follow-up Student Activity (cont.)

b) Holly asked for the following allowance: 1¢ on the first day, 3¢

on the second day, 5¢ on the 3rd day, 7¢ on the 4th day, 9¢ on the
5th day, and so on, continuing for the 365 days in the year. How
much would Holly earn on the 365th day? Altogether how much
would she earn for the year?

6␣ ␣ For each of the following arithmetic series, create an interesting

problem about a situation outside of school, so that the solution to
the problem would involve finding the sum of the series. Then re-
cord the answer to your problem and show your solution methods.

a) 14 + 15 + 16 + … + 176

b) 49 + 51 + 53 + … + 97

7␣ ␣ Explain or draw diagrams to show your methods of determining

each of the following Mystery Arithmetic Sequences. List the first 5
and last 5 terms in each arithmetic sequence.

a) The first term of Mystery Arithmetic Sequence A is 1 and the last

term is 241. There are 61 terms in the sequence.

b) The common difference in Mystery Arithmetic Sequence B is 8.

There are 17 terms and the last term is 157.

c)␣ ␣ The sum of the 25th through the 29th terms of Mystery Arith-
metic Sequence C is 165. The first term of the sequence is 7 and
there are 40 terms in the sequence.

8␣ ␣ Challenge: Several high school mathematics texts list the follow-

ing formulas regarding arithmetic series, where an = the nth term of
the sequence, d = the common difference, and Sn = the sum of the
first n terms of the series. For each of the following formulas: i)
sketch and label a diagram of staircases to show what you think the
formula means and what you think each part of the formula repre-
sents; ii) write a sentence or two to explain your thinking about
what the formula means.

n(a1 + an )
a) a n = a1 + (n – 1)d b) a n = an – 1 + d c) Sn =
2

104 / Math Alive! Course III

Arithmetic Sequences Lesson 4

Connector Student Activity 4.1

NAME DATE

1␣␣In each square below use a straightedge to draw straight line

segments that connect each dot to all other dots in the square.
Then, in the corner of each square, write how many segments you
drew.

Example:

2␣␣Tell about any patterns you notice or conjectures you have about
counting segments between dots.

(Continued on back.)

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 4 Arithmetic Sequences
Connector Student Activity (cont.)

3␣␣A student in another class said she thought that finding the
number of segments was just like solving the “handshake problem.”
What do you think she meant?

4␣␣Suppose you have to find the number of lines it takes to connect

125 dots. Describe a way to find this number without having to
draw the segments and dots. (Just tell your method—you don’t need
to compute the answer!)

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Arithmetic Sequences Lesson 4
Focus Master A

a) Imagine, build, or sketch a staircase of cubes for the sum of the first
10 positive integers, 1 + 2 + 3 + … + 10.

i) What are the dimensions of a rectangle formed by combining 2 of

these staircases?
ii) How many cubes does this rectangle contain?
iii) How many cubes are in each of the 2 staircases?

b) Now imagine or sketch a staircase of cubes representing the sum

1 + 2 + 3 + … + 100.

i) What are the dimensions of a rectangle formed by combining 2 of

these staircases?
ii) How many cubes does the rectangle contain?
iii) How many cubes are in each staircase?

c) Imagine or sketch a staircase of cubes representing the sum

1 + 2 + 3 + … + n, where n is a whole number.

i) What are the dimensions of a rectangle formed by combining 2 of

these staircases?
ii) How many cubes does the rectangle contain?
iii) How many cubes are in each staircase?

d) Suppose a staircase contains a total of 465 cubes. The first step con-
tains 1 cube, and each step is 1 cube higher than the preceding step.

i) Reason from a sketch to determine how many steps it contains.

e) Challenge. Sketch a staircase of cubes to represent the sum 23 + 24 +

25 + … + 77.

i) Reason from the sketch to find the number of steps in the

staircase.
ii) Use your sketch to find the number of cubes in the staircase.
© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 4 Arithmetic Sequences
Focus Master B

Part I

a) Use cubes to form and combine matching staircases to com-

pute the sum 2 + 4 + 6 + 8 + 10.

b) Sketch a staircase representing the first 20 consecutive even

numbers. Then determine S20, where the symbol S20 represents
the sum of the first 20 consecutive even numbers. Then find S100,
the sum of the first 100 even numbers. Finally, based on your dia-
gram, invent a formula for Sn.

c) Reasoning from relationships you can “see” in a staircase and

without counting, determine the number of even numbers from
28 through 104.

d) Find the sum of the even numbers from 28 through 104; from
8 through 818; from 152 through 346.

Part II

a) Use cubes to form and combine matching staircases to com-

pute the sum of 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9.

b) Sketch and label a staircase representing Sn , the sum of the

first n consecutive odd numbers. By reasoning from your sketch,
invent a formula for Sn , the sum of the first n odd numbers.

c) Reasoning from relationships you can “see” in a staircase and

without counting, determine the number of odd numbers from 79
through 245.

d) Use staircases to find the sum of the odd numbers from 79 to

245; from 31 through 331.

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Arithmetic Sequences Lesson 4
Focus Master C

Any sequence of numbers that can be represented by a staircase

whose steps increase by a constant amount is called an arith-
metic sequence. That is, in an arithmetic sequence there is a con-
stant difference between any term and the term that follows it.
The constant is called the common difference. (Note: each num-
ber in a sequence of numbers is called a term of the sequence.)

For example, the sequence of even numbers and the sequence of

odd numbers are each an arithmetic sequence whose common
difference is 2.

Explore the following problems and display your responses on a

poster. Next to each response write the corresponding problem.

a) Create 2 different arithmetic sequences that each contain 7

terms and with common difference 3. Show a staircase model of
each sequence. Note: you don’t need to show every cube in your
diagram, but label the size of each step.

b) Create an arithmetic sequence that contains 10 terms. The 1st

term is 18 and the 2nd term is 23. Show how to use staircase
methods to find the sum of the numbers in this sequence.

c) Do you think the staircase method sometimes/always/never

works for finding the sum of the first n terms in any arithmetic
sequence? Use diagrams and/or formulas to support your conclu-
sions. Be sure to label your diagrams carefully and tell what any
variables you use represent.

d) Following are descriptions of 3 arithmetic sequences. Sketch

a staircase model (you don’t have to show every step) of each
sequence and label the values of the first and last term, the com-
mon difference, and the number of terms for each sequence.

(Continued on back.)
© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 4 Arithmetic Sequences
Focus Master C (cont.)

Next to each model explain how you determine d, the common

difference.

i) The first term of this sequence is 28 and the last term is 208.
There are 61 terms.
ii) There are 37 terms in this sequence, the first term is 8, and
the last term is 332.
iii) Challenge. This sequence has n terms, the first term is a1,
and the last term is an.

e) Write a formula for an , the value of the n th term of the arith-

metic sequence: 11, 18, 25, 32, 39, … (Examples: a1 = 11 and a2 =
18.)

f) Challenge. Write a formula (using only the variables l, n, a, and

d ) for l, the last term of any arithmetic sequence with first term a,
common difference d, and n terms. Use a diagram and a brief ex-
planation to show how and why your formula works. Label your
diagram to show what each variable represents.

g) Repeat Problem d) for these 3 sequences, but this time explain

how you determined n, the number of terms in each sequence.

i) The first term of this sequence is 32, the common difference

is 2, and the last term is 160.
ii) The first term is 7, the common difference is 10, and the last
term is 97.
iii) Challenge. The first term is a1, the common difference is d,
and the last term is an.

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Arithmetic Sequences Lesson 4

Focus Student Activity 4.2

Peer Feedback Sheet
REVIEWEES REVIEWERS

We appreciate… We question…

We wish… We learned…

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 4 Arithmetic Sequences

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Arithmetic Sequences Lesson 4

Follow-up Student Activity 4.3

NAME DATE

Record all of your responses on separate paper. Include a statement

of each problem next to your work about the problem.

1␣␣Describe your understanding of the meaning of an arithmetic

sequence. Then give an example of a sequence that is an arithmetic
sequence and one that is not.

2␣␣Show how to use staircases to find the sum of the first 100 count-
ing numbers.

3␣␣For each of series a) and b) below do the following:

i) Sketch and label a staircase that represents the series.
ii) Explain how to reason from your sketch to determine the
number of steps in the staircase.
iii) Show how to use staircase methods to add the numbers in the
series.

a) 2 + 4 + 6 + … + 164

b) 7 + 13 + 19 + 25 + … + 181 + 187

4␣␣Draw a diagram to show how the staircase method can be used

to find the sum of the first n terms of any arithmetic sequence. La-
bel your diagram to show what any values or variables you use rep-
resent. Write a brief step-by-step explanation of the staircase
method for adding the terms in an arithmetic sequence.

5␣␣Draw diagrams to show how staircase methods can be used to

solve each of the following problems. Label your diagrams in detail,
and make sure that each step of your solution process is clearly com-
municated. Show all calculations that you do, and explain what
they represent. Then tell how you verified your solution.

a) Suppose that your class takes a field trip to the fair, and every
student goes on exactly one ride with each of the other students in
the class. If only 2 students can ride together and each ride costs
$1.50, how much will the class spend?

(Continued on back.)

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 4 Arithmetic Sequences
Follow-up Student Activity (cont.)

b) Holly asked for the following allowance: 1¢ on the first day, 3¢

on the second day, 5¢ on the 3rd day, 7¢ on the 4th day, 9¢ on the
5th day, and so on, continuing for the 365 days in the year. How
much would Holly earn on the 365th day? Altogether how much
would she earn for the year?

6␣␣For each of the following arithmetic series, create an interesting

problem about a situation outside of school, so that the solution to
the problem would involve finding the sum of the series. Then re-
cord the answer to your problem and show your solution methods.

a) 14 + 15 + 16 + … + 176

b) 49 + 51 + 53 + … + 97

7␣␣Explain or draw diagrams to show your methods of determining

each of the following Mystery Arithmetic Sequences. List the first 5
and last 5 terms in each arithmetic sequence.

a) The first term of Mystery Arithmetic Sequence A is 1 and the last

term is 241. There are 61 terms in the sequence.

b) The common difference in Mystery Arithmetic Sequence B is 8.

There are 17 terms and the last term is 157.

c)␣␣The sum of the 25th through the 29th terms of Mystery Arith-
metic Sequence C is 165. The first term of the sequence is 7 and
there are 40 terms in the sequence.

8␣␣Challenge: Several high school mathematics texts list the follow-

ing formulas regarding arithmetic series, where an = the nth term of
the sequence, d = the common difference, and Sn = the sum of the
first n terms of the series. For each of the following formulas: i)
sketch and label a diagram of staircases to show what you think the
formula means and what you think each part of the formula repre-
sents; ii) write a sentence or two to explain your thinking about
what the formula means.

n(a1 + an )
a) a n = a1 + (n – 1)d b) a n = an – 1 + d c) Sn =
2

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Extended Counting Piece Patterns
Extended Counting Piece Patterns Lesson 5 Lesson 5

.
.
.
.
THE BIG IDEA .. CONNECTOR
.
. OVERVIEW MATERIALS FOR TEACHER ACTIVITY
Counting piece pat- .
.
. Students review the use of ✔ Algebra Pieces (not in- ✔ Connector Master D,
terns whose arrange- .
. Algebra Pieces to represent cluding the n-frames, see 1 transparency.
ment numbers include .. sequences of counting Blackline Masters and ✔ Blank counting pieces
.
. pieces and algebraic ex- Comment 1), 1 set per and n-strips (see Black-
both the negative and .
. pressions and to solve student. line Masters and Com-
.
positive integers . equations. They also review ✔ Connector Master A (op- ment 1), 1 sheet per pair
.
. relationships between a se- tional), 1 copy for of students.
provide a meaningful .
. quence of arrangements teacher demonstration.
. ✔ Algebra Pieces for the
context in which to . and its coordinate graph.
. ✔ Connector Master B, 1 overhead.
.
develop strategies for . copy per pair of students ✔ 1-cm grid paper (op-
.
and 1 transparency.
representing equations .. tional, see Blackline Mas-
. ✔ Connector Master C, ters), 2 sheets per pair of
.
whose solutions are . 1 copy per student and students.
.
integers. Using Algebra .. 1 transparency.
.
Pieces to represent and ..
.
.
solve such equations .
.
FOCUS
builds intuitions about .. OVERVIEW MATERIALS FOR TEACHER ACTIVITY
.
.
the meaning of a . Counting piece patterns are ✔ Algebra Pieces (including ✔ Focus Masters A-C, 1
.
extended to include ar- frames, see Blackline transparency of each.
variable and promotes ..
. rangements corresponding Masters), 1 set per stu- ✔ Focus Master D, I copy
the invention of general .. to negative, as well as posi- dent. per student and 1 trans-
.
. tive, integers. Students de- ✔ Algebra Pieces for the parency.
strategies for solving .
. vise symbolic methods of overhead. ✔ Focus Student Activity
equations and systems .. recording their Algebra
. 5.1, 1 copy per student
. Piece actions to solve equa-
of equations. . and 1 transparency.
. tions.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
FOLLOW-UP
.
. OVERVIEW MATERIALS FOR STUDENT ACTIVITY
.
. Students sketch Algebra ✔ Student Activity 5.2,
.
. Piece representations of the 1 copy per student.
.
. nth arrangement of se-
.
. quences and use those rep-
.
. resentations as a basis for
.
. solving linear and quadratic
.
. equations.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

Math Alive! Course III / 105

Lesson 5 Extended Counting Piece Patterns

LESSON IDEAS
.
LOOKING BACK & AHEAD LESSON PACING . QUOTE
.
Based on activities in Les- The amount of time that . It is essential that in
.
sons 9, 10, 26, and 27 from classes spend on this les- . grades 5-8 students ex-
.
Math Alive! Course II, this son will vary depending on . plore algebraic concepts
.
Connector activity reviews their prior experience with . in an informal way to
.
use of the Algebra Pieces to visual patterning and the . build a foundation for the
.
represent the nth arrange- use of Algebra Pieces. If . subsequent study of alge-
.
ment of a sequence of students are not familiar . bra. Such informal explo-
.
counting piece arrange- with the use of bicolored . rations should emphasize
.
ments to solve equations counting pieces to repre- . physical models, data,
.
related to such sequences, sent integers and integer . graphs, and other math-
.
and to represent algebraic operations, it may be help- . ematical representations
.
expressions. These ideas ful to review Lessons 5-8 of . rather than facility with
.
are extended in the Focus Math Alive! Course II prior . formal algebraic manipu-
.
activity and in Lessons 11- to starting this lesson. . lation.
.
14 of this course. . NCTM Standards

SELECTED ANSWERS

1. A B 5. Student example: (Note recording should reflect the or-

der and nature of students’ actions and thoughts).

8n + 36 = 4(n + 1)
Remove 2n from A and B
Add 0 to B 8n + 36 = 4n + 4 Form equivalent expressions.
8n + 36 – 4n – 4 =
Remove 5 from A and B 4n + 4 – 4n – 4 Compare collections and subtract
like amounts from each.
4n + 32 = 0 Simplify.
3n + 5 = 2n – 15 4n + 32 = 0 + 32 – 32 Add 0 to right collection, then
n = –20 subtract like amounts from each.
4n⁄4 = –32 ⁄ 4 Divide both collections by 4.
2. n= –8 Simplify.
190
186
6. Student example:
3n + 4 = 190
3n = 186 7(n + 3) = 5(n – 3) + 6
n = 186 ⁄ 3 = 62 7n + 21 = 5n – 15 + 6 Form equivalent expressions.
7n + 21 = 5n – 9 Simplify.
3. a) n = 6 7n + 21 + – 5n + –21 =
b) n = –14 5n – 9 + – 5n + –21 Add 5 –n -frames and 21 red units
c) n = –5 to both collections.
d) n = 12 2n = –30 Simplify.
e) no solutions 2 n ⁄ 2 = –30 ⁄ 2 Divide both collections by 2.
f) True for all values of n (i.e., for any number the 2 n = –15 Simplify.
sides of the equation are equal).

106 / Math Alive! Course III

Extended Counting Piece Patterns Lesson 5

Connector Teacher Activity

OVERVIEW & PURPOSE MATERIALS
Students review the use of Algebra Pieces to represent se- ✔ Algebra Pieces (not including the n-frames, see
quences of counting pieces and algebraic expressions and to Blackline Masters and Comment 1), 1 set per student.
solve equations. They also review relationships between a ✔ Connector Master A (optional), 1 copy for teacher
sequence of arrangements and its coordinate graph. demonstration.
✔ Connector Master B, 1 copy per pair of students and
1 transparency.
✔ Connector Master C, 1 copy per student and 1 trans-
parency.
✔ Connector Master D, 1 transparency.
✔ Blank counting pieces and n-strips (see Blackline
Masters and Comment 1), 1 sheet per pair of students.
✔ Algebra Pieces for the overhead.
✔ 1-cm grid paper (optional, see Blackline Masters),
2 sheets per pair of students.

ACTIONS COMMENTS

1␣␣Arrange the students in pairs and distribute Algebra 1␣␣Students were introduced to the use of counting
Pieces (not including the n-frames) to each student. Give pieces to represent integer operations in Lessons 5-8 of
each pair a sheet of blank counting pieces and strips. Math Alive! Course II. If the majority of students in your
Briefly review with the students how the pieces are class have not experienced those lessons, it is recom-
named and what they represent. mended that you do so before proceeding with this
lesson. Similarly, it is recommended that students be
familiar with the use of Algebra Pieces from Lessons 26
and 27 of Course II.

Area Pieces Algebra Pieces consist of 2 kinds of pieces: area pieces,

which include a counting piece unit (a single counting
piece), an n-strip (representing a strip of n counting
pieces), an n2-mat (representing an n × n array of count-
ing pieces); and linear pieces (also called edge pieces)
which include linear units (representing the length of
the edge of 1 counting piece) and n linear units (repre-
senting the length of the edge of an n-strip). These
counting n -strip n 2-mat pieces are black on one side and red on the other. Black
piece unit pieces have a positive value and red pieces have a nega-
tive value.

The white spaces on the n-strips are intended to suggest

Linear/Edge Pieces that the strips can be mentally elongated or shortened
to contain an arbitrary number of counting piece units,
whatever n might be. To illustrate this, Connector Mas-
1 linear unit n linear units ter A (see next page) contains a master for an n-strip that
can be elongated or shortened.

(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 107

Lesson 5 Extended Counting Piece Patterns
Connector Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

1 (continued.)
Extended Counting Piece Patterns Lesson 5
Connector Master A

Similarly, the n2-mats are designed with white spaces to

suggest that the mats can simultaneously stretch or shrink
in 2 directions in order to form larger or smaller squares.

Cardstock or plastic Algebra Pieces are available from

The Math Learning Center. A master for making the
pieces yourself is also included in Blackline Masters. Each
slit here
Cut out and insert this end in slit above.

student needs at least one master’s worth of Algebra

Pieces (2 n2-mats, 10 n-strips, 8 counting piece units)
plus 17 or more additional counting piece units. To
make the Algebra Pieces and counting pieces, if two-
colored printing is not available, pieces can be printed
on white cardstock or paper. In this case, red is repre-
sented by screened gray, as illustrated throughout this
lesson. With reasonable care, two-sided copies can be
made on standard copy machines. The two sides can be
cut here

justified well enough to make usable pieces. Edge pieces

can be made by cutting units and n-strips into 3rds or
4ths. Each student needs about 5 n-strip edge pieces and
7-10 unit edge pieces. Overhead Algebra Pieces can also
be ordered from MLC (these are smaller than student
pieces in order to better fit on the overhead screen), or
they can be made using clear and red transparency film.

The blank counting pieces and n-strips (see Blackline

Masters) can be used to indicate that pieces have been
removed from a collection of Algebra Pieces. That is,
cutting or folding Algebra Pieces can be avoided by
laying the blank pieces over the top of collections to
imply that counting pieces or n-strips have been re-
moved. You might provide each group with a few of
these blank pieces. Note that the blank pieces are differ-
ent from the white n-frames, which are introduced in
the Focus activity.

blank counting piece blank n-strip

2␣␣Give each pair of students a copy of Connector Mas- 2␣␣All of the ideas in this Connector activity were ex-
ter B and 2 sheets of 1-cm grid paper, and ask the pairs plored in Math Alive! Course II. Depending on your
to complete Part I. Discuss and compare their results. students’ backgrounds, you may prefer to explore the
sequences one at a time, discussing the students’ results
and questions about each sequence before proceeding to
the next.
108 / Math Alive! Course III
Extended Counting Piece Patterns Lesson 5
Connector Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

One way to conduct student sharing is to post 5 sheets

Lesson 5 Extended Counting Piece Patterns
Connector Master B
of poster paper; at the top of each poster place an en-
larged copy of a different one of the representations
given on page 1 of Connector Master B. Invite volun-
Following are representations of 5 different sequences. teers to use marking pens to sketch the missing repre-
sentations for Part I, a) through e) on the posters.
1.

…
Here are some possible representations:

2. v (n ) = –13 + 5(n – 1)
Sequence 1:
3.
a) b)

5th 6th nth

4. 3, –3, –9, –15, –21, –27 …
c) You may wish to discuss equivalent expressions that
5. v (n )
are based on different ways students “see” the nth ar-
5 rangement. Two possibilities are v(n) = 3n + 1 and v(n) =
4
3 3(n + 1) – 2.
2
1
n
–1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 d) 4, 7, 10, 13, 16, 19, 61, 220, 601
–2
–3
–4
–5 e) If students have difficulty determining the coordinate
graph, you might review the following methods, which
were developed in the Connector and Focus activities of
Math Alive! Course II, Lesson 9. Form minimal collections
Extended Counting Piece Patterns Lesson 5
Connector Master B (cont.)
of counting pieces to represent each of the first 5 ar-
rangements; then rearrange the pieces in each collection
to form a column as in a bar graph; use the number of
Part I
an arrangement and the height of its corresponding
column to determine the coordinates of that arrange-
For each of Sequences 1-5 represented on the previous page, do
the following (if the information is already given, write “given” ment on a coordinate graph. This process is illustrated
and then skip that part): below.
a) Form and then sketch counting piece arrangements for the
first 6 terms of the sequence.
v (n )
16 (5,16)
b) Form and then sketch an Algebra Piece representation of the
n th arrangement of the sequence. 15
14
c) Write a formula for v (n ), the value of the n th arrangement of 13 (4,13)
the sequence. “Loop” a diagram to show how your formula 12
works. 11
10 (3,10)
d) If an represents the n th term of the sequence, record the val-
ues of the following: a1, a2, a 3, a4, a 5, a6, a20, a 73, and a200. 9
8
e) Make a coordinate graph, plotting and labeling the first 5 or 7 (2,7)
more terms in the sequence. 6
5
Part II 4 (1,4)
3
1. Which of Sequences 1-5 are arithmetic sequences? Explain 2
your reasoning. 1
n
2. Challenge: For any of Sequences 1-5 that are arithmetic se- 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
quences, show how to use the method of combining two match-
ing staircases to find S50, the sum of the first 50 terms of those
sequences. Bar Graph Coordinate Graph

(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 109

Lesson 5 Extended Counting Piece Patterns
Connector Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

2 (continued.)
It may be helpful to briefly review the use of coordinates
to refer to points of a graph. The coordinates of a point
on a graph are an ordered pair of numbers, the first of
which tells how many units to count from zero along
the horizontal axis (to the right if the first coordinate is
positive, and to the left if the first coordinate is nega-
tive), and the second coordinate tells how many units to
count from zero along the vertical axis (above zero if the
second coordinate is positive, and below zero if the
second coordinate is negative). It is customary to label
the horizontal and vertical axes by the quantities they
represent.

Sequence 2:

a) Here is one possibility:

v (n ) = –13 + 5(n – 1) –13 –8 –3 +2 +7

18 e) The method of forming the minimal collections for
7,17
16 the arrangements and then placing these in columns to
14 determine the coordinate graph is illustrated at the left.
14 12 6,12
12
10
Sequence 3:
Net Value of Arrangement

10
8
8 5,7 c) v (n) = n 2 + n + 1
6
6
4
4 Sequence 4:
2 2 4,2
1 2 3
0 n a) Students may arrange the tile in a number of ways.
–2 4 5 6 7 8 –2 Many will probably start with single columns and then
3,–3
–4 –4 look for patterns in ways to group the pieces. Some may
–6 –6
note that each term is 6 less than its preceding term,
–8
–8 2,– 8
and since the first term is 3, then the sequence could be
–10 formed as follows:
–10
–12
–12
–14 1,–13
–14
2 4 6 8 10

Sequence 2 Sequence 2 c) v (n) = 3 – 6(n – 1), or 3 + –6(n – 1), or 3 + 6[–(n – 1)],

Bar Graph Coordinate Graph or 3 + –(6n – 6)

Again, you could use the equilvalent algebraic expres-

sions that students record to prompt discussion of nota-
tion and its relationship to ways students “see” the
pieces (see also Actions 4-6). For example, the expres-
sions given for Sequence 4, part c), are equivalent, but
each may represent a different way of seeing the pieces

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Extended Counting Piece Patterns Lesson 5
Connector Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

or viewing the actions associated with forming each

arrangement. For example, students may explain the
above expressions, respectively, as: 3 units minus 6
groups of (n – 1) units [or (n – 1) groups of 6 units]; 3
units added to a rectangle with dimensions –6 by (n – 1);
3 units plus 6 groups of –(n – 1); or 3 plus the opposite
of (6n – 6). Note that students may use extra parentheses
to better communicate the order of their thought pro-
cesses. When reading notation aloud, it is helpful to
indicate an expression is contained in parentheses by
using the phrase “the quantity” prior to or after the
expression. For example, –6(n – 1) can be read, “negative
6 times the quantity n minus one.” Or, in another in-
stance, the expression (n + 1)2 can be read “n plus one,
the quantity squared.”

Some questions may surface regarding the use and

placement of negative signs. In standard practice, it is
difficult to determine whether a – sign is being used as
part of the symbol for a negative integer or to designate
the opposite of a positive integer. Both the negative
integer –3 and the opposite of the positive integer +3 are
frequently denoted symbolically as –3. Since the oppo-
site of the positive integer +3 is the negative integer –3, it
doesn’t matter which of these two interpretations is
given to the symbol –3.

Notice that the – sign occurs in 3 different ways in

arithmetical notation. Besides its use in denoting the
opposite of a number and its use in designating a nega-
tive number, it is also used to denote the operation of
subtraction. Generally, it is clear from the context what
use is intended.

Sequence 5:

c) Here is one way a formula could be written:

3 if n is odd
v (n ) =
–3 if n is even
d) a73 = 3; a200 = –3

3␣␣Have the pairs complete Problem 1 and Problem 2 3␣␣Of those given on Part I of Connector Master B,
(optional) from Part II of Connector Master B. Discuss. Sequences 1, 2, and 4 are arithmetic sequences. When
there are negative numbers involved, students may use
staircases in innovative ways to find S50. For example, in
Sequence 2, v (50) = –13 + 5(49) = 232, so determining
S50 requires summing –13 + –8 + –3 + 2 + 7 + … + 232.

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Lesson 5 Extended Counting Piece Patterns
Connector Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS
2 3 (continued.)
234 × 47
_______ Some students may separate the negative terms from the
2 rest of the sequence, as shown in the example at the left.
–3
–8 Here is another method students have suggested:
232
–13
–16
–13
(232 + –13) × 50
______________
3 × – 16
________
7 2
2 2
3 50 – 3 = 47
232
3 × – 16 234 × 47
2 + 2 = 5,475 +5
–13 –13
–13 – 8
50
S50 = 219 × 50 = 5,475
2

4␣␣Write the following expressions on the overhead and 4␣␣The use of parentheses and order of operations were
ask the pairs to form an Algebra Piece representation of first explored in Lesson 4 of Math Alive! Course I, and
each expression. Have volunteers share their results at reviewed in Lesson 3 of Course II. See those lessons for
the overhead, discussing questions and observations additional discussion ideas.
that surface regarding notation and order of operations.
Encourage students to record equivalent expressions In general, rules for order of operations are as follows:
they see in each model. Discuss conjectures and gener- computations within parentheses should be carried out
alizations that students pose. first; then exponents are evaluated; next products and
quotients should be computed in the order they occur
a) 3n + 2 c) 3n – 2 e) –3(n + 2) from left to right; and finally sums and differences
should be computed in the order they occur from left to
b) 3(n + 2) d) 3(n – 2) f) –3(n – 2) right.

Following are examples of Algebra Piece representations

of the given expressions. Students’ representations will
vary according to the way they interpret the expressions.

a) c) e)

3n + 2 3n – 2 – 3(n + 2)

b) d) f)

3(n + 2) 3(n – 2) – 3(n – 2)

Some students may “see” expressions such as 3(n + 2) as

3 groups of (n + 2), while others will “see” a rectangle
with dimensions 3 by (n + 2). Similarly, for e) some
students may view –3(n + 2) as “the opposite of a 3 by
(n + 2) rectangle” and others may see a rectangle with

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Extended Counting Piece Patterns Lesson 5
Connector Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

dimensions –3 by (n + 2). Still others may interpret the

expression –3(n + 2) as “form 3 groups of (n + 2), then
flip the pieces to form the opposite collection.” Each of
these interpretations is reasonable. You might encourage
students to use edge pieces when they see rectangles, as
it helps you see their thinking and it reduces the likeli-
hood of errors when working with products involving
negatives.

5␣␣Give each student a copy of Connector Master C and 5␣␣Students could work on Problems 3-5 as homework.
have the pairs of students complete Problems 1 and 2. Note that for Problems 3 and 5, there may be some
Discuss their results. Then have the pairs complete disagreement over the actions implied by the symbols.
Problems 3 and 4. Select volunteers to read aloud their The point here is to reinforce the idea that algebraic
step-by-step instructions for Problem 3, while the other expressions are representations of ways of “seeing” or
students try to carry out the instructions. Encourage “maneuvering” the Algebra Pieces. There are multiple
students to help one another refine their instructions, meanings for multiplication, division, and subtraction,
clarifying ambiguities and comparing their algebraic and there are different actions associated with the differ-
expressions for Problem 4. Finally have the pairs com- ent meanings. (See the Lesson 3 Connector activity of
plete one or more of Problems 5a)-5i), sharing their Math Alive! Course II, for discussion ideas related to the
results as they did for Problem 3. meanings of the 4 basic operations, order of operations,
and several number properties.)

Lesson 5 Extended Counting Piece Patterns 2) Most students will probably record one of the follow-
ing: 1 ⁄ 2 (2n) + 4; 2n ⁄ 2 + 4; or 2n ÷ 2 + 4.
Connector Master C

1. Use Algebra Pieces to do the following: To assure understanding of the directions it may be
a) Form a collection that is 1⁄ 2 of a collection of 2 n -strips. helpful to have pairs complete 5a) and discuss as a large
b) Now, add 4 units to the collection formed in a).
group before proceeding. The following illustrate the
resulting collections associated with each expression in
2. Write an algebraic expression that describes your actions in
Problem 1.
Problem 5.
3. One way to think about algebraic expressions is as representa-
tions of actions with Algebra Pieces. For the expression 4 +22n write 5a)
the steps of Algebra Piece actions, in order, that the expression
could represent. At the end of each step, sketch the resulting col- 4n − 2n
lection of Algebra Pieces.
2
=n
4. In the final collection that you formed for Problem 3, can you
“see” an algebraic expression that is equivalent to the original 5b)
expression? If so, record that expression.

4 − 2n
5. Repeat Problems 3 and 4 for the following expressions:
2
=2−n
4n – 2n
a) 2
f ) 4 + 4n – 8 ÷ 4

4 – 2n 4 + 4n – 8
5c)
b) 2
g) 4

c) 42 – 2n 2 h) 6 – 12n ÷ 3 + 3

d) 42 – (2n )2 i ) 6 – 12n ÷ (3 + 3)

e) (4 – 2 n )2

6. Record any general observations, AHA!s, conjectures, or im-

portant ideas you noticed.

42 – 2n 2 = 16 – 2n 2

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Lesson 5 Extended Counting Piece Patterns
Connector Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

5 (continued.) 5g) Some students may view this as a

5d) collection of 4 black units, 4 n-strips,
and 8 red units shared equally in 4 4 + 4n − 8
groups that are equivalent to 1 n-strip 4
= n −1
and 1 red unit. Others may view it as a
rectangle with 1 edge of 4 linear units
and value 4 n-strips and 4 red units. The
other dimension is (n – 1) linear units.

42 – (2n )2 = 16 – 4n 2 5h)

5e) Notice in this representation, edge pieces are used to

represent 4 – 2n as the length of the edge of a square. 6 – 12n ÷ 3 + 3 = 9 – 4n
The equivalent expression, 16 – 16n + 4n2 represents the
value of the square. 5i)

6 – 12n ÷ (3 + 3) = 6 – 2n

If needed, here are additional problems students could

explore using the format of Problems 3 and 4 on Con-
nector Master C:

i) 4(2n – 1) vi) –(2n – 1)

ii) 4(2n) – 1 vii) – 2n – 1

(4 – 2n )2 = 16 – 16n + 4n 2 iii) 2n2 – 1 viii)3(–n) + –2(n + 1) + 4 ÷ 2

5f) iv) (2n – 1)2 ix) 3 – 5(n + 4) + 6n ÷ 2 + 3

4 + 4n – 8 ÷ 4 = 2 + 4n v) (2n)2 – 1 x) Challenge:
[–4(–n – 1) – (6n – 12) ÷3] ÷ 2 + 3

6␣␣Place a transparency of Connector Master D on the 6␣␣While some students may be able to solve this prob-
overhead, revealing Sequences A and B only. Ask the lem using guess and check methods, the point here is to
pairs of students to use their Algebra Pieces to form a review and develop strategies of solving the problems
representation of the nth arrangement of Sequence A with the Algebra Pieces. The Algebra Piece methods dis-
and a representation of the nth arrangement of Se- cussed here were explored in Lessons 26 and 27 of Math
quence B. Then ask them to find a way to use their Alge- Alive! Course II, and will be extended in the Focus activ-
bra Pieces to determine for what n the nth arrangement of ity. Ultimately students will develop methods of using
Sequence A has the same net value as the nth arrange- symbols to record their actions with the Algebra Pieces.
ment of Sequence B. Have volunteers demonstrate their However, the emphasis here is on developing concep-
Algebra Piece methods, and verify that their results are tual understanding through experiences with the pieces.
correct.
It is important that students interpret the task properly.
Note they must determine when corresponding arrange-
ments have the same value. This is called solving equa-
tions simultaneously. Below are possible Algebra Piece
representations of the nth arrangements for sequences A
and B. Comparing these 2 arrangements, one sees they
have 4 n-strips and 1 unit in common. Hence, they will

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Extended Counting Piece Patterns Lesson 5
Connector Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

have the same value if the remaining n strip in A has the

Extended Counting Piece Patterns Lesson 5
Connector Master D
same value as the remaining 7 units in B. Thus, each n
strip has value 7, and the two arrangements have the
same value when n is 7.
A

A B
…

v (n ) = 5 n + 1 v (n ) = 4 n + 8
…

Notice we have determined that 7 is the solution of

C 5n + 1 = 4n + 8. The notation v (n) is read “the value of
… the nth arrangement” (note this is not the same as the
value of n). See Lesson 10 of Math Alive! Course II, for
additional discussion of notation. Other representations
D
and equivalent expressions for the value of the nth
arrangements are possible, and will lead to other formu-
lations of the above equation. However, regardless of the
… representation, the solution will be n = 7.

The solution, n = 7, can be verified by forming (or

E v (n ) = –4n + 7
sketching or imagining) the 7th arrangement in each
sequence, and noting that each 7th arrangement has
F v (n ) = 2n + – 17 value 36.

7␣␣Repeat Action 6 for Sequences C and D on Connector 7␣␣Following is one Algebra Piece representation of the
Master D. Then, if it has not already come up, point out nth arrangements of Sequence C. The 3 red n-strips can
that, for Sequences C and D whose nth arrangements be thought of as the opposite of a collection of 3 black
have values –3n + 1 and –14, respectively, determining n-strips. Since 3 black n-strips have a value of 3n, the
the value of n for which the nth arrangements of the 2 opposite collection has value –(3n) or, dropping the
sequences have the same net value is referred to as parentheses, –3n. Alternatively, since each red n-strip
solving the equation –3n + 1 = –14. has value –n, the value of 3 of them can be written as
3(–n) = –3n. Since adding a black unit is equivalent to
removing a red unit, and since there is 1 unit removed
from one –n-strip in each arrangement, 1 black unit is
added to the nth arrangement.

v (n ) = – 3n + 1
–3 –3 –3 … (n times)
The collection of 3 red n-strips can also be viewed as n
collections of 3 red tile, that is, n collections each of
value –3, for a total value of n(–3). This view is illus-
v (n ) = n (– 3) + 1 trated at the left.

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Lesson 5 Extended Counting Piece Patterns
Connector Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

7 (continued.)
Another way of viewing the nth arrangement is as a –3
by n rectangle with one black unit added to the collec-
tion, as shown at the left. Hence, v(n) = –3n + 1.
v (n ) = – 3n + 1
Yet another representation is as a –3 by n rectangle with
a red unit removed from the rectangle (e.g., see the
rectangle at the left, with one red square missing from
the upper right corner). Hence, v(n) = –3n – –1. Recall
v (n ) = – 3n – –1 that removing red pieces from a collection has the same
effect on its value as adding a like number of black
pieces. Thus, –3n – –1 and –3n + 1 are equivalent expres-
sions.

Sequence D has constant value because the value of the

arrangements never change, regardless the value of n.
Hence v(n) = –14, for all n (see diagram at the left).

Since there are no pieces in common to the nth arrange-

v (n ) = –14
ments for Sequences C and D, and because a red unit
and a black unit have total net value zero, adding a red
unit and black unit to the nth arrangement of Sequence
C D D does not change the net value of the arrangement.
However, in so doing, the 2 arrangements now have 1
black unit in common, as illustrated at the left. Hence, 3
red n-strips have the same value as 15 red units, and
thus 1 red n-strip has value –5. The number of the ar-
rangement for which both sequences have the same
value is equal to the number of red unit squares in the
red n-strip, or 5. (Alternatively, one could determine the
value of n by noting that n is the opposite of the value
of the red-strip, or –(–5) = 5.)

Thus, n = 5 is the solution of the equation –3n + 1 = –14.

8␣␣Repeat Action 6 for Sequences E and F on Connector 8␣␣The nth arrangements of these sequences could be
Master D. Then have the students record the equation represented as follows:
they have solved.
E F

v (n ) = –4n + 7 v (n ) = 2n + –17

Notice there are no pieces common to both collections

of Algebra Pieces. However, since adding zeroes to the
collections does not affect their net values, one can add
4 red n-strips and 4 black n-strips to the nth arrangement
of Sequence F and 17 red units and 17 black units to the
nth arrangement of Sequence E. Thus, since the circled
portions shown below have the same value, Sequences E
and F have the same value when 6n = 24, so n = 4.

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Extended Counting Piece Patterns Lesson 5
Connector Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

E
E F

v (n ) = –4n + 7 v (n ) = 2n + –17
add 4 n-strips and 17 units to
⇓ E and F to get: Another strategy students may use is to keep the 2 ar-
rangements equal by adding collections of equal value
to both arrangements. For example, they may add 4
black n-strips and 17 black units to each arrangement, as
illustrated at the left. Then, removing combinations of
pieces that have net value zero leaves 6 n-strips with
value 24. Hence, n has value 4.

Or, they may do the following: add 2 red n-strips and 7

red units to each collection; then remove combinations
⇓ remove zeroes from each
collection to get:
of pieces that have net value 0, leaving 6 red n-strips
with net value –24. Thus, 1 red n-strip has net value –4
and n equals the opposite of –4 (i.e., n = –(–4) = 4).

It is important here to keep emphasis on Algebra Piece

procedures. You may have some students who prefer the
method of adding zeroes to solve an equation, and
others may prefer the method of keeping the equations
balanced. In the Focus activity, students will develop
symbolic methods of recording their Algebra Piece
procedures.

9␣␣Pose one or more of the following equations and ask 9␣␣It may be helpful to remind the students that solving
the students to develop strategies of using the Algebra these equations is equivalent to finding the value of n
Pieces to find solutions. for which the nth arrangements of the sequences repre-
sented by the expressions on each side of the equal sign
a) 2n + 6 = 5n – 15 have the same net value. To encourage flexibility in
their thinking, encourage students to try out methods
b) –6n – 25 = –115 other students share.

c) 4n – 1 = 4n + 1 Choose from these equations according to the needs and

interest of your students. If students have considerable
d) 2(n – 2) = 2n – 4 difficulty solving these equations, you might review
Lessons 26 and 27 (and perhaps Lessons 9 and 10) from
Math Alive! Course II, for other discussion ideas. Note
that equations whose solutions are nonpositive

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Lesson 5 Extended Counting Piece Patterns
Connector Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

9 (continued.)
integers are introduced in the Focus activity of this
lesson, and nonintegral solutions are explored in Lesson
12 of this course.

a) n = 7

b) n = 15

c) This equation has no solutions (i.e, it is impossible for

1 more than 4 times a number ever to be equal in value
to 1 less than 4 times that same number).

Or, another way to verify there are no solutions to the

equation 4n – 1 = 4n + 1 follows: If one assumes that a
collection of 4 n-strips and 1 red unit has the same value
as a collection of 4 n-strips and 1 black unit, adding 4
red n-strips to both collections results in 1 red unit equal
in value to 1 black unit, an impossibility.

d) Notice these two expressions are equivalent. The

same collection of Algebra Pieces can be used to repre-
sent both sequences, so for every value of n, the nth
arrangements of these sequences are equal in value.
Hence, for all values of n the equation is a true state-
ment.

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Extended Counting Piece Patterns Lesson 5

Focus Teacher Activity

OVERVIEW & PURPOSE MATERIALS
Counting piece patterns are extended to include arrangements ✔ Algebra Pieces (including frames, see Blackline Mas-
corresponding to negative, as well as positive, integers. Stu- ters), 1 set per student.
dents devise symbolic methods of recording their Algebra ✔ Algebra Pieces for the overhead.
Piece actions to solve equations.
✔ Focus Masters A-C, 1 transparency of each.
✔ Focus Master D, 1 copy per student and 1 transparency.
✔ Focus Student Activity 5.1, 1 copy per student and 1
transparency.

ACTIONS COMMENTS

1␣␣Arrange the students in groups and distribute Algebra 1␣␣The students may add arrangements that extend the
Pieces (without the n-frames) to each student. Form or pattern in one direction only (left or right). If so, ask
sketch the following collection of counting piece ar- them to extend the pattern in the other direction also.
rangements on the overhead, white board, or black
board. Ask the groups to form the same arrangements.
Then ask them to form additional arrangements which
maintain the pattern of the collection. Discuss.

2␣␣If it hasn’t come up, discuss the students’ ideas about 2␣ One way to extend the collection is shown in Dia-
ways the collection might be extended indefinitely in gram A on Focus Master A (see below). Going to the
two directions. right, a column of 3 black tile is added to an arrange-
ment to get the next arrangement. Going to the left, a
column of 3 red tile is added.

Focus Master A
Extended Counting Piece Patterns
DIAGRAM A

... ...

3␣␣Place a transparency of Focus Master A on the over- 3␣␣One way of numbering the arrangements is to select
head, revealing Diagram A only. Discuss the students’ one of them and number it 0. Arrangements to the right
ideas about ways the arrangements in the extended DIAGRAM Bof this arrangement are successively numbered 1, 2, 3,
sequence shown in Diagram A might be numbered. etc. Those to the left are successively numbered –1, –2,
–3, etc.
... ...
A collection of arrangements which extends indefinitely
in two directions and is numbered so there is an ar-
rangement which corresponds to every integer, positive,
Lesson 5

negative, and zero, will be called an extended sequence.

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Lesson 5 Extended Counting Piece Patterns
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

3 (continued.)
Mathematically speaking, a set of arrangement numbers
is called an index set and an individual arrangement
number is called an index. Thus, an arrangement whose
number is –3 could be referred to as “the arrangement
whose index is –3.” Instead of using this language, we
shall refer to this arrangement as “arrangement number
–3” or “the –3rd arrangement.” In the language of index
sets, a sequence is a collection of arrangements whose
index set is the set of positive integers and an extended
sequence—a phrase coined for our purposes—is a set of
arrangements whose index set is the set of all integers.
On occasion, once a set of arrangements has been deter-
mined to be an extended sequence, it will be referred to
simply as a sequence, the word “extended” being under-
stood.

Using the language of functions (see Math Alive! Course

II, Lesson 10), the set of arrangement numbers is the
domain of the function, while the set of values of the
arrangements is the range of the function.

4␣␣Ask the students to number the arrangements in 4␣␣The expression v(n) will depend on the choice of
Diagram A from Focus Master A as suggested in Com- numbering. If the arrangement consisting of a single
ment 3 and then write an expression for v(n), the value black tile is numbered 0, then v(n) = 3n + 1. Notice this
of the arrangement numbered n. Repeat for several formula holds for all integers n, positive, negative or
different numberings. zero.

Arrangement
number, n: –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3

... ...
Value, v (n ) : –8 –5 –2 1 4 7 10
v (n ) = 3n + 1

A different numbering will result in a different expres-

sion for v(n). For example, if the arrangement which
consists of 7 black tile is numbered 0, one could view
the nth arrangement as 1 black unit added to 3 strips
with value (n + 2). Hence, the nth arrangement has
value v(n) = 3n + 7.
Arrangement
number, n: –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2

... ...
Value, v (n ) : –5 –2 1 4 7 10 13
v (n ) = 3(n + 2) + 1 or v (n ) = 3n + 7

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Extended Counting Piece Patterns Lesson 5
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

5␣␣Ask the students to assume the arrangements in 5␣␣The 50th arrangement has 50 columns with 3 black
Diagram A on Focus Master A are numbered so the 0th tile per column and an adjoining black tile. Alterna-
arrangement contains the single black counting piece tively, it can be described as 3 rows of 50 black tile with
(and no other pieces). Ask the students to describe a) the an adjoining black tile. Other descriptions are possible.
50th arrangement and b) the –100th arrangement.
The –100th arrangement (that is, the arrangement
numbered –100) has 3 rows of 100 red tile each and an
adjoining black tile. Note that the number of red tile in
each row is the opposite of the number of the arrange-
ment.

6␣␣Assuming the numbering used in Action 5, ask the 6␣␣One way of forming the arrangements is shown
students to build a representation of the nth arrange- below.
ment, for n positive, of the extended sequence in Dia-
gram A of Focus Master A. Repeat for n negative. Discuss.

n negative n positive
v (n ) = 3n + 1

7␣␣Form the following collection of counting piece 7␣␣a)␣The collection can be extended to the right by
arrangements and ask the groups to do the same. adding a column of 2 red tile to an arrangement to get
the next arrangement. It can be extended to the left by
adding a column of 2 black tile to successive arrange-
ments. This is illustrated in Diagram B on Focus Master
A, shown below.

Repeat Actions 1-6 for the above collection, by having

the students do the following:

a) Form further arrangements that

Focus Master A
Extended Counting Piece Patterns
maintain the pattern and extend the
collection in both directions. DIAGRAM A

... ...

DIAGRAM B

... ...
Lesson 5

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Lesson 5 Extended Counting Piece Patterns
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

7 (continued.)
b) Select a numbering for the extended sequence, and b) If the single column of 3 black tile is designated the
write an expression for v(n), the value of the nth ar- 0th arrangement, then v(n) = 2(–n) + 3 = –2n + 3. Other
rangement. numberings will result in different expressions.

Arrangement
number, n: –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3

... ...
Value, v (n ) : 2(3) + 3 2(2) + 3 2(1) + 3 3 2(–1) + 3 2(–2) + 3 2(–3) + 3
v (n ) = –2n + 3

c) Assuming the single column of 3 black counting c) Using the given numbering, the 50th arrangement
pieces is designated the 0th arrangement, describe the has 2 rows of 50 red tile each and a column of 3 adjoin-
50th arrangement and the –100th arrangement. ing black tile. The –100th arrangement has 2 rows of
100 black tile each and an adjoining column of 3 black
tile. Other descriptions are possible.

d) Assuming the numbering of c) above, form a repre- d) One way of forming the arrangements is shown here:
sentation of the nth arrangement for n positive, and the
nth arrangement for n negative.

n negative n positive
v (n ) = –2n + 3

8␣ Distribute and discuss the role of n-frames and 8␣␣In Actions 6 and 7d), the strips used to form the
–n-frames. Then place a transparency of Focus Master A arrangements for positive n are a different color than
on the overhead, and ask the students to use the n- those used for negative n, e. g., in the sequence for
frames and –n-frames to build representations of the nth which v(n) = –2n + 3, red strips are used for positive n
arrangement of the extended sequences shown in Dia- and black strips for negative n.
grams A and B, based on the numberings given in Ac-
tions 5 and 7c). Repeat, as appropriate, for other Frames are introduced to provide pieces that are some-
numberings. times red and sometimes black (i.e., for modeling situa-
tions in which n could be positive, negative or zero). An
n-frame contains black tile if n is positive, red tile if n is
negative, and no tile if n is 0. In all cases, the total value
of the tile it contains is n. Thus, if n is positive, it con-
tains n black tile and if n is negative, it contains –n red
tile. For example, if n = –50, an n-frame contains –(–50),
oooo
oooo

or 50, red tile. The value of 50 red tile is –50.

n - frame –n - frame
Has value n for all n, Has value –n for all n, A –n-frame is the opposite of an n-frame. It contains red
positive, negative, or positive, negative, or tile if n is positive, black tile if n is negative, and no tile
zero. zero. if n is 0. In all cases, the total value of the tile it contains
is –n. Thus, if n is positive, it contains n red tile and if n
is negative, it contains –n (or |n|) black tile. A –n-frame is
distinguished from an n-frame by the small o’s on each
end.

122 / Math Alive! Course III

Extended Counting Piece Patterns Lesson 5
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

Masters for n-frames and –n-frames are included in

Blackline Masters (n-frames are included in each set of
plastic or cardstock Algebra Pieces available from The
Math Learning Center). They are intended to be printed
back-to-back so that turning over an n-frame results in a
–n-frame, and conversely. Each student needs approxi-
mately 12 n-frames.

Shown below are nth arrangements for each of the two

extended sequences shown on Focus Master A.

oooo oooo
oooo oooo
v (n ) = 3n + 1 v (n ) = –2n + 3

Some students may view 3n + 1 as one unit added to a

rectangle. Hence, it is useful to have edge pieces whose
color, like that of frames, differs for positive and nega-
tive n. Such pieces—referred to as edge frames—are
obtained by cutting frames into thirds:

Edge Frames

o
Has value n for n, Has value –n for n,
positive, negative, positive, negative,
or zero. or zero.

Thus, v(n) = 3n + 1 and v(n) = –2n +3 could both be

represented in two ways as shown at the left. The rect-
oooo oooo
oooo oooo

angle with value 3n can have edges with values 3 and n,

or –3 and –n. Similarly, a rectangle with value –2n can
have edges of value –2 and n, or 2 and –n.
v (n ) = 3n + 1 v (n ) = –2n + 3

Students may question whether there are frames for

n 2-mats. Note that an n 2-mat is black when n is positive
o oooo oooo
o oooo oooo

and black when n is negative. Similarly, a –n 2-mat is red

regardless the sign of n. Hence, frames for n 2-mats are
o

not needed. Rather than pointing this out to students,

v (n ) = 3n + 1 v (n ) = –2n + 3 you might have them investigate the idea in their
groups.

Math Alive! Course III / 123

Lesson 5 Extended Counting Piece Patterns
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

9␣␣Assuming the numbering given in Action 5, ask the 9␣If an arrangement in the extended sequence shown in
students to reason from the nth arrangement to deter- Diagram A has value 400, the 3 n-frames in the nth
mine, for the extended sequence shown in Diagram A arrangement shown below have a total value of 399.
on Focus Master A, the number of the arrangement Hence, each has value 133, Thus, n = 133 and it is the
which has value a) 400, b) –200. 133rd arrangement which has value 400.

Then, assuming the numbering given in Action 7c) for

the extended sequence shown in Diagram B, ask the
students to reason from the nth arrangement to deter- 399
mine the number of the arrangement in Diagram B 1
which has value a) 165, b) –75.
v (n ) = 3 n + 1 = 400

Extended Counting Piece Patterns Lesson 5 If an nth arrangement has value –200, one red tile can
Focus Master A
be added, changing the value to –201. The red and black
tile cancel each other, so the 3 n-frames in the figure
...

...

have a total value of –201, as illustrated in the diagram

below. Hence, each has value –67 and thus n = –67.

–201
1

v (n ) = 3 n + 1 = –200

If the value of the nth arrangement of the sequence in

Diagram B of Focus Master is 165, as shown below, then
each of the 2 –n-frames in the figure has a value of 81.
Hence, –n = 81 in which case, n = –81. So, it is the –81st
arrangement which has value 165.
DIAGRAM A

DIAGRAM B

oooo oooo
oooo oooo

162 3
...

...

v (n ) = –2n + 3 = 165

If the value of the nth arrangement shown below is –75,

3 red tile can be added, changing the value to –78. The 3
red and 3 black cancel each other, so each –n-frame in
the figure has value –78⁄ 2 = –39. Hence, –n = –39. Thus, n
= 39 and it is the 39th arrangement which has value –75.
oooo oooo
oooo oooo

–78 3

v (n ) = –2n + 3 = –75

124 / Math Alive! Course III

Extended Counting Piece Patterns Lesson 5
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

10␣␣Write the equation v(n) = –3n – 2 on the overhead. 10␣␣Here is one possibility for the requested arrange-
Ask the students to build the –2nd, –1st, 0th, 1st and ments:
2nd arrangements of an extended sequence for which
v(n) = –3n – 2. Have volunteers demonstrate their results.
Then have the students form a single arrangement of
Algebra Pieces that represents the nth arrangement of
this extended sequence.
Arrangement
number, n: –2 –1 0 1 2

Value, v (n ) : – 3 ( – 2 ) – 2 –3(–1) – 2 –2 –3(1) – 2 –3(2) – 2

Since v(n) = –3n – 2 = 3(–n) – 2, one possible representa-

tion of the nth arrangement is the following:

oooo oooo oooo

oooo oooo oooo
v(n) = –3n – 2

11␣␣Ask the students to reason from the nth arrange- 11␣a) If an nth arrangement has value 100, each –n-
ment formed in Action 10 to determine which arrange- frame is 102 ÷ 3 or 34. Thus n = –34.
ment, if any, of the extended sequence has value a) 100,
b) 200, c) –200. Ask the students to record the equations

oooo oooo oooo

oooo oooo oooo

that have been solved.

102 –2

v(n) = –3n – 2 = 100

b) This situation is not possible, since 202 is not a mul-

tiple of 3.
oooo oooo oooo
oooo oooo oooo

202 –2

v(n) = –3n – 2 = 200

This is not possible.

c) In this case, –n = –198 ÷ 3 = –66. Hence n = 66.

oooo oooo oooo
oooo oooo oooo

–198 –2

v(n) = –3n – 2 = –200

Math Alive! Course III / 125

Lesson 5 Extended Counting Piece Patterns
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

12␣␣Place a transparency of Focus Master B on the 12␣␣A representation for the nth arrangement of A:
overhead and ask the students to build an Algebra Piece
representation of the nth arrangement of each sequence.
Then ask them to determine for which n these two
arrangements have the same value. Discuss the equation
that has been solved.

Lesson 5 Extended Counting Piece Patterns

Focus Master B A representation for the nth arrangement of B:

Arrangement
number, n: –2 –1 0 1 2

Sequence A

The two arrangements have the same value if the circled

portions shown below have the same value. The portion
on the left has value –5, and the portion on the right
Sequence B
has value n + 7. The portion on the right will have value
–5 if the enclosed n-frame has value –12, i.e., if n = –12.
Thus, the solution to the equation n – 5 = 2n + 7 is n =
–12.

–5

n+7

13␣␣Repeat Action 12 for Sequences C and D on Focus 13␣␣The nth arrangements are shown below.
Master C.
Sequence C

Sequence D
oooo oooo oooo
oooo oooo oooo

The values of the arrangements, as they appear above,

are difficult to compare. However, adding 3 n-frames
and 3 –n-frames to the nth arrangement for Sequence C,

126 / Math Alive! Course III

Extended Counting Piece Patterns Lesson 5
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

as shown below, does not change its value. The two

Extended Counting Piece Patterns Lesson 5
Focus Master C
arrangements have the same value if the circled portions
have the same value, i.e., if 5n + –9 = 16. Hence, 5n = 25
and n = 5.
2

oooo oooo oooo

oooo oooo oooo
1

16 16

oooo oooo oooo

oooo oooo oooo
0

An alternative solution is based on the observation that

if the same value is added to two arrangements that are
equal in value, the resulting arrangements will have
–1

equal values. Shown here, values 3n + 9 have been

added to arrangements with values 2n – 9 and –3n + 16.
The resulting arrangements have equal values provided
5n = 25 or, simply, n = 5.
–2

25
0
Arrangement

0
Sequence D
Sequence C
number, n:

5n

oooo oooo oooo

oooo oooo oooo

(2n – 9) + (3n + 9) (–3n + 16) + (3n + 9)

The equation 2n – 9 = –3n + 16 has been solved.

14␣␣Ask the students to use Algebra Pieces or sketches 14␣␣The intent here is to use Algebra Pieces to solve
to help them solve the following equations and to relate equations. In terms of sequences of counting piece ar-
each equation to sequences of counting piece arrange- rangements, solving each equation is equivalent to de-
ments. Then ask them to verify their solutions. Discuss termining the value of n for which the nth arrangements
the students’ observations and encourage conjectures of two sequences have the same value. The expression
and generalizations. on the left side of the equation is the value of the nth ar-
rangement of one of the two sequences, and the expres-
a) 4n + 7 = –133 sion on the right side of the equation is the value of the
nth arrangement of the other sequence. Although some
b) 8 – 5n = –142 students may use symbols to represent their Algebra
Piece actions, it is not expected that students use sym-
c) 4n + 5 = 3n – 8 bolic procedures here. Rather, the insights and intui-
tions that are prompted by these hands-on experiences
d) 8n – 4 = 6n + 10 will be useful later when students invent ways of record-
ing the procedures they use with the pieces, and ulti-
mately, to use the symbols as representations of their ac-
tions with the pieces.
(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 127

Lesson 5 Extended Counting Piece Patterns
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

14 (continued.)
a) Solving the equation 4n + 7 = –133 is equivalent to
determining the value n for which the nth arrangement
of the sequence v(n) = 4n + 7 has the same value as the
nth arrangement of the sequence v(n) = –133. An ar-
rangement whose value is 4n + 7 has value –133 if the 4
circled n-frames shown below have total value –140.
This is the case if n = –35:
7

–140

If, 4n + 7 = –133, then 4n = –140,

and n = (–140) ÷ 4 = –35

A solution to an equation can be verified by substituting

the solution in the original equation to see if the result
is a true statement. For example, substituting n = –35 in
the equation 4n + 7 = –133 produces the true statement,
4(–35) + 7 = –133. Substituting any other value for n pro-
–150 duces a statement that is not true. Students may suggest
8
oooo oooo oooo oooo oooo
oooo oooo oooo oooo oooo

other verification methods, such as solving the problem

using a different method to see if that method produces
the same solution. Note that while going back over the
steps of one’s methods is a good idea, when doing so,
one often overlooks or repeats errors that were made.
8 – 5n = –142,
so, –5n = –150 b) An arrangement with value 8 – 5n has value –142
and –n = –150 ⁄ 5 = – 30 when each –n-frame has value –30, that is, when n = 30
Thus, n = 30 (illustrated at the left):

Alternatively, an arrangement with value 8 – 5n has

value –142 when the opposite arrangement has value
142, as shown here:
150
–8

5n – 8 = 142,
so, 5n = 150
n+5 –8
and n = 150 ⁄ 5 = 30

c) Arrangements with values 4n + 5 and 3n – 8 have the

same value when the two circled portions in the dia-
gram at the left each have value –8, i.e., when n + 5 = –8,
4n + 5 3n – 8 in which case n = –13.

128 / Math Alive! Course III

Extended Counting Piece Patterns Lesson 5
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS
n d) As the sketches at the left show, 8n – 4 and 6n + 10
n
n n have the same value when 2n – 4 has value 10. This is so
n n if 2n has value 14, in which case n = 7.
n n
n n 10
n –4 n
n n
8n – 4 6n + 10

15␣␣Give each student a copy of Focus Student Activity 15␣␣The intent here is to reinforce the notion that
5.1 to complete. Discuss, encouraging students to make algebraic symbols are representations of thoughts and
observations about similarities, differences, and general procedures with Algebra Pieces, and to expose students
strategies they notice. Ask them to discuss the strategies to a few conventions for using algebraic symbols. Here
they prefer and why. are examples of observations made by students:

Lesson 5 Extended Counting Piece Patterns

Each symbolic solution begins by stating the equation to
solve.
Focus Student Activity 5.1
NAME DATE
Actions are recorded on both sides of the equation simulta-
Luise, Bob, and Patty used Algebra Pieces to solve the equation
neously, just as actions are carried out with the pieces.
3(n – 4) = 5(n + 4). Then they wrote the following to represent each
step of their thoughts and actions with the Algebra Pieces. Next to
each line of the three methods, write a brief explanation of what Sometimes an expression is restated in simpler terms. Note:
thoughts or actions you think are represented by the algebra state-
ment on that line. this is called combining like terms or simplifying the ex-
Luise’s Method pression.
3(n – 4) = 5(n + 4)
3n – 12 = 5n + 20
3n – 12 – 3n = 5n + 20 – 3n The final line in the solution tells the value of n.
–12 = 2n + 20
–12 + –20 = 2n + 20 + –20
–32 = 2n
–16 = n
Two expressions that are equal remain equal if the same
Bob’s Method
action is carried out on both expressions, or if zero is added
3(n – 4) = 5(n + 4) to either expression.
3n – 12 = 5n + 20
3n – 12 + 5n + –5n = 5n + 20
3n – 12 – 5n = 20
–2n – 12 = 20
–2n – 12 = 20 + 12 + –12
–2n = 32
–2n ÷ 2 = 32 ÷ 2
–n = 16

–(–n ) = –16
n = –16

Patty’s Method
3(n – 4) = 5(n + 4)
3n – 12 = 5n + 20
3n – 12 + –3n + –20 = 5n + 20 + –3n + –20
–32 = 2n
1 ⁄ 2 (–32) = 1 ⁄ 2 (2n)

–16 = n

16␣␣Write equation a) below on the overhead or board. 16␣␣Note that students’ recordings will vary and some
Ask the students to use their Algebra Pieces, or sketches students will include more detail in their recordings
of pieces, to solve the equation. Then have them use than others. It is important not to be rigid or suggest
numbers and algebraic symbols only (no words or pic- “rules” for recording students’ thoughts. It is hoped that
tures) to communicate each step of their Algebra Piece students develop a view that the purpose of symbols is
methods. Discuss and repeat for b)-d). to provide a “shorthand” way of recording thought
processes and carrying out actions with Algebra Pieces
a) n + 10 = 1 – 2n c) 3n – 81 = 6n + 84 mentally (e.g., the variable n is associated with a mental
image of an n-frame).
b) 6n – 64 = 2n d) 5n – 170 = 190 – 4n
(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 129

Lesson 5 Extended Counting Piece Patterns
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

16 (continued.)
a) Note that solving n + 10 = 1 – 2n is equivalent to
finding the value of n for which the arrangements of
sequences with net values v1(n) = n + 10 and v2(n) =
1 – 2n are equal in value.

Notice (see diagram below) that adding 2 –n-frames and

2 n-frames to an arrangement with value n + 10 doesn’t
change the value of the arrangement, but doing so
results in a collection that has pieces in common with
the arrangement with value 1 – 2n. Comparing the
arrangements with net values v1(n) = n + 10 and v2(n) =
1 – 2n shows the two arrangements have the same value
if 3n + 9 = 0 or n = –3.

oooo oooo
oooo oooo
1 – 2n

3n + 9

oooo oooo
oooo oooo
n + 10 1 – 2n

Here is one student’s recording, representing her

thoughts when solving n + 10 = 1 – 2n:

n + 10 = 1 – 2n
n + 10 + 2n + –2n = 1 – 2n, add zero to n + 10
3n + 10 = 1 (remove 2 –n-frames from each nth arrange-
ment)
3n + 10 – 1 = 1 – 1, add –1 to both nth arrangements
3n + 9 = 0
3n + 9 = 0 + 9 – 9, add zero to zero
3n = –9
3n ⁄ 3 = –9 ⁄ 3

n = –3
–9
0 An alternative solution, illustrated at the left, is based on
0 the last method of Comment 13. Starting with collec-
3n tions with values n + 10 and 1 – 2n, respectively, and
then adding 2 n-frames and 10 red tile to each collection
results in two collections with values 3n and –9, respec-
oooo oooo
oooo oooo

tively. Hence n + 10 = 1 – 2n provided 3n = –9. This is so

if n = –3. A recording of the these procedures might look
(n + 10) + (2n – 10) (–2n + 1) + (2n – 10) like the following:

n + 10 = 1 – 2n
n + 10 + 2n + –10 = 1 – 2n + 2n + –10
3n = –9
n = –3

Note that some students may include the statement 3n ⁄ 3

= –9 ⁄ 3 prior to stating n = –3 in the sequence of steps

130 / Math Alive! Course III

Extended Counting Piece Patterns Lesson 5
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

shown above. This represents the process of separating

the 3 n-strips and 9 red units into 3 groups in order to
show that 1 n-strip has value –3. Either representation is
correct; adding the step 3n⁄ 3 simply shows the student’s
n thought processes more completely.
n
n –64
n b) As illustrated at the left, one sees that sketches for
n n 6n – 64 and 2n have the same value if 4n – 64 = 0, which
n n happens when n = 16. Symbolically, students may
6n – 64 2n record such thought processes as follows:

6n – 64 = 2n
–165 4n – 64 =0
4n = 64
n = 16
–81 – 84
c) In the 2 diagrams at the left a section representing –84
n
n has been added to sketches for 3n – 81 and 6n + 84. The
n sketches have equal values if 3n = –165 or n = (–165) ÷ 3
(3n – 81) + –84 = –55. A symbolic representation of this line of thinking
might be:
0
3n – 81 = 6n + 84
3n – 81 + –84 = 6n + 84 + –84
n 3n – 165 = 6n
n 84 – 84
n –165 = 3n
n –165 ⁄ 3
n =n
n
(6n + 84) + – 84
d) As shown in the sketch at the left, if 4n + 170 is added
to 5n – 170 and 190 – 4n, the results have equal values
provided n = 40. Symbolically, such reasoning could be
170 represented as follows:
170
0 360 5n – 170 = 190 – 4n
4n 4n
9n –170 190 0 5n – 170 + (4n + 170) = 190 – 4n + (4n + 170)
5n –4 n
9n = 360
(5n – 170) + (4n + 170) (190 – 4n ) + (4n + 170) n = 360 ⁄ 9 = 40

17␣␣(Optional) Give each student a copy of Focus Mas- 17␣␣These are the actual wordings of the students’
ter D (see next page), pointing out that the problems on problems. You might suggest that students refine any
Master D were written by students in another Math questions they feel should be worded differently.
Alive! Course III, classroom. Ask the groups to each create
an “answer key” for the problems. Suggest that each Rather than having the students answer all of these
answer should include the important information that a problems, you might select from the problems according
teacher would expect from a student who understands to the needs of your students. Or, you might have the
the ideas in the problem. When completed, have the class identify the problems they feel would be most
groups exchange their “keys,” making note of ideas that challenging and then have the groups write answers for
have been overlooked and ideas that are especially those.
important.
(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 131

Lesson 5 Extended Counting Piece Patterns
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

17 (continued.)
Lesson 5 Extended Counting Piece Patterns
Focus Master D
Note that answers for Problem 14 could list several
examples of additional questions.

1. When you see the “–” symbol, what do you think of?
Groups could use the Peer Feedback Sheets from Action
2. When you are done solving an equation, how do you test your 11 of Lesson 4 (see Focus Student Activity 4.2) for giving
answer to make sure that it is correct?
feedback to each other.
3. What are common things that you do when solving an equa-
tion?

4. Define n and –n.

5. Two important ideas in solving an equation are addition and

subtraction of negative and positive pieces. Generalize and ex-
plain these processes and give an example of each.

6. The n-frame is an important tool to understand. Explain what

they are used for, how they are used, and why.

7. What is an algebra equation you can solve in your mind, by

simply imagining the pieces?

8. Explain when, if ever, –n is less than, more than, and/or equal

to zero. Give examples and go into detail.

9. Why are there no n 2-frames? Build a convincing argument and

explain your thinking on this question.

10. Tell what is meant by an “extended” sequence of counting

piece arrangements.

Extended Counting Piece Patterns Lesson 5

Focus Master D (cont.)

11. Figure out what is wrong with the way Jane solved the fol-
lowing equation. Then solve it the way you think would use the
correct procedures and least amount of steps.

Jane’s Steps:
1. 2n + 3 + 3 (n – 4) = 8n + 3
2. 5n + – 9 = 8n + 3
3. 5n + – 9 = 8n + 3 – 5n
4. 5n + – 9 – 3n = 3n + 3 – 3n
5. 2n + – 9 = 3
6. 2n + – 9 + 9 = 3 + 9
7. 2n⁄ 2 = 12⁄ 2
8. n = 6

12. Explain how the equation –3n + 2 = 4n – 12 relates to se-

quences of counting piece arrangements.

13. Explain how edge pieces and/or edge frames are used to rep-
resent products of whole numbers, integers, and algebraic ex-
pressions.

14. Can you think of other thoughtful questions about the ideas
in this lesson? Try to think of ones that require understanding of
important ideas.

132 / Math Alive! Course III

Extended Counting Piece Patterns Lesson 5

Follow-up Student Activity 5.2

NAME DATE

Complete the problems on this Follow-up on separate paper.

Sequence A

Arrangement
number, n: –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3

... ...

Sequence B

Arrangement
number, n: –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3
... ...

1␣ a)Sketch the Algebra Piece representations of the nth arrange-

ment of Sequence A and the nth arrangement of Sequence B.

b) Draw diagrams to show each step of Algebra Piece procedures for

finding the value of n for which Sequences A and B have the same
net value. Write brief comments, as needed, to help communicate
your methods.

c) Tell what equation you solved in b).

2␣␣Sketch the –3rd through 3rd arrangements of a sequence of

counting piece arrangements with net value v(n) = 3n + 4. Then
show how to use Algebra Pieces to determine the value of n for
which v(n) = 190.

3␣␣Draw diagrams to show how to use Algebra Pieces to solve, if

possible, the following equations. Write brief comments to explain
what you do in each step. If there is no solution, explain why. If
there is more than one solution, explain how many and why.

a) 7n + 2 = 8n – 4 d) –16 + 24n = 272

b) 4n2 + 3n – 5 = (2n + 1)2 + 8 e) 3 + n = –3 + n

c) 3(2n – 3) = 9n + 6 f) 7(n + 2) = 7n + 14

(Continued on back.)
Math Alive! Course III / 133
Lesson 5 Extended Counting Piece Patterns
Follow-up Student Activity (cont.)

4␣␣For each of the following conditions, write an equation (not

already on this Follow-up) which meets the given conditions. Then
make a diagram or write a brief explanation to show why your equa-
tion satisfies the conditions.

a) This equation has exactly one solution and that solution is nega-
tive.

b) This equation has no solutions.

c) This equation has an infinite number of solutions.

5␣␣Use Algebra Pieces to solve the equation 8n + 36 = 4(n + 1). Then:

a) using algebraic symbols only, record each step of your thought
processes and Algebra Piece methods;

b) write a brief explanation of the thoughts and actions represented

by each step you wrote in a).

6␣␣Solve the equation 7(n + 3) = 5(n – 3) + 6 using whatever meth-

ods you choose. Explain or illustrate each step of your thought pro-
cesses and actions. Then tell how you can be sure that your solution
is correct.

7␣␣Give one or more different equations (not already on this Follow-

up) for each of the following. Show or explain your methods of
solving each equation.

a) an algebra equation you think is most convenient to solve by

simply imagining the Algebra Pieces in your mind’s eye (i.e., with-
out building or sketching models or writing equations);

b) an algebra equation you think is most convenient to solve by

using algebraic symbols to represent the Algebra Pieces;

c) an algebraic equation that you can solve and you think is diffi-
cult.

8␣␣Write several “tips” you recommend that others keep in mind

when solving equations or representing expressions with Algebra
Pieces.

134 / Math Alive! Course III

Extended Counting Piece Patterns Lesson 5
Connector Master A

slit here
Cut out and insert this end in slit above.

cut here

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 5 Extended Counting Piece Patterns

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Extended Counting Piece Patterns Lesson 5
Connector Master B

Following are representations of 5 different sequences.

1.

2. v (n ) = –13 + 5(n – 1)

3.

4. 3, –3, –9, –15, –21, –27 …

5. v (n )
5
4
3
2
1
n
–1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
–2
–3
–4
–5

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 5 Extended Counting Piece Patterns
Connector Master B (cont.)

Part I

For each of Sequences 1-5 represented on the previous page, do

the following (if the information is already given, write “given”
and then skip that part):

a) Form and then sketch counting piece arrangements for the

first 6 terms of the sequence.

b) Form and then sketch an Algebra Piece representation of the

n th arrangement of the sequence.

c) Write a formula for v (n ), the value of the n th arrangement of

the sequence. “Loop” a diagram to show how your formula
works.

d) If an represents the n th term of the sequence, record the val-

ues of the following: a1, a2, a 3, a4, a 5, a6, a20, a 73, and a200.

e) Make a coordinate graph, plotting and labeling the first 5 or

more terms in the sequence.

Part II

1. Which of Sequences 1-5 are arithmetic sequences? Explain

your reasoning.

2. Challenge: For any of Sequences 1-5 that are arithmetic se-

quences, show how to use the method of combining two match-
ing staircases to find S50, the sum of the first 50 terms of those
sequences.

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Extended Counting Piece Patterns Lesson 5
Connector Master C

1. Use Algebra Pieces to do the following:

a) Form a collection that is 1⁄ 2 of a collection of 2 n -strips.

b) Now, add 4 units to the collection formed in a).

2. Write an algebraic expression that describes your actions in

Problem 1.

3. One way to think about algebraic expressions is as representa-

tions of actions with Algebra Pieces. For the expression 4 +22n write
the steps of Algebra Piece actions, in order, that the expression
could represent. At the end of each step, sketch the resulting col-
lection of Algebra Pieces.

4. In the final collection that you formed for Problem 3, can you
“see” an algebraic expression that is equivalent to the original
expression? If so, record that expression.

5. Repeat Problems 3 and 4 for the following expressions:

4n – 2n
a) 2
f ) 4 + 4n – 8 ÷ 4

4 – 2n 4 + 4n – 8
b) 2
g) 4

c) 42 – 2n 2 h) 6 – 12n ÷ 3 + 3

d) 42 – (2n )2 i ) 6 – 12n ÷ (3 + 3)

e) (4 – 2n )2

6. Record any general observations, AHA!s, conjectures, or im-

portant ideas you noticed.

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 5 Extended Counting Piece Patterns
Connector Master D

C
…

E v (n ) = –4n + 7

F v (n ) = 2n + – 17
Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Extended Counting Piece Patterns Lesson 5
Focus Master A

...

...
DIAGRAM A

DIAGRAM B
...

...

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 5 Extended Counting Piece Patterns
Focus Master B

Arrangement
number, n: –2 –1 0 1 2

Sequence A

Sequence B

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Extended Counting Piece Patterns Lesson 5
Focus Master C

2
1
0
–1
–2
Arrangement

Sequence D
Sequence C
number, n:

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 5 Extended Counting Piece Patterns

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Extended Counting Piece Patterns Lesson 5
Focus Master D

1. When you see the “–” symbol, what do you think of?

2. When you are done solving an equation, how do you test your
answer to make sure that it is correct?

3. What are common things that you do when solving an equa-

tion?

4. Define n and –n.

5. Two important ideas in solving an equation are addition and

subtraction of negative and positive pieces. Generalize and ex-
plain these processes and give an example of each.

6. The n-frame is an important tool to understand. Explain what

they are used for, how they are used, and why.

7. What is an algebra equation you can solve in your mind, by

simply imagining the pieces?

8. Explain when, if ever, –n is less than, more than, and/or equal

to zero. Give examples and go into detail.

9. Why are there no n 2-frames? Build a convincing argument and

explain your thinking on this question.

10. Tell what is meant by an “extended” sequence of counting

piece arrangements.

(Continued on back.)
© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 5 Extended Counting Piece Patterns
Focus Master D (cont.)

11. Figure out what is wrong with the way Jane solved the fol-
lowing equation. Then solve it the way you think would use the
correct procedures and least amount of steps.

Jane’s Steps:
1. 2n + 3 + 3 (n – 4) = 8n + 3
2. 5n + – 9 = 8n + 3
3. 5n + – 9 = 8n + 3 – 5n
4. 5n + – 9 – 3n = 3n + 3 – 3n
5. 2n + – 9 = 3
6. 2n + – 9 + 9 = 3 + 9
7. 2n⁄ 2 = 12⁄ 2
8. n = 6

12. Explain how the equation –3n + 2 = 4n – 12 relates to se-

quences of counting piece arrangements.

13. Explain how edge pieces and/or edge frames are used to rep-
resent products of whole numbers, integers, and algebraic ex-
pressions.

14. Can you think of other thoughtful questions about the ideas
in this lesson? Try to think of ones that require understanding of
important ideas.

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Extended Counting Piece Patterns Lesson 5

Focus Student Activity 5.1

NAME DATE

Luise, Bob, and Patty used Algebra Pieces to solve the equation
3(n – 4) = 5(n + 4). Then they wrote the following to represent each
step of their thoughts and actions with the Algebra Pieces. Next to
each line of the three methods, write a brief explanation of what
thoughts or actions you think are represented by the algebra state-
ment on that line.

Luise’s Method
3(n – 4) = 5(n + 4)
3n – 12 = 5n + 20
3n – 12 – 3n = 5n + 20 – 3n
–12 = 2n + 20
–12 + –20 = 2n + 20 + –20
–32 = 2n
–16 = n

Bob’s Method
3(n – 4) = 5(n + 4)
3n – 12 = 5n + 20
3n – 12 + 5n + –5n = 5n + 20
3n – 12 – 5n = 20
–2n – 12 = 20
–2n – 12 = 20 + 12 + –12
–2n = 32
–2n ÷ 2 = 32 ÷ 2
–n = 16

–(–n ) = –16
n = –16

Patty’s Method
3(n – 4) = 5(n + 4)
3n – 12 = 5n + 20
3n – 12 + –3n + –20 = 5n + 20 + –3n + –20
–32 = 2n
1 ⁄ 2 (–32) = 1 ⁄ 2 (2n)

–16 = n

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 5 Extended Counting Piece Patterns

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Extended Counting Piece Patterns Lesson 5

Follow-up Student Activity 5.2

NAME DATE

Complete the problems on this Follow-up on separate paper.

Sequence A

Arrangement
number, n: –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3

... ...

Sequence B

Arrangement
number, n: –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3
... ...

1␣a) Sketch the Algebra Piece representations of the nth arrange-

ment of Sequence A and the nth arrangement of Sequence B.

b) Draw diagrams to show each step of Algebra Piece procedures for

finding the value of n for which Sequences A and B have the same
net value. Write brief comments, as needed, to help communicate
your methods.

c) Tell what equation you solved in b).

2␣ ␣ Sketch the –3rd through 3rd arrangements of a sequence of

counting piece arrangements with net value v(n) = 3n + 4. Then
show how to use Algebra Pieces to determine the value of n for
which v(n) = 190.

3␣ ␣ Draw diagrams to show how to use Algebra Pieces to solve, if

possible, the following equations. Write brief comments to explain
what you do in each step. If there is no solution, explain why. If
there is more than one solution, explain how many and why.

a) 7n + 2 = 8n – 4 d) –16 + 24n = 272

b) 4n2 + 3n – 5 = (2n + 1)2 + 8 e) 3 + n = –3 + n

c) 3(2n – 3) = 9n + 6 f) 7(n + 2) = 7n + 14

(Continued on back.)

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 5 Extended Counting Piece Patterns
Follow-up Student Activity (cont.)

4␣ ␣ For each of the following conditions, write an equation (not

already on this Follow-up) which meets the given conditions. Then
make a diagram or write a brief explanation to show why your equa-
tion satisfies the conditions.

a) This equation has exactly one solution and that solution is nega-
tive.

b) This equation has no solutions.

c) This equation has an infinite number of solutions.

5␣ ␣ Use Algebra Pieces to solve the equation 8n + 36 = 4(n + 1). Then:

a) using algebraic symbols only, record each step of your thought
processes and Algebra Piece methods;

b) write a brief explanation of the thoughts and actions represented

by each step you wrote in a).

6␣ ␣ Solve the equation 7(n + 3) = 5(n – 3) + 6 using whatever meth-

ods you choose. Explain or illustrate each step of your thought pro-
cesses and actions. Then tell how you can be sure that your solution
is correct.

7␣ ␣ Give one or more different equations (not already on this Follow-

up) for each of the following. Show or explain your methods of
solving each equation.

a) an algebra equation you think is most convenient to solve by

simply imagining the Algebra Pieces in your mind’s eye (i.e., with-
out building or sketching models or writing equations);

b) an algebra equation you think is most convenient to solve by

using algebraic symbols to represent the Algebra Pieces;

c) an algebraic equation that you can solve and you think is diffi-
cult.

8␣ ␣ Write several “tips” you recommend that others keep in mind

when solving equations or representing expressions with Algebra
Pieces.

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Fraction Concepts
Fraction Concepts Lesson 6 Lesson 6

.
.
.
.
THE BIG IDEA .. CONNECTOR
.
. OVERVIEW MATERIALS FOR TEACHER ACTIVITY
Modeling and compar- .
.
Students use diagrams and ✔ Connector Master A,
ing the four concepts of ..
. write situations to model 1 copy per group and
.
a fraction—part-to- . and explain the 4 different 1 transparency.
.
. concepts of a fraction and
whole, division, area, .
. to illustrate equivalent frac-
.
and ratio—foster in- . tions.
.
.
sights and facilitate .
.
.
problem solving. Un- .
.
derstanding these con- .. FOCUS
.
.
cepts of a fraction, . OVERVIEW MATERIALS FOR TEACHER ACTIVITY
.
. Students use line-dividing ✔ Focus Student Activities ✔ Straightedges, 1 per stu-
leads to the discovery .
. techniques to explore the 6.1-6.5, 1 copy of each dent.
of important properties .. division concept of a frac- per student and 1 trans-
. ✔ Butcher paper, 1 sheet
of numbers and equiva- .. tion and relate it to the part- parency of each. per group.
. to-whole concept. The area ✔ Focus Master A, 1 copy
. ✔ Marking pens for each
lent fractions and lays . concept of a fraction is used
. per student and 1 trans- group.
groundwork for the in- .. to establish several number parency.
. properties and procedures
. ✔ Focus Masters B and C,
vention of strategies . for obtaining equivalent
. 1 copy of each per group
. fractions.
for manipulating alge- . and 1 transparency of
.
. each.
braic expressions. .
.
.
.
.
. FOLLOW-UP
.
.
. OVERVIEW MATERIALS FOR STUDENT ACTIVITY
.
.
. Students explain the mean- ✔ Student Activity 6.6,
.
. ings of the part-to-whole, 1 copy per student.
.
. ratio, division, and area ✔ 1-cm grid paper, 1 per
.
. concepts of a fraction and student.
.
. subdivide regions to illus-
. ✔ Focus Master A, 1 per
. trate equivalent fractions
. student.
. and properties of fractions.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

Math Alive! Course III / 135

Lesson 6 Fraction Concepts

LESSON IDEAS TEACHER NOTES:

. .
. QUOTE . concrete basis for validating
. .
. In grades 5-8, computation . symbolic processes and
. .
. and estimation should be . situations, students should
. .
. integrated with the study . design their own algorithms
. .
. of the concepts underlying . and discuss, compare, and
. .
. fractions, decimals, inte- . evaluate these with their
. .
. gers, and rational num- . peers and teacher. Students
. .
. bers, as well as with the . should analyze the way the
. .
. continuing study of whole . various algorithms work
. .
. numbers. . and how they relate to the
. .
. …As they begin to under- . meaning of the operation
. .
. stand the meaning of op- . and to the numbers in-
. .
. erations and develop a . volved.
.
. NCTM Standards

SELECTED ANSWERS

2. Methods of obtaining pairs of equivalent fractions are Using area concept:

shown for each concept of a fraction. Doube area and Triple area and
length of rectangle length of rectangle
Using part-to-whole: 3
__ 6 = __
__ 3 9 = __
__ 3
5 10 5 15 5
Divide whole Divide each Divide each 5 3
into 3 equal parts part into 2 parts part into 3 parts 10 6
15 9

2
__ 2 = __
__ 4 2 = __
__ 6
3 3 6 3 9 6. One possible set of subdivisions.

Using division concept: A 17

__ B 17
__ D 34
__ = 17
__
12 24 24 12
Divide 3 area units Combine 2 copies of the 17 17
E __ G __
into 4 equal parts. 1st figure to produce 6 area 6 8
units with 8 equal parts. 34
__
C
One of these parts is 6 ÷ 8 = 6 ⁄ 8 . 12
1 1 34
__ = 17
__
F 6 3
3
__ 6
__
4 8

7. a) Divide 5 linear units into 3 equal parts.

3 = __
__ 6
4 8
Using ratio concept: 3
__
5

b) Divide the length of the rectangle, which is 4, into 7

equal parts.
1
__
Ratio of circles to Ratio of circles to Ratio of circles to 7
triangles is 2 ⁄ 3 triangles is 4 ⁄ 6 = 2⁄ 3 triangles is 6 ⁄ 9 = 2 ⁄ 3 4
1 area __
7

136 / Math Alive! Course III

Fraction Concepts Lesson 6

Connector Teacher Activity

OVERVIEW & PURPOSE MATERIALS
Students use diagrams and write situations to model and ✔ Connector Master A, 1 copy per group and 1 transpar-
explain the 4 different concepts of a fraction and to illustrate ency.
equivalent fractions.

ACTIONS COMMENTS

1␣ ␣ Arrange the students in groups. Write “5⁄8” on the 1␣ ␣ The part-to-whole, division, ratio, and area concepts of
overhead and ask the groups to discuss different ways of a fraction are illustrated below. Students were intro-
viewing the meaning of this symbol. Invite volunteers duced to these meanings of fractions in Math Alive!
to share their group’s ideas, illustrating with diagrams at Courses I and II.
the overhead. If students don’t bring up the part-to-
whole, division, ratio, and area concepts of a fraction, According to the part-to-whole concept the symbol 5⁄8
initiate such discussion. suggests “divide a unit into 8 equal parts, 5⁄8 unit is 5
of those parts,” i.e., 5⁄8 is 1⁄8 + 1⁄8 + 1⁄8 + 1⁄8 + 1⁄8, or 5
times 1⁄8 unit, or 5⁄8 of 1 unit. For example, one might
sketch a region with area 1 unit and subdivide it into
8 equal parts; 5⁄8 is the area of 5 of those parts, as
shown below.

Division Concept Part-to-whole Concept

5 1
1
5
__
5
__ 1 8
1 8

1
__
of 5 or
5
__
unit According to the division concept the symbol 5⁄8 sug-
8 8
gests “divide 5 units, collectively, into 8 equal parts, 5⁄8
is one of those parts,” i.e., 5⁄8 represents 5 ÷ 8 or 1⁄8 of
5. For example, one could sketch a rectangle with area
Ratio Concept 5, then divide that rectangle into 8 equal parts; each
part has area 5 ÷ 8 = 5⁄8 area unit.
5 white
8 black According to the ratio concept, a fraction is used to
compare one amount to another. For example, if the
5 white for every 8 black number of objects in one set is 5⁄8 the number of
The ratio of white to black is 5 to 8, or 5⁄8. objects in another set, one can say the ratio of the
numbers of objects in the sets is 5 to 8, or 5⁄8.

According to the area concept, the fraction 5⁄8 is one

Area Concept dimension of a rectangle with area 5 and other dimen-
5
sion 8.
__
8
Note that “five-eighths” frequently evokes a part-to-
8 5 whole image, particularly for students whose school
experiences with fractions have been limited primarily
to discussions and models involving the part-to-whole
concept. The Focus activity of this lesson emphasizes
understanding of the division and area concepts of a
fraction.

Math Alive! Course III / 137

Lesson 6 Fraction Concepts
Connector Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

2␣ ␣ Ask the groups to discuss their ideas about the mean- 2␣ ␣ Two fractions are equivalent if they represent equal
ing of equivalent fractions, and to demonstrate visually portions of the same unit. The process of forming
how fractions equivalent to 5⁄8 can be determined using equivalent fractions is illustrated below, for the part-to-
each of the following concepts of a fraction: part-to- whole, area, division, and ratio concepts of a fraction.
whole, area, division, and ratio. Invite volunteers to
illustrate their group’s ideas at the overhead.
Area Concept
5 10
__
8
= ___
16
Part-to-whole Concept
5
__
8
1 1 8

8 5 16 10
1 1
8
5
__ 10
__
8
= 16

Doubling the number of equal parts in the first Doubling the length of the first figure also
figure also doubles the number of shaded parts, doubles its area, but the top dimension is not
but does not change the amount shaded. changed. Therefore, 5 ÷ 8 = 5 ⁄ 8 = 10 ÷ 16 = 10 ⁄ 16.
Hence, 5 ⁄ 8 = 10 ⁄ 16.

Division Concept

1 1

5
__ 10
__
1 8 1 16

Area 5
1

Area 10
Combining 2 copies of the first figure produces a figure with area 10 and 16 equal parts.
Each equal part has area 10 ÷ 16 = 10 ⁄ 16 = 5 ⁄ 8 .

Ratio Concept
5 white 5 white
5 white
8 black 8 black
8 black

Doubling the number of white and black squares produces a second set with a ratio of
10 white to 16 black. But for every 5 white in the 2nd set, there are 8 black, so the ratio
5 ⁄ 8 = 10 ⁄ 16 .

138 / Math Alive! Course III

Fraction Concepts Lesson 6
Connector Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

3␣ ␣ Ask the groups to each write a situation in which one 3␣ ␣ Situations that students pose will vary, and students
might “think about” 3 ⁄ 4 using the part-to-whole concept. may find that some situations can be viewed according
Repeat for the ratio concept, the division concept, and to more than one interpretation of the meaning of a
the area concept. Invite volunteers to share their situa- fraction. Some possibilities for situations follow.
tions orally with their groupmates, who in turn, identify
the fraction concept illustrated. Discuss. Part to whole concept: in Rick’s Rug Store, 3 ⁄ 4 of the rugs
are machine made.

Ratio concept: the ratio of camcorders to still cameras in

Clyde’s Camera Shop is 3 ⁄ 4 .

Division concept: the 3-hour broadcast period was

divided into 4 equal parts so that each DJ broadcast for
3 ⁄ 4 hour.

Area concept: a rectangular brass sign with area 3 square

feet and length 4 feet has width 3⁄ 4 feet.

4␣ ␣ Give each group a copy of Connector Master A and 4␣ ␣ Groups may feel that more than one concept applies
ask them to indicate the fraction concept/concepts that to some situations. For example, for Situation 2, some
they use to think about each situation. Discuss. students may suggest the candy bars could be distrib-
uted by breaking the candy according to the part-to-
whole concept, i.e., by breaking each candy bar into 5
Fraction Concepts Lesson 6 equal parts and distributing 1 part from each candy bar
Connector Master A
to each girl; each girl receives a total of 3 of the 1 ⁄ 5 -bars.
Others may suggest using the division concept by lining
1. The county plans to evenly distribute 7 signs along up the bars end-to-end and dividing that length into 5
the 5 miles of highway construction. equal parts; each girl receives 1 part, or 1 ⁄ 5␣ ␣ of 3. Still
others may view the situation as the ratio 3 candy bars
2. Tia and 4 friends are going to the movies. They
for every 5 girls or 3 ⁄ 5 . In this case, they might use either
have 3 candy bars to share equally.
of the preceding methods as the basis for determining
3. The 4 members of the Wilkinson family plan to each girl’s share.
share a pizza equally.
One possible concept of a fraction follows for each of
4. The 32 members of Ms. Callahan’s class plan to
the remaining situations from Connector Master A:
share 8 pizzas equally.

5. On a 10 kilometer relay, the 3 members of the Run- 1) By the division concept, the 5 miles are divided into 7
abouts each ran an equal distance. equal parts of length 5 ⁄ 7 mile.

6. The 7 members of the Greenspace Garden Project

3) By the part-to-whole concept, the whole pizza is
each were allocated an equal portion of the garden.
divided into 4 equal parts, so that each family member
7. The Bergmans own a rectangular strip of land that receives 1 ⁄ 4 pizza.
runs 7 miles along the freeway. The area of the strip is
5 square miles. The Bergmans need to replace the 4) Using equivalent ratios, if there are 8 pizza for 32
fencing around the strip. people, then there is a ratio of 1 pizza for 4 people, and
1 ⁄ 4 pizza for 1 person.

5) Using the division concept, each member runs 10 ⁄ 3

kilometers.

(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 139

Lesson 6 Fraction Concepts
Connector Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

4 (continued.)
6) By using the part-to-whole concept and dividing the
garden into 7 equal parts, each person receives 1 ⁄ 7 of the
garden.

7) The area concept can be used to determine that the

missing dimension of the rectangle is 5 ⁄ 7 mile.

140 / Math Alive! Course III

Fraction Concepts Lesson 6

Focus Teacher Activity

OVERVIEW & PURPOSE MATERIALS
Students use line-dividing techniques to explore the division ✔ Focus Student Activities 6.1-6.5, 1 copy of each per
concept of a fraction and relate it to the part-to-whole con- student and 1 transparency of each.
cept. The area concept of a fraction is used to establish ✔ Focus Master A, 1 copy per student and 1 transpar-
several number properties and procedures for obtaining ency.
equivalent fractions.
✔ Focus Masters B and C, 1 copy of each per group and
1 transparency of each.
✔ Straightedges, 1 per student.
✔ Butcher paper, 1 sheet per group.
✔ Marking pens for each group.

ACTIONS COMMENTS

1␣ ␣ Arrange the students in groups. Draw a segment 1␣ ␣ To carry out the parallel line method of dividing the
with endpoints A and B on the overhead and, using a segment, place a transparency of Focus Master A be-
transparency of Focus Master A, demonstrate the neath the transparency which has the segment on it.
parallel line method of dividing AB into equal parts. For example, Figure 1 below shows AB divided into 2
equal parts. Figure 2 shows AB divided into 3 equal parts.

5
on
ss
Le
5
on
Less

s
on
cti
Fra
of
pt
rA
ce
ns

A B
on

A B
ctio

te
nC

as
f Fra

sM
isio
Div

cu
pt o

Fo
rA
once
ste
nC
Ma
isio
us
Div
Foc

Figure 1 Figure 2

2␣ ␣ Distribute a copy of Focus Student Activity 6.1 (see 2␣ ␣ This can be done by placing the parallel line sheet
next page) to each student. Have the students subdi- under the activity sheet and proceeding as shown in
vide the segments in Problem 1 as indicated. Discuss Comment 1.
their methods and observations.
(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 141

Lesson 6 Fraction Concepts
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

2 (continued.)
Fraction Concepts Lesson 6
Students’ observations may vary. For example, some
Focus Student Activity 6.1 may notice that congruent corresponding angles are
formed at the points where AB intersects the parallel
NAME DATE

lines. Others may notice the pairs of vertical angles

1␣ ␣ Use the parallel line sheet to divide each segment into the indi-
cated number of parts. formed at each point of intersection. Properties of paral-
lel lines are investigated in Lesson 10; explorations here
(5 parts) (3 parts)
may prompt insights later.
(8 parts) (7 parts)

2␣ ␣ Locate points to the right of T and to the left of S so that the

distance between adjacent points is the same as ST.

S T

3␣ ␣ If the distance from X to Y is 1 unit, what is the distance from X

to Z?

X Y Z

4␣ ␣ If the distance from A to B is 7 units, locate a point P which is 5

units from A.

A B

5␣ ␣ If MN is 3 units, find point Q so that MQ is 5 units.

M N

3␣ ␣ Give each student a straight edge. Draw the following 3␣ ␣ Students may enjoy demonstrating their methods at
diagram on the overhead and ask the students to each the overhead. Some may use 1 space for each interval.
use a straightedge to draw a similar diagram. Tell the
class that you want to mark points to the right of S so
n5
so
s
Le

that the distance between each pair of consecutive

points is equal to the length of RS. Ask them to deter-
mine how this can be done using equally spaced parallel
lines and without using their ruler to measure. Discuss
their ideas.

R S
s
on
cti

R S
Fra
of
pt
rA
ce
on

te
nC

as
sM
isio
Div

cu
Fo

142 / Math Alive! Course III

Fraction Concepts Lesson 6
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

Others may use 2 spaces for each interval.

5
Lesson

of Fractions
Concept
Division
ster A
Focus Ma

R S

4␣ ␣ Ask the students to use their parallel lines (and no 4␣ ␣ Students may find more than one way to solve these
rulers) to solve the remaining problems on Focus Stu- problems.
dent Activity 6.1. Discuss their results and methods.

5␣ ␣ Ask each student to draw 2 identical line segments 5␣ ␣ Actions 5-12 emphasize the division concept of a
that are about half the width of a sheet of paper, to fraction which, in addition to being useful to solve
suppose that each segment has length 6 units, and to numerical problems, is used extensively throughout the
label the endpoints of one segment A and B and the study of algebra. Using the division concept of a frac-
endpoints of the other C and D (see below). Ask the tion, the length of 1 part of AB is viewed as 6 ÷ 3, or 1⁄3 of
students to use parallel lines to divide AB into 3 equal 6, or 6⁄3.
parts and CD into 5 equal parts. Then have them deter- 6 units
mine the length of 1 part of AB and 1 part of CD. Dis- A B
cuss. If the division concept is not suggested by a stu-
dent, bring it up for discussion. 6
__ units
3

6 units Some students may report that the length of one part of
CD is 11 ⁄ 5 units, and others may suggest the equivalent,
A B 6 ⁄ 5 , based on the division concept. Notice that, when

interpreted as 1 ⁄ 5 of 6, or 6 ÷ 5, the symbol 6 ⁄ 5 conveys

the action of dividing 6 units into 5 equal parts.
6 units
6 units
C D
C D
6
__
5
units
You might point out that, in algebra, mixed numbers
are typically expressed as improper fractions.

Math Alive! Course III / 143

Lesson 6 Fraction Concepts
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

6␣ ␣ Distribute one copy of Focus Student Activity 6.2 to 6␣ ␣ You might encourage students to compare their
each student. Have the students complete Problem 1a)- results with their groupmates as they work. If a student
1d). Discuss. Then have them complete and discuss gets stumped by a problem, you might suggest they ask
Problem 2. the class for “clues.”

Lesson 6 Fraction Concepts 1a) 3 ⁄ 4 (i.e., 3 ÷ 4, or 1 ⁄ 4 of 3)

Focus Student Activity 6.2 1b) 4 ⁄ 3 (i.e., 4 ÷ 3, or 1⁄ 3 of 4)
1c) 5⁄ 2 (i.e., 5 ÷ 2, or 1 ⁄ 2 of 5)
NAME DATE 1d) 6 ÷ 7 (i.e., 6 ÷ 7, or 1 ⁄ 7 of 6)
1␣ ␣ Use the parallel line sheet to divide each segment into the indi- Length of
cated number of parts. Then write a fraction name for each part. One Part
2) To locate 3 ⁄ 5 on a segment with length 3 units, the
3 units a.
(4 parts) segment can be divided into 5 equal parts, using the
4 units b.
(3 parts) parallel lines.
5 units c.
(2 parts)
6 units
(7 parts)
d.
Note that the intent in this problem is to illustrate the
division concept rather than the part-to-whole concept.
2␣ ␣ Use the parallel lines to locate the indicated fraction on the given
number line.
Hence, the length of the unit has been chosen suffi-
ciently small so that the parallel lines and the part-to-
3 units Locate 3⁄ 5 .
whole concept cannot be used to obtain 1 ⁄ 5 unit, which
5 units Locate 5⁄ 2 .
could then be tripled to obtain 3 ⁄ 5 unit.
7 units Locate 7⁄ 10.

3␣ ␣ HI is 1 ⁄ 4 of a unit. Find point J so that HJ is 1 unit.

H I

4␣ ␣ UV is 3⁄ 5 of a unit. Find point M so that UM is 3 units.

U V

5␣ ␣ UV is 3 ⁄ 5 units. Find point W so that UW is 1 unit.

U V

7␣ ␣ Sketch the diagram shown in a) below on the over- 7␣ ␣ Here are examples of reasoning students have used:
head. Ask the groups to determine the length of AC.
Discuss their results and reasoning. Then repeat for b) a) Based on the division concept of a fraction, 2 ⁄ 3 represents
and c). 2 ÷ 3 or one-third of two. So, AC is three-thirds of 2 or,
simply, 2.
a) A B C
2
__
Since 2 ⁄ 3 is the length obtained when 2 units are divided into
3 3 equal parts, then 3 lengths of 2 ⁄ 3 must be 2 units.

Three groups of 2 ⁄ 3 are 2 ⁄ 3 + 2 ⁄ 3 + 2 ⁄ 3 = 6 ⁄ 3 = 2 units.

b) A B C
7
__ b) Since 7⁄ 3 is the length of 1 part when 7 units are divided
3 into 3 equal parts, then 3 lengths of 7 ⁄ 3 must be 7 units.

Since 7⁄ 3 is 1 ⁄ 3 of 7, then 3 of 7 ⁄ 3 is 3 ⁄ 3 of 7, or 7.
c) A B C
c) 5 lengths of 4 ⁄ 5 units is 4 units.
4
__
5

144 / Math Alive! Course III

Fraction Concepts Lesson 6
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

8␣ ␣ Sketch the following line segment on the overhead 8␣ ␣ Notice that EG is formed by 7 lengths of 3⁄ 7. Since 3⁄ 7
and ask the groups to copy the sketch. Ask the groups to results from dividing 3 into 7 equal parts, 7 lengths of 3 ⁄ 7
determine the length of EG and locate a point F so that is 3 units.
EF is 1 unit long. Invite volunteers to demonstrate their
methods and reasoning. To locate point F, EG must be divided into 3 equal parts,
which can be done by using the parallel lines on Focus
E G Master A.
3
__
7

9␣ ␣ Have the students determine methods of using the 9␣ ␣ Some students may reason according to the part-to-
parallel line sheet (Focus Master A) to complete Prob- whole concept, and hence, try to subdivide UV into 3
lems 3-5 on Focus Student Activity 6.2. Discuss. congruent parts to locate 1⁄ 5 unit, planning to locate 5⁄ 5
by using 5 groups of 1 ⁄ 5 . However, this is impossible
because of the distance between the parallel lines on
Focus Master A. If this comes up, you might assure the
students that it is possible to locate 3 units using the
given set of parallel lines (i.e., rather than using parallel
lines that are closer together to locate 1 ⁄ 5 ). To do this:
locate 3 units by marking off 5 lengths of 3 ⁄ 5 . Once the
students have found 3 units in Problem 4, this distance
can be divided into 3 equal parts to obtain 1 unit for
Problem 5.

Math Alive! Course III / 145

Lesson 6 Fraction Concepts
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

10␣ ␣ Give each student a copy of Focus Student Activity 10␣ ␣ This activity could be completed as homework.
6.3 to complete. Ask for volunteers to demonstrate their Prior to a class discussion of results, you might have the
methods and results for selected problems. students compare results with their groupmates and
identify problems for discussion by the class.

Fraction Concepts Lesson 6 Lesson 6 Fraction Concepts

Focus Student Activity 6.3 (cont.)
Focus Student Activity 6.3
8␣ ␣ If the length of AB is 3 units, find and label point D so that the
NAME DATE length of AD is 5 units.

1␣ ␣ If the length of AB is 1 ⁄ 7 of a unit, find and label point C so that

the length of AC is 1 unit. A B

9␣ ␣ Locate point C on the line above so that the length of AC is 5⁄ 2

A B units.

2␣ ␣ If the length of RS is 3 ⁄ 5 of a unit, find and label point T so that

the length of RT is 3 units. 10␣ ␣ The length of EF is 1⁄ 4 of a unit. Find and label point G so that
the length of EG is 1 unit.

R S
E F
3␣ ␣ Find and label point U on the line in Problem 2 so that RU is 1
unit in length. 11␣ ␣ If the length of AD is 4⁄ 3 units, locate and label point E so that
AE is 4 units in length.

4␣ ␣ If the length of WX is 1 unit, find and label point Y so that the

length of WY is 5 ⁄ 3 units. A D

12␣ ␣ If the length of NP is 5⁄ 4 units, find and label point Q so that

W X NQ is 1 unit in length.

5␣ ␣ If DH is 9 units in length, how long is DG? EG? FG?

N P

D E F G H 13␣ ␣ Locate and label point R on the line above so that the length of
NR is 4⁄ 3 units.
6␣ ␣ The length of PQ is 3 ⁄ 8 of a unit. How long is LU? LQ? PR?
14␣ ␣ Sketch an equilateral triangle, a rectangle, a regular hexagon,
L M N P Q R S T U and a rhombus. Label their areas 13, 23, 37, and 91 square units.
Subdivide each into 4 congruent subregions and label the area of
7␣ ␣ The length of AH is 3 units. How long is AB? DE? AC? DF? each subregion.

A B C D E F G H

(Continued on back.)

11␣ ␣ Give each group a copy of Focus Master B and ask 11␣ ␣ These thought starters could also be completed
them to complete thought starters a) and b). Discuss and independently by students in their journals and then
compare the groups’ responses. Repeat for one or more discussed. Note that some students may be challenged
of thought starters c)-e). by the general cases in c)-e); encouraging them to pro-
vide oral explanations based on several examples may be
helpful. Here are examples of visual procedures for a)-e):

3
__
5
a) Given:
1
5 × __ = 1 3 groups of 1 unit
5
1
1 __
1 __
1
(5 groups of __
5 )
__
5 5 5

3
Step 1: Divide __
5
Step 2: Form a length Step 3: Form a length
into 3 equal of 5 × __
1
5
=1 unit. of 3 × 1 = 3 units.
1
groups of __
5
unit.

146 / Math Alive! Course III

Fraction Concepts Lesson 6
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

Lesson 6 Fraction Concepts

Focus Master B

a) Given a length of 3⁄ 5, here is a method of forming a

length of 3, and this method relies on thinking about
3 ⁄ 5 as 3 ⁄ 5 of 1 unit (i.e., using the part-to-whole concept

of 3⁄ 5):

b) Given a length of 3⁄ 5, here is a method of forming a

length of 3, and this method relies on thinking about
3 ⁄ 5 as 1 ⁄ 5 of 3 or 3 ÷ 5 (i.e., according to the division

concept of 3 ⁄ 5):

c) Given a length a⁄ b, where a and b are positive inte-

gers, following is a set of instructions for forming the
length a, and this method relies on the part-to-whole
concept of a fraction:

d) Given a length a⁄ b, where a and b are positive inte-

gers, following is a set of instructions for forming the
length a, and this method relies on the division con-
cept of a fraction:

e) Given a length a⁄ b, where a and b are positive inte-

gers, here is a set of instructions for constructing the
length 1 unit, and this method does not require subdi-
viding the length a⁄ b into a equal parts.

3
__
5
b) Given:
3
5 × __ = 3 units
5
3
__
(5 groups of 5)
3
Form a length of 5 × __
5 = 3 units.

a
__
b
c) Given:
1
b× _ =1 a groups of 1 unit
b
… …
(b groups of
1
_
) …
1
_ 1
_ 1 1 1
_ 1
_ 1
_ 1
_ 1
_ 1 1 b
_ _ _ _ 1 1
b b b b b b bbb b b

a
Step 1: Divide __
b
Step 2: Form the length Step 3: Form the length
into a groups b × __
1
b
= 1 unit. a × 1 = a units.
of b1_ .

(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 147

Lesson 6 Fraction Concepts
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

a
__ 11 (continued.)
b
d) Given:

a
b × __ = a
b a
… (b groups of __
a
__ a
__ a
__ a
__ a
__ b)
b b b b b

Form the length b × a

__
b
= a units.

a
__
b
e) Given:
a
b × __ = a
b
… a
__
(b groups of b)
a
__ a
__ a
__ a
__ a
__ a
__
b b b b b b
Step 1: Form the length b × __
a
b
= a units.

a
… a
__
(a groups of a
)
a
__ a
__ a
__ a
__ a
__ a
__
a a a a a a
a
__
Step 2: Divide the length a into a equal parts of length a
= 1.

12␣ ␣ Give each student a copy of Focus Student Activity 12␣ ␣ These problems extend the division concept of a
6.4 to complete. Invite volunteers to show their results fraction from problems involving length to problems
and reasoning at the overhead on a transparency of the involving area. These ideas will be useful in Lesson 7
activity. when students compute with fractions and algebraic
fractions.

148 / Math Alive! Course III

Fraction Concepts Lesson 6
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

Fraction Concepts Lesson 6 Lesson 6 Fraction Concepts

Focus Student Activity 6.4 (cont.)
Focus Student Activity 6.4
6␣ ␣ The area of region B is 17⁄ 8. Find the area of region A.
NAME DATE

B
Complete the following. Use a straightedge, but no ruler. Express all 17
___
fractions in improper form. 8
A
1␣ ␣ Assuming the area of the rectangle shown below is 3⁄ 7 square
units, sketch a rectangle with area 3 units. 7␣ ␣ The shaded region has area 7x and length 13⁄ 4. Find the area,
length, and height of the large rectangle.
3
7 ? 7x
13
___
4
2␣ ␣ The area of the shaded region is x⁄ 4 square unit. What is the area
of the whole circle? 8␣ ␣ The area of the large outer rectangle is 7 and its length is 21. Find
the area and length of the shaded region.
x 21
4
7

3␣ ␣ The area of this field is 13 acres. What is the area of each part? 9␣ ␣ The area of the large outer rectangle below is 29. Find the area of
each subregion.

B
A
C I
J
D
3
5 K
4␣ ␣ 1
F
G
E M L
H P O
a) Shade a region with area 3 ⁄ 2 square units. N

b) Draw a bold line around a rectangle with area 6 square units. 10␣ ␣ The rectangle below has area X and length 2⁄ 3. Extend the right
edge of the rectangle to form a rectangle with length 2. Record its
area and mark the rectangle to show your methods.
A D
5␣ ␣ The area of this circle is X square units.
Find the area of each region. X
B
E
C 2
__
(Continued on back.) 3

Answers are as follows:

2) x square units

3) 13⁄6 acres

5) A) x⁄ 4
B) x ⁄ 12
C) x⁄6
D) 1 ⁄ 8 of x, or x ⁄ 8
E) 3 ⁄ 8 of x, or (1 ⁄ 8 of x) × 3, or x ⁄ 8 × 3, or 3x⁄ 8 units

6) One line of reasoning is illustrated here:

17
___ 17
___
B 8 8

17 17
___ 17
___ 17
___ 17
___
___
8 8 8 8 8
17
___ 17
___
A 8 8

17
17
A = ___
6

(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 149

Lesson 6 Fraction Concepts
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

12 (continued.)
7) Area, 28x square units; length, 13 linear units; height,
28x ⁄ 13 linear units.

8) Area, 7 ⁄ 5 square units; length, 21 ⁄ 5 linear units

9) For example, the large outer rectangle can be subdi-

vided into 12 regions congruent to A; hence, based on
the division concept of a fraction, the area of region A is
29 ⁄ 12 . Students may use other strategies, and hence, give

fractions that are equivalent to those listed below. You

might suggest that students not “simplify” fractions but,
rather, express them according to how they “see” the
area of each region.

B, 29 ⁄ 16 ; C, 29 ⁄ 48; D, 29⁄ 12 ; E, 29 ⁄ 8 ; F, 29 ⁄ 16 ; G, 29 ⁄ 64 ; H, 87 ⁄ 64
(3 of 29 ⁄ 64 ) ; I, 29 ⁄ 4 ; J, 29 ⁄ 16; K, 29⁄ 24 ; L, 29 ⁄ 48 ; M, 29⁄ 48 ;
N, 29 ⁄ 48 ; O, 29 ⁄ 48 ; P, 29⁄ 16 .

10)␣ ␣ Area, 3X.

13␣ ␣ Sketch the following diagram on the overhead and 13␣ ␣ Based on the area model for multiplication, the
ask the groups to each write several mathematical equa- product of the dimensions of a rectangle equals the area
tions that represent relationships in the diagram, includ- of the rectangle. This shows that a × b = b × a , an illus-
ing some equations involving fractions. Discuss. tration of the commutative property for multiplication.

b Based on the area model for division, and the area

concept of a fraction, since the area of the rectangle is ab
and one dimension is a then the other dimension is
a ab ab ÷ a, or ab ab
a . But since the other dimension is b, a = b.
Similarly, ab = a.
b
for a, b ≠ 0 ab
__
a
=b

ab
__ =a ab
b

for a, b ≠ 0

Some students may ask why a and b are restricted to

nonzero values. Notice that Action 14 addresses this
issue.

150 / Math Alive! Course III

Fraction Concepts Lesson 6
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

14␣ ␣ Write i)-iii), as shown below, on the overhead and 14␣ ␣ Note that b and c are restricted to nonzero values to
ask the groups to determine, if possible, the value of x in avoid redundancy in the three problems. The following
each equation, assuming neither b nor c are equal to 0. solutions for i)-iii) are based on the area models for
Ask them to show visually why their answers are correct. multiplication and division, and the area concept of a
Invite volunteers to share their group’s results. Then fraction. Students may offer other visual arguments that
have the class work together to write summary state- are based on the grouping and sharing methods of
ments regarding multiplication and division properties of division.
zero.
i) Based on the area model for division and the division
i) 0⁄ b =x concept of a fraction, 0 ⁄ b = x can be represented using a
rectangle with area 0 and dimensions b by 0⁄ b = x, as
ii) 0⁄ 0 =x shown below. Since 0 × b = 0, then it must be that x = 0 ⁄ b
= 0.
iii) c ⁄ 0 = x 0
__ =x 0
b

b 0 b 0
and So, 0 ⁄ b = 0

0
__
0
=x
ii) The fraction 0⁄0 represents one dimension of a rect-
angle with area 0 and other dimension 0, as shown at
0 0 the left.

Since x × 0 = 0 for all possible values of x (i.e., for all real

numbers), there are an infinite number of possibilities
for x = 0 ⁄ 0 , and so 0 ⁄ 0 is not defined.
c
__
0
=x iii) The fraction c ⁄ 0 represents one dimension of a rect-
angle with area c and other dimension 0, as shown at
the left.
0 c
There are no possible values of x for which x × 0 = c,
where c is a nonzero number. Hence, division by 0 is not
possible, and no fraction exists whose denominator is
zero. Therefore, it is necessary to place restrictions on a
fraction to assure that the denominator is never 0. For
example, for a fraction a ⁄ b, a can be any value, and b can
be any nonzero value.

Having the students verbalize summary statements helps

them to clarify and strengthen their understanding of
the properties of zero.

Math Alive! Course III / 151

Lesson 6 Fraction Concepts
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

15␣ ␣ Give each group a copy of Focus Master C. Ask the 15␣ ␣ Keep emphasis here on relationships students can
groups to complete i) and ii) for diagrams a) and b) only. “see” or glean from the diagrams, based on the area
Discuss. Have the class reach agreement on summary models for division and multiplication and the division
statements involving the multiplication and division concept of a fraction. To reinforce the division concept
properties of 1, the multiplicative identity, and multiplica- of a fraction, you might encourage students to write all
tive inverses. Use this as a context for discussing the term division statements as fractions.
reciprocal.
As students share their examples, to prompt generaliza-
tions, you might ask them to determine whether there
Fraction Concepts Lesson 6
Focus Master C
are any values of x for which their equations are not
true.
For each of the following diagrams:
a) Here are several equations that students may suggest
i) Label dimensions and areas not shown in the diagrams. Then write
several equations that represent mathematical relationships in the dia-
for this diagram:
gram. Be sure to include some equations that involve fractions.
x
__
ii) For each equation in i), give 2 different examples involving specific 1
=x
numbers in place of the variables. Relate each example to the diagram.
If there are specific values that are not possible for some variables, list
x÷1= x
__
1
=x
those values and tell why they are not possible. x
__
1 x 1 •1=x
Diagrams are not necessarily to scale.
x•1=x
a) b)
1 x x
1•x=x
1
x÷x= x
__
x
=1
c) t d)
t r r2 Since for all numbers x, x × 1 = 1 × x = x, 1 is called the
multiplicative identity.
nb
e) Asking students to create examples that illustrate their
b b b b
…
(n groups
statements involving variables builds understanding for
a of b)
…
the meaning of a variable and may prompt additional
generalizations.
f) g) ab

a
__
b
a a b)␣ Several possible equations associated with diagram b)
from Focus Master C are shown at the left. In this case, x
cannot be equal to 0 (see Comment 14 iii)). The values x
and 1 ⁄ x are called multiplicative inverses of each other
since, for all nonzero values of x, x × 1 ⁄ x = 1. For example,
since a rectangle with dimensions 2 by 1 ⁄ 2 has area 2 × 1 ⁄ 2
= 1, 2 and 1 ⁄ 2 are multiplicative inverses of each other.
1
__ The numbers x and 1 ⁄ x , for all nonzero values of x, are
x
1÷x= 1
__ also called reciprocals of each other. The product of a
x number and its reciprocal is always 1.
1
__
x 1 x
•x=1
1 Questions regarding reciprocals of numbers such as 3 ⁄ 4
x • __
x
=1
may arise. If so, note that multiplication and division of
1•x=x fractions are explored in Lesson 7. You may want to
1 ÷ __
1
= 1
__ =x delay discussion until then, or read that lesson for dis-
x 1
⁄x cussion ideas now.

152 / Math Alive! Course III

Fraction Concepts Lesson 6
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

16␣ ␣ Have the students complete i) and ii) for diagrams 16␣ ␣ The intent here is for students to apply the division
c)-g) on Focus Master C. Discuss their results. Encourage concept and make conjectures and generalizations based
all attempts to generalize. on the results. Remind students that some conjectures
may not be resolved until later in this lesson or until
explorations in Lesson 7. It is helpful to resist affirming
or correcting conjectures for them.

␣ c) To avoid a situation such as described in Comment

14 ii), t cannot equal 0. Several equations based on
diagram c) are shown here:

t
t
__
t
=1
t
__ t
__
t
t t• t =t
t•1=t
t÷ t
__ = t
__ =t
t t
⁄t

d) Since the area is r 2 and one dimension is r, then the

other dimension is r and the diagram must be a square.
r
r2 ÷ r = r2
__
r
=r Some students may bring up the fact that the length of
the edge of a square of area r 2 is √r 2; hence, another
r r2 r • r = r2 equation for diagram d) is √r 2 = r. See Lesson 28 of Math
Alive! Course II and Lesson 9 of this course for additional
discussion ideas.

e) Here are some equations that diagram e) may prompt:

nb
a(nb) = n(ab) b b b b (n groups of b)
…
n(ab)
_____
a = nb n(ab)
a
n(ab)
_____
nb =a …
n(ab) = a(b + b + b + … + b) = ab + ab + ab + … + ab

n times n times In Lesson 20 of Math Alive! Course II, students explored

“maneuvers” on rectangles that lead to strategies for
computing sums and differences of fractions. In Lesson
7 of this course, such maneuvers are also used to find
products and quotients of fractions. One useful maneu-
ver is illustrated by diagram e) on Focus Master C—
expanding one dimension of a rectangle by a factor of n
increases the area by a factor of n, and vice versa. Note
that this idea is utilized in f) below, and in Action 17 of
this activity.

(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 153

Lesson 6 Fraction Concepts
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

16 (continued.)
f) Shown below are some equations that represent
relationships in diagram f) from Focus Master C.

b
a
__
b• b =a
a
__ a a
__
b b •b=a
a
a÷ a
__ ___
b = a⁄ b = b
a÷b= a
__
b

Note that some students may apply the “rectangle

maneuver” that was described in e) above to this rect-
angle. Since b groups of length a⁄b form the total length
a, as established in Action 11, and since b groups of area
a produce area ba, then aa = ab a
= b, as illustrated below.
b

b
ab
__
a =b
a
__ a
__
b b •b =a
a
___
a
⁄b
=b
a
__ a
___
a = ab
__
b ⁄b a

a
__
ab …
a
__
b groups b (b groups b •b=a
a
__
of length b
of area a)
…
…

a
__
b

g) Following are some equations that diagram g) from

Focus Master C may prompt. Note that students may
give other equations, based on properties established on
previous diagrams.

ab
a
__
ab • ab =a
a
__ a a
___
ab a
⁄ab
= ab

154 / Math Alive! Course III

Fraction Concepts Lesson 6
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

17␣ ␣ Place a transparency of Focus Student Activity 6.5 17␣ ␣ The methods utilized here are based on those
on the overhead. Point out that the bold Rectangle A explored in Lesson 20 of Math Alive! Course II for creat-
has area 6 and side dimension 12. Hence, its top dimen- ing equal quotients.
sion is 6⁄12. Ask for volunteers to subdivide the large
rectangle below Rectangle A to form several rectangles In Figure 1 below, the side dimension and area of Rect-
that are not congruent to Rectangle A but with top angle A have been doubled to form a rectangle with area
dimension equivalent to 6⁄12. Ask them to label the area 12, side dimension 24, and top dimension 6 ⁄ 12 = 12⁄ 24 .
and dimensions of these rectangles. Discuss the equiva-
lent fractions illustrated. In Figure 2, the area and side dimension of Rectangle A
have been divided by 2, forming a new rectangle with
area 3, side dimension 6, and top dimension 3 ⁄ 6 .
Fraction Concepts Lesson 6

Focus Student Activity 6.5 In Figure 3, a new rectangle has been formed with area
6
__
and side dimension that are 1 ⁄ 3 of the area and side
=? ? ? ? ?
A
12
B C D E dimension of Rectangle A. The top dimension does not
12 6 20 15 16 12 80 20 d a change.

Since the top dimension of all the rectangles formed are

the same, the fractions that represent the top dimen-
sions are equivalent. Thus, Figures 1, 2, and 3 below show
3 fractions that are equivalent to 6 ⁄ 12 : 12 ⁄ 24 , 3⁄ 6 , and 2 ⁄ 4 .

6
__ 12
__ 6
__ 3
__ 6
__ 2
__
12 = 24 12 = 6 12 = 4

A A A

12 6 12 6 12 6

4 2
6 3

Equivalent fractions:
24 12

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Math Alive! Course III / 37

1st DRAFT

Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3

Students may also notice that combinations of rect-

angles can be used. For example, combining the two
rectangles of areas 6 and 12 in Figure 1 produces a rect-
angle of area 18 with side dimension 36 and top dimen-
sion 18 ⁄ 36 = 6⁄ 12 = 12 ⁄ 24.

Math Alive! Course III / 155

Lesson 6 Fraction Concepts
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

18␣ ␣ Distribute one copy of Focus Student Activity 6.5 to 15

__ 7 ⁄21
18␣ ␣ The rectangles that students form
20
= ____
10
each student and ask them to repeat Action 17 for Rect- may vary, producing a variety of
angle B to determine fractions that are equivalent to equivalent fractions. Some students B
15 ⁄ 20. Discuss their results, observations, and conjectures. may form complex fractions, i.e., frac-
Then repeat for rectangles C and D. Use this as a context tions whose numerator and/or de- 20 15
for discussing the meaning of simplifying fractions. nominator contain fractions. For
example, cutting the area and side
dimension of Rectangle B into 2 con- 1
gruent parts produces a rectangle with 10 7__
2
area 71⁄2, side dimension 10, and top
1
dimension 7 2 = 15 ⁄ 20.
10

A fraction representing the top dimension of a rectangle

is in simplest form when there is no rectangle possible
with a smaller whole number area and whole number
side dimension. That is, the numerator and denomina-
tor of the fraction cannot both be divided evenly by a
number other than 1 (the numerator and denominator
are relatively prime).

19␣ ␣ Repeat Action 17 for Rectangle E. Discuss the stu- 19␣ ␣ One important observation is that multiplying or
dents’ conjectures and generalizations. dividing the numerator (the area) and the denominator
(the side dimension) by the same number produces an
equivalent fraction, since the top dimension is not
altered. For example, Figures 4 and 5 below illustrate
why, for d ≠ 0, a⁄d = 2a⁄2d = 3 .
a

d
3

a 2a a a⁄ 3
__ = ___ __ = ___
d 2d d d⁄ 3

E E

d a d a

d
__ a
__
3 3

2d 2a

Figure 4 Figure 5

156 / Math Alive! Course III

Fraction Concepts Lesson 6
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

20␣ ␣ Mention to the class that several important math- 20␣ ␣ The intent here is to provide another opportunity
ematical properties have been established during this for students to identify their questions, clarify their
lesson. Ask the class to reach consensus on a plan for thinking, and build comfort and facility with “thinking”
writing and displaying a summary of some of these according to the area and division concepts of a fraction
properties, including diagrams supported by equations and the area methods of multiplication and division. It
and verbal statements. This summary will be used for is not expected that students memorize lists of proper-
ongoing reference by the class. Carry out the class plan. ties; rather these properties will become familiar through
use during subsequent lessons. Students frequently
“reinvent” and “regeneralize” some relationships several
times before those relationships become integrated into
the students’ natural way of thinking.

There are several ways this action could be carried out.

For example, each group could make a set of mini-
posters illustrating several important properties and
ideas. The class could vote on those to leave on display,
based on their clarity and depth. Since the posters will
be used for ongoing reference, completed posters should
be reviewed by the class and adapted as needed. If you
teach several classes of students, each class’s posters
could be concealed from other classes until all have
completed the activity. Comparing results from class to
class may prompt new discussions. The classes could
choose a single set of posters to leave on display.

If students are keeping journals, you might ask them to

make an extended entry that emphasizes generalizations
based on the area model for multiplication and division,
and the area and division concepts of a fraction.

Math Alive! Course III / 157

Lesson 6 Fraction Concepts

TEACHER NOTES:

158 / Math Alive! Course III

Fraction Concepts Lesson 6

Follow-up Student Activity 6.6

NAME DATE

Write all of your responses on other sheets of paper. Be sure to write

the problem next to your response.

1␣ ␣ For each of these concepts of a fraction—part-to-whole, ratio, divi-

sion, and area—do the following:

a) explain the meaning of a fraction a ⁄ b when it is viewed according

to that concept;

b) write a situation in which you “think” according to that mean-

ing, and make a sketch that illustrates your thinking.

2␣ ␣ Explain the meaning of equivalent fractions. Show how to use

each of the 4 concepts of a fraction to determine 3 pairs of equiva-
lent fractions.

3␣ ␣ For each of the 4 concepts of a fraction, show how to determine

an infinite set of fractions that are equivalent to a ⁄ b , for a and b not
equal to zero.

4␣ ␣ Suppose a ≠ 0. Demonstrate why:

a) 0⁄ a =0

b) 0⁄ 0 is undefined

c) a⁄0 is not possible

d) 1 is the multiplicative identity; 1 is the division identity; 0 is the

additive identity; and 0 is the subtractive identity.

5␣ ␣ Suppose a and b are whole numbers not equal to zero. Create at

least 6 “visual proofs” of mathematical relationships that you can
show on rectangles whose dimensions and areas are a, b, 1, or frac-
tions whose numerators and/or denominators are a, b, or 1.

(Continued on back.)
Math Alive! Course III / 159
Lesson 6 Fraction Concepts
Follow-up Student Activity (cont.)

6␣ ␣ On the attached sheet of 1-cm grid paper, outline a rectangle

that is 18 cm × 12 cm. Suppose it has area 17 square units for a cer-
tain area unit. Subdivide the rectangle to form rectangular subre-
gions with the following areas and with no overlaps. Label the area
of each subregion.

Region A, 17⁄ 12 square units.

Region B, 17 ⁄ 24 square units
Region C, 34 ⁄ 12 square units
Region D, 34⁄ 24 square units
Region E, 17 ⁄ 6 square units
Region F, 34 ⁄ 6 square units
Region G, 17 ⁄ 8 square units

7␣ ␣ Use the parallel line sheet to mark off lengths or areas for the
given fractions. Explain your reasoning.
5 linear units
a) Show length 3⁄5.

b)
4 area units Show area 4⁄ 7.

8␣ ␣ Use the parallel line sheet to locate and label points satisfying
the given conditions. Mark the diagram to show your methods.

a) AB is 2 ⁄ 3 units. Locate point C so that AC is 4 units.

A B

b) DE is 4⁄ 5 units. Locate point F so that DF is 3 units.

D E

c) GH is 3 units. Locate point K so that GK is 23⁄ 5 units.

G H

160 / Math Alive! Course III

Fraction Concepts Lesson 6
Connector Master A

1. The county plans to evenly distribute 7 signs along

the 5 miles of highway construction.

2. Tia and 4 friends are going to the movies. They

have 3 candy bars to share equally.

3. The 4 members of the Wilkinson family plan to

share a pizza equally.

4. The 32 members of Ms. Callahan’s class plan to

share 8 pizzas equally.

5. On a 10 kilometer relay, the 3 members of the Run-

abouts each ran an equal distance.

6. The 7 members of the Greenspace Garden Project

each were allocated an equal portion of the garden.

7. The Bergmans own a rectangular strip of land that

runs 7 miles along the freeway. The area of the strip is
5 square miles. The Bergmans need to replace the
fencing around the strip.

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 6 Fraction Concepts

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Fraction Concepts Lesson 6
Focus Master A

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 6 Fraction Concepts
Focus Master B

a) Given a length of 3⁄ 5, here is a method of forming a

length of 3, and this method relies on thinking about
3 ⁄ 5 as 3 ⁄ 5 of 1 unit (i.e., using the part-to-whole concept

of 3⁄ 5):

b) Given a length of 3⁄ 5, here is a method of forming a

length of 3, and this method relies on thinking about
3 ⁄ 5 as 1 ⁄ 5 of 3 or 3 ÷ 5 (i.e., according to the division

concept of 3 ⁄ 5):

c) Given a length a⁄ b, where a and b are positive inte-

gers, following is a set of instructions for forming the
length a, and this method relies on the part-to-whole
concept of a fraction:

d) Given a length a⁄ b, where a and b are positive inte-

gers, following is a set of instructions for forming the
length a, and this method relies on the division con-
cept of a fraction:

e) Given a length a⁄ b, where a and b are positive inte-

gers, here is a set of instructions for constructing the
length 1 unit, and this method does not require subdi-
viding the length a⁄ b into a equal parts.

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Fraction Concepts Lesson 6
Focus Master C

For each of the following diagrams:

i) Label dimensions and areas not shown in the diagrams. Then write
several equations that represent mathematical relationships in the dia-
gram. Be sure to include some equations that involve fractions.

ii) For each equation in i), give 2 different examples involving specific
numbers in place of the variables. Relate each example to the diagram.
If there are specific values that are not possible for some variables, list
those values and tell why they are not possible.

Diagrams are not necessarily to scale.

a) b)
1 x x 1

c) t d)
t r r2

nb
e)
b b b b
…
(n groups
a of b)
…

f) g) ab

a
__
b
a a

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 6 Fraction Concepts

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Fraction Concepts Lesson 6

Focus Student Activity 6.1

NAME DATE

1␣␣Use the parallel line sheet to divide each segment into the indi-
cated number of parts.

(5 parts) (3 parts)

(8 parts) (7 parts)

2␣␣Locate points to the right of T and to the left of S so that the

distance between adjacent points is the same as ST.

S T

3␣␣If the distance from X to Y is 1 unit, what is the distance from X

to Z?

X Y Z

4␣␣If the distance from A to B is 7 units, locate a point P which is 5

units from A.

A B

5␣␣If MN is 3 units, find point Q so that MQ is 5 units.

M N

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 6 Fraction Concepts

Focus Student Activity 6.2

NAME DATE

1␣␣Use the parallel line sheet to divide each segment into the indi- Length of
cated number of parts. Then write a fraction name for each part. One Part

3 units a.
(4 parts)
4 units b.
(3 parts)
5 units c.
(2 parts)
6 units d.
(7 parts)

2␣␣Use the parallel lines to locate the indicated fraction on the given
number line.

3 units Locate 3⁄ 5 .

5 units Locate 5⁄ 2 .

7 units Locate 7⁄ 10.

3␣␣HI is 1 ⁄ 4 of a unit. Find point J so that HJ is 1 unit.

H I

4␣␣UV is 3⁄ 5 of a unit. Find point M so that UM is 3 units.

U V

5␣␣UV is 3 ⁄ 5 units. Find point W so that UW is 1 unit.

U V

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Fraction Concepts Lesson 6

Focus Student Activity 6.3

NAME DATE

1␣␣If the length of AB is 1 ⁄ 7 of a unit, find and label point C so that

the length of AC is 1 unit.

A B

2␣␣If the length of RS is 3 ⁄ 5 of a unit, find and label point T so that

the length of RT is 3 units.

R S

3␣␣Find and label point U on the line in Problem 2 so that RU is 1

unit in length.

4␣␣If the length of WX is 1 unit, find and label point Y so that the
length of WY is 5 ⁄ 3 units.

W X

5␣␣If DH is 9 units in length, how long is DG? EG? FG?

D E F G H

6␣␣The length of PQ is 3 ⁄ 8 of a unit. How long is LU? LQ? PR?

L M N P Q R S T U

7␣␣The length of AH is 3 units. How long is AB? DE? AC? DF?

A B C D E F G H

(Continued on back.)

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 6 Fraction Concepts
Focus Student Activity 6.3 (cont.)

8␣␣If the length of AB is 3 units, find and label point D so that the
length of AD is 5 units.

A B

9␣␣Locate point C on the line above so that the length of AC is 5⁄ 2

units.

10␣␣The length of EF is 1⁄ 4 of a unit. Find and label point G so that

the length of EG is 1 unit.

E F

11␣␣If the length of AD is 4⁄ 3 units, locate and label point E so that

AE is 4 units in length.

A D

12␣␣If the length of NP is 5⁄ 4 units, find and label point Q so that

NQ is 1 unit in length.

N P

13␣␣Locate and label point R on the line above so that the length of
NR is 4⁄ 3 units.

14␣␣Sketch an equilateral triangle, a rectangle, a regular hexagon,

and a rhombus. Label their areas 13, 23, 37, and 91 square units.
Subdivide each into 4 congruent subregions and label the area of
each subregion.

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Fraction Concepts Lesson 6

Focus Student Activity 6.4

NAME DATE

Complete the following. Use a straightedge, but no ruler. Express all

fractions in improper form.

1␣␣Assuming the area of the rectangle shown below is 3⁄ 7 square

units, sketch a rectangle with area 3 units.

3
7

2␣␣The area of the shaded region is x⁄ 4 square unit. What is the area
of the whole circle?

x
4

3␣␣The area of this field is 13 acres. What is the area of each part?

3
5
4␣␣ 1

a) Shade a region with area 3 ⁄ 2 square units.

b) Draw a bold line around a rectangle with area 6 square units.

A D
5␣␣The area of this circle is X square units.
Find the area of each region.
B
E
C
(Continued on back.)

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 6 Fraction Concepts
Focus Student Activity 6.4 (cont.)

6␣␣The area of region B is 17⁄ 8. Find the area of region A.

B
17
___
8
A

7␣␣The shaded region has area 7x and length 13⁄ 4. Find the area,
length, and height of the large rectangle.

? 7x
13
___
4

8␣␣The area of the large outer rectangle is 7 and its length is 21. Find
the area and length of the shaded region.

21

9␣␣The area of the large outer rectangle below is 29. Find the area of
each subregion.

B
A
C I
J
D

K
F
G
E M L
H P O
N

10␣␣The rectangle below has area X and length 2⁄ 3. Extend the right
edge of the rectangle to form a rectangle with length 2. Record its
area and mark the rectangle to show your methods.

2
__
3

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Fraction Concepts Lesson 6

Focus Student Activity 6.5

6
__
12 =? ? ? ? ?
A B C D E

12 6 20 15 16 12 80 20 d a

Equivalent fractions:

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 6 Fraction Concepts

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Fraction Concepts Lesson 6

Follow-up Student Activity 6.6

NAME DATE

Write all of your responses on other sheets of paper. Be sure to write

the problem next to your response.

1␣␣For each of these concepts of a fraction—part-to-whole, ratio, divi-

sion, and area—do the following:

a) explain the meaning of a fraction a ⁄ b when it is viewed according

to that concept;

b) write a situation in which you “think” according to that mean-

ing, and make a sketch that illustrates your thinking.

2␣␣Explain the meaning of equivalent fractions. Show how to use

each of the 4 concepts of a fraction to determine 3 pairs of equiva-
lent fractions.

3␣␣For each of the 4 concepts of a fraction, show how to determine

an infinite set of fractions that are equivalent to a ⁄ b , for a and b not
equal to zero.

4␣␣Suppose a ≠ 0. Demonstrate why:

a) 0⁄ a =0

b) 0⁄ 0 is undefined

c) a⁄0 is not possible

d) 1 is the multiplicative identity; 1 is the division identity; 0 is the

additive identity; and 0 is the subtractive identity.

5␣␣Suppose a and b are whole numbers not equal to zero. Create at

least 6 “visual proofs” of mathematical relationships that you can
show on rectangles whose dimensions and areas are a, b, 1, or frac-
tions whose numerators and/or denominators are a, b, or 1.

(Continued on back.)

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 6 Fraction Concepts
Follow-up Student Activity (cont.)

6␣␣On the attached sheet of 1-cm grid paper, outline a rectangle

that is 18 cm × 12 cm. Suppose it has area 17 square units for a cer-
tain area unit. Subdivide the rectangle to form rectangular subre-
gions with the following areas and with no overlaps. Label the area
of each subregion.

Region A, 17⁄ 12 square units.

Region B, 17 ⁄ 24 square units
Region C, 34 ⁄ 12 square units
Region D, 34⁄ 24 square units
Region E, 17 ⁄ 6 square units
Region F, 34 ⁄ 6 square units
Region G, 17 ⁄ 8 square units

7␣␣Use the parallel line sheet to mark off lengths or areas for the
given fractions. Explain your reasoning.
5 linear units
a) Show length 3⁄5.

b)
4 area units Show area 4⁄ 7.

8␣␣Use the parallel line sheet to locate and label points satisfying
the given conditions. Mark the diagram to show your methods.

a) AB is 2 ⁄ 3 units. Locate point C so that AC is 4 units.

A B

b) DE is 4⁄ 5 units. Locate point F so that DF is 3 units.

D E

c) GH is 3 units. Locate point K so that GK is 23⁄ 5 units.

G H

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Properties, Operations, and Algorithms
Properties, Operations & Algorithms Lesson 7 Lesson 7

.
.
.
.
THE BIG IDEA .. CONNECTOR
.
. OVERVIEW MATERIALS FOR TEACHER ACTIVITY
Opportunities to invent .
.
Students sketch diagrams ✔ Connector Master A,
algorithms for calculat- ..
. to illustrate the meanings of 1 transparency.
.
ing with whole num- . the 4 basic operations, ✔ Counting pieces and 1 ⁄ 4 "
.
whole numbers, decimals,
bers, fractions, decimals, .. grid paper (optional), as
. fractions, integers, and per- needed by groups.
percentages, and alge- .. cents. They discuss the
.
. meaning of the term algo-
braic expressions .
. rithm.
.
strengthen students’ .
.
.
number sense and .
.
.
computational facility . FOCUS
.
while building concep- ..
. OVERVIEW MATERIALS FOR TEACHER ACTIVITY
.
tual understanding. . Students create visual ✔ Focus Master A, 1 copy ✔ Percent grids (see Black-
.
. proofs for several math- per student and 1 trans- line Masters), 1 copy per
Models that represent .
. ematical properties. They parency. student and 1 transpar-
the meanings of the op- .. invent algorithms and ex- ency.
. ✔ Focus Masters B and C,
erations provide a basis .. amine algorithms invented 1 copy of each per group ✔ Blank note cards, 12 per
. by others for computing and 1 transparency of group.
for “seeing” and prov- .. with fractions, decimals, each.
. ✔ Butcher paper, 1 sheet
. whole numbers, integers,
ing important math- . ✔ Focus Masters D and E, per group.
. percents, and algebraic ex-
. 1 transparency of each. ✔ Marking pens, scissors,
ematical properties. . pressions. Given various
. ✔ Focus Student Activity and tape for each group.
. conditions for numbers and
. 7.1, 1 copy per student
. operations, students create ✔ Calculators, 1 per stu-
. and 1 transparency.
. word problems involving dent.
.
. everyday situations.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
. FOLLOW-UP
.
.
. OVERVIEW MATERIALS FOR STUDENT ACTIVITY
.
.
. Students create visual ✔ Student Activity 7.2,
.
. proofs for several math- 1 copy per student.
.
. ematical properties, and
.
. they show visual and sym-
.
. bolic strategies for solving
.
. several computations.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

Math Alive! Course III / 161

Lesson 7 Properties, Operations, and Algorithms

LESSON IDEAS
.
MATH ALIVE! GOALS ASSESSMENT . QUOTE .
. . tions. Other components
Throughout this course, an To prompt extended re- . Understanding the funda- .
. . include building an aware-
important goal is to have sponses for Problems 7 and . mental operations of addi- .
. . ness of models and the
students work back and 8 on the Follow-up, you . tion, subtraction, multipli- .
. . properties of an operation,
forth between visual and might create, or have the . cation, and division is .
. . seeing relationships
symbolic representations. students create, specific . central to knowing math- .
. . among operations, and
Hence, it is intended that criteria regarding their . ematics. One essential .
. . acquiring insight into the
seeing symbols will trigger work. Students’ work on . component of what it .
. . effects of an operation on
images that enable student Problems 7 and 8 could be . means to understand an .
. . a pair of numbers. These
sensemaking and problem used as a portfolio entry . operation is recognizing .
. . four components are as-
solving, and that seeing and (see Starting Points for in- . conditions in real-world .
. . pects of operation sense.
manipulating models will formation on using portfo- . situations that indicate .
. . NCTM Standards
prompt meaningful sym- lios). . that the operation would
.
bolic recordings. . be useful in those situa-

SELECTED ANSWERS

1. a) True f) True 4. a) 178 ⁄ 9 + 6 4 ⁄ 9 = 18 + 6 3 ⁄ 9 = 243 ⁄ 9

b) False g) False c) 36.98 – 4.28 = 37 – 4.3 = 32.7
c) True h) True e) 12 × 1155 = 4 × 3465 = 2 × 6930 = 13860
d) False i) True g) 288 ÷ 60 = 144 ÷ 30 = 72 ÷ 15 = 24 ÷ 5 = 44⁄ 5
e) False j) False
350
5. a)
6 ⁄ 35 (9x + 13)
2. a) f) 22.4 k) 10
b) 7 ⁄ 24 g) 5 1⁄ 3 l) 19 ⁄ 3 x
c) 3 3 ⁄ 8 h) .452 m)2.43
d) –11 ⁄ 24 i) – x ⁄ 15 n) 7 x ⁄ 6
e) .63 j) 6 5 ⁄ 28 o) 131 ⁄ 56

3. a) a ⁄ b + c ⁄d
3.5

Since the whole square has value 350, 1 small square

bd ad bc bd has value 3.5. So, 60 ÷ 3.5 = 18, show that 18% of 350 =
c d 63.
b a

a
__ c
__ ad
__ bc
__
b)
b
+ d bd
+ bd

Since the total area of the 2nd figure is ad + bc, and 84%
since the length of the bases of the 2 figures are equal,
the figures show that a ⁄ b + c ⁄d = (adbd
+ bc )
.
6

Since 84 small squares have value 504, 1 small square

has value 6. So, the whole square has value 600 and
84% of 600 = 504.

162 / Math Alive! Course III

Properties, Operations, and Algorithms Lesson 7

Connector Teacher Activity

OVERVIEW & PURPOSE MATERIALS
Students sketch diagrams to illustrate the meanings of the 4 ✔ Connector Master A, 1 transparency.
basic operations, whole numbers, decimals, fractions, inte- ✔ Counting pieces and 1 ⁄ 4 " grid paper (optional), as
gers, and percents. They discuss the meaning of the term needed by groups.
algorithm.

ACTIONS COMMENTS

1␣ ␣ Arrange the students in groups. Place a transparency 1␣ ␣ If students are keeping journals, you might suggest
of Connector Master A on the overhead and ask the they write their responses to this thought starter in their
students to carry out the instructions. Then have the journals. Since students could write extensively, you
groups each conduct a round-robin discussion of their might set a time limit and suggest that students focus on
understanding of each term. Provide tile (counting what they think are key points.
pieces) and/or 1 ⁄ 4 " grid paper as needed for group discus-
sions. Invite volunteers to share their group’s ideas with “Listening in” while students share their ideas with one
the class. another provides an opportunity for you to assess your
students’ understanding of number and operation con-
Properties, Operations, and Algorithms Lesson 7
cepts, and to determine whether there are ideas that need
Connector Master A more extended review. Throughout Math Alive! Courses I
and II students investigated the meanings of the opera-
tions and relationships among fractions, decimals, and
Complete the following thought starter. If you think
percents; see those courses for other discussion ideas.
about a term from the list in more than one way, be
sure to include all of your ideas.
Most students will probably refer to addition as the
Here is how I think about the meaning of each term process of joining together 2 sets of objects. For example:
below, together with an example or examples to
illustrate my understanding of the term and ways it 3 4
is related to other terms in the list…

a) addition
b) subtraction
c) multiplication 3+4
d) division Joining sets together
e) whole number
f) fraction In some contexts subtraction is most appropriately
g) decimal viewed as a take-away process. For example, 9 – 4 is the
h) integer amount remaining after 4 objects are removed from a set
i) percent of 9 objects:

9–4
Take-away
Or, in other contexts, the comparison, or difference,
method of subtraction is most appropriate. For example,
9 – 4 is the difference between the numbers of objects in
a set of 9 objects and a set of 4 objects:

9–4
Comparison or Difference
(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 163

Lesson 7 Properties, Operations, and Algorithms
Connector Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

1 (continued.)
One can view multiplication as repeated addition. For
example, 3 × 5 can be viewed as adding 3 groups of 5, or
5 groups of 3:

3×5=5+5+5 5×3=3+3+3+3+3
3 groups of 5 5 groups of 3
Repeated addition

Another meaning of multiplication is based on the area

method. For example, 3 × 5 can be represented as a
rectangle with dimensions 3 linear units by 5 linear
units and area 3 × 5 = 15 square units:

3 linear units × 5 linear units = 15 square units

Area

Notice that it is possible to “see” repeated addition in an

area model, e.g., one can see 3 groups of 5, and 5 groups
of 3, in an area model of 3 × 5:

Division can be viewed according to the grouping, shar-

ing, and area methods, as illustrated by the following
diagrams representing 18 ÷ 6:

6 18

18 ÷ 6
Grouping Arrange 18 objects Sharing Distribute 18 objects Area Arrange 18 square units
in groups of 6 objects. There in 6 equal shares. There are to form a rectangle with
are 18 ÷ 6 groups. 18 ÷ 6 in each share. dimensions 6 and 18 ÷ 6.

164 / Math Alive! Course III

Properties, Operations, and Algorithms Lesson 7
Connector Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

The whole numbers are the numbers 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, … . The

place values of the digits in a whole number, beginning
with the digit in the far right position and moving to
the left, are: units, tens, hundreds, thousands, ten-
thousands, hundred thousands, and so on.

A fraction can be viewed according to the part-to-whole,

ratio, and division concepts. See Lesson 6 for an in-depth
discussion of these ideas. A mixed number is the sum of a
whole number and a fraction.

A decimal number is a base ten number written using

decimal notation. A whole number can be written as a
decimal by placing a decimal point to the right of the
units position, and a zero to the right of the decimal. A
decimal fraction is a base ten number with no digits other
than zeroes to the left of the decimal point. For any
fraction a ⁄ b, its decimal equivalent is determined by
computing a ÷ b. The place values of the digits to the
right of a decimal point are, from left to right, tenths,
hundredths, thousandths, ten-thousandths, hundred-
thousands, and so forth.

In previous Math Alive! courses, students used base ten

pieces such as those shown at the left to represent whole
… … numbers and decimals. For example, using the unit given
100 10 1 unit .1 .01 at the left, the number 32.4 is represented as follows:

(3 × 10) + (2 × 1) + (4 × .1) = 30 + 2 + .4
= 32.4

The integers are the positive and negative whole num-

bers, together with zero. Students were introduced to the
use of red and black counting pieces to represent and
compute with integers in Lessons 5-8 of Math Alive!
Course II. You might read those lessons for discussion
ideas.

Percent means per hundred, i.e., when something (re-

gardless its size or shape) is divided into 100 equal parts,
one part is called one percent, or 1%. For example, 32%
of the grid shown at the left is shaded. Since percent
means per hundred, 32% can be written as a decimal,
32% = .32 = 32 ⁄ 100 .32, or as a fraction, 32 ⁄ 100 .

Math Alive! Course III / 165

Lesson 7 Properties, Operations, and Algorithms
Connector Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

2␣ ␣Ask the groups to discuss their ideas about the mean- 2␣␣An algorithm is a special procedure for solving a
ing of the term algorithm. Discuss as a large group. certain type of problem, often involving the repeated
use of the same basic process. Students may suggest a
variety of examples.

3␣ ␣ Ask the students to observe you without questioning 3␣␣This action and Action 4 are based on and reinforce
or commenting as you silently make the following series ideas from Actions 17-19 of Lesson 6. So that the stu-
of sketches. Ask the groups to write, in words only, a set dents’ can follow the thought process involved, draw and
of procedures that describe your actions. Invite volun- label the rectangles in sequence, and do not speak as you
teers to read aloud their group’s wordings. Discuss. draw. For example: write the heading, “Forming a frac-
tion equivalent to 3⁄ 8 ”; then draw the first rectangle; label
Forming a fraction equivilant to 3⁄ 8 : its area 3; label its side dimension 8; label the top dimen-
sion 3⁄ 8; then draw a rectangle which is double the length
3
__ 6
__ of the first rectangle; mark its area 3 × 2; mark its side
8 16
dimension 8 × 2; mark its top dimension 6⁄ 16 ; and then
write the statement, “Therefore, 3⁄ 8 = 6 ⁄ 16.” If students
8 3 have questions, you might just repeat the process rather
than answering them orally.
3×2

Therefore,
8×2 3 ⁄ 8 = 6 ⁄ 16
The intent here is to get students to speculate about the
steps of your thought processes; they document what
your thoughts appear to be. Students can critique one
another’s wordings. Here are the procedures given by
one group:

Draw a rectangle; label its area 3, its side dimension 8, and

its top dimension 3 ⁄ 8 ; then draw a rectangle whose side di-
mension and area are double the side dimension and area of
the first rectangle; label its top dimension 6 ⁄ 16 ; thus, 3 ⁄ 8 = 6 ⁄ 16
because the top dimension of the rectangle has not changed.

4␣ ␣ If the students have not suggested it, point out that 4␣␣ In the following example, students have adapted the
in Action 3 you used an algorithm for constructing a procedure given in Action 3 to form other fractions
fraction equivalent to 3 ⁄ 8 . Ask for their ideas regarding equivalent to 3 ⁄ 8 : Draw a rectangle; label its area 3, its side
how your algorithm works for constructing other frac- dimension 8, and its top dimension 3 ⁄ 8 ; then draw a rectangle
tions equivalent to 3 ⁄ 8 . Discuss. Then ask the groups to whose side dimension and area are multiplied or divided by k
adapt your algorithm to create an algorithm for forming (for k an integer); label its top dimension 3k⁄ 8k or (3 ⁄ k)/(8 ⁄ k);
fractions equivalent to the fraction a ⁄ b , where a and b are thus, 3 ⁄ 8 = 3k ⁄ 8k = ( 3 ⁄ k )/( 8 ⁄ k ).
integers and b ≠ 0. Invite volunteers to demonstrate
their algorithms and receive feedback from the class. Here is how a group adapted the above procedure for
any fraction a ⁄ b : Draw a rectangle; label its area a, its side
dimension b, and its top dimension a⁄ b ; then draw a rectangle
whose side dimension and area are multiplied or divided by k
(for k an integer not equal to zero); label its top dimension
ak ⁄ bk or (a ⁄ k )/( b ⁄ k ); thus, a ⁄ b = ak ⁄ bk = (a ⁄ k )/( b ⁄ k ).

Students’ recordings may look similar to symbolic algo-

rithms traditionally memorized; however, the intent is
for students’ algorithms to be anchored in understand-
ing and for the student to be an inventor rather than an
imitator.
166 / Math Alive! Course III
Properties, Operations, and Algorithms Lesson 7

Focus Teacher Activity

OVERVIEW & PURPOSE MATERIALS
Students create visual proofs for several mathematical proper- ✔ Focus Master A, 1 copy per student and 1 transpar-
ties. They invent algorithms and examine algorithms in- ency.
vented by others for computing with fractions, decimals, ✔ Focus Masters B and C, 1 copy of each per group and
whole numbers, integers, percents, and algebraic expressions. 1 transparency of each.
Given various conditions for numbers and operations, stu-
✔ Focus Masters D and E, 1 transparency of each.
dents create word problems involving everyday situations.
✔ Focus Student Activity 7.1, 1 copy per student and
1 transparency.
✔ Percent grids (see Blackline Masters), 1 copy per stu-
dent and 1 transparency.
✔ Blank note cards, 12 per group.
✔ Butcher paper, 1 sheet per group.
✔ Marking pens, scissors, and tape for each group.
✔ Calculators, 1 per student.

ACTIONS COMMENTS

1␣ ␣ Arrange the students in groups. Write the following 1␣ ␣ As shown in Figure 1 below, for integers b and c
statement on the overhead: (b ≠ 0), bc ⁄ b can be viewed as the value of one edge of a
rectangle with value bc and the other edge of value b.
bc
__
b
= c, for b and c integers and b ≠ 0. Further, as shown in Figure 2 below, if a rectangle has
value bc and one edge b, the other edge has value c.
Ask the groups to create a visual proof that the above Hence, it must be that bc ⁄ b = c. The restriction b ≠ 0 is
statement is true, supported by explanations that are required since division by zero is undefined (see Lesson
based on knowing the meanings of the basic operations 6).
and the meanings of a fraction. Then ask them to pro- bc
__
b c
vide 2 examples by replacing the variables with num-
bers. so, bc
__
b =c
b bc and b bc
for b ≠ 0
Invite volunteers to demonstrate their reasoning and
examples at the overhead. If no students offer argu- Figure 1 Figure 2
ments based on the area concept of bc⁄b, introduce such
( –2)(7)
an argument as one possibility. Two examples are: 12 (3)(4)
= 3 = 4 , and –14 –2
= ( –2) = 7 .
3
You might remind the students that showing that a
property holds for specific numbers does not constitute
proof that the property holds for all numbers. However,
just one example using numbers is sufficient to prove
that a property does not hold for all numbers. Such an
example is called a counter example.

Notice that properties established in Lesson 6 were based

on areas and lengths, i.e., on positive numbers. In this
action, by referring to the value of a rectangle and its
edges, we have extended the area concept of a fraction
and the area methods of multiplication and division to
prove bc ⁄ b = c for all integers except b = 0. See Lessons 5-8
of Math Alive! Course II for discussion ideas regarding
models for operations involving integers.

Math Alive! Course III / 167

Lesson 7 Properties, Operations, and Algorithms
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

2␣ ␣ Give each student a copy of Focus Master A and ask 2␣␣Some of the properties represented by these equa-
the groups to create a visual proof that equation a) is tions were investigated in Lesson 6, Action 6, where
true for all integers that meet the given conditions, and students used their understanding of the operations and
to give 2 examples using numbers to replace the vari- the meanings of fractions to solve equations; here stu-
ables. Discuss. Repeat for equations b)-u). Explain that dents use their understandings of operations and frac-
once a property is proven, then it is okay to use that tions to prove that equations are true.
property to prove other properties. Encourage students
to verbalize generalizations. Notice that students are establishing these properties for
integers; you may need to prompt students to consider
Properties, Operations, and Algorithms Lesson 7
examples involving negative integers. Later in this
Focus Master A lesson, students have opportunities to investigate appli-
cations of these properties to fractions and decimals.
Assume that a, b, and c are integers such that denominators are not zero.
To keep track of students’ questions and ideas and to
a) a ( ca ) = c l) a(bc) = ab(c) provide “fuel” for later discussions, you might post a
“We wonder… We conjecture…” poster and have stu-
b) (b1 )b = 1 m)
1
1
a
=a
dents record properties, conjectures, and questions.
a2 + ab
c) ab = ba n) = a +b
a
a) As shown in Figure 1 below, the product a(c ⁄ a ) repre-
d) ab
=b o) a ac
= bc
sents the value of a rectangle with edges of value a and
a b
c ⁄ a . Further, as shown in Figure 2, a rectangle with value c

e) b
b
=1 p) abc
b
= ac and one edge of value a, has other edge of value c ⁄ a .
Hence, a(c ⁄ a) = c. Note: students may create other valid
f) b (ba ) = a q) abc
c = ab visual proofs that a(c ⁄ a ) = c.
a
g) a
=b r) abc
=a c
__ c
__
b bc
a a
b
=a c
h) b s) 1 = c
b b c so, a( __
a)=c
a c
a a( __
a) and a c
for a ≠ 0
i) b ( ac ) = bac t)
a +b
a +b
=1

j) a(b + c) = ab + ac u) –ab
= –a
Figure 1 Figure 2
b

k) a +b
a = 1 + ba It is helpful to discuss equations b)-u) one or two at a
time. Note that several of the equations represent the
same properties but are stated with different variables;
you might encourage students to point these out.

b) 1
__ You may need to let the students know that it is okay to
b assume they know the identity for multiplication property,
b 1 b × __
1
b
=1 i.e., that for all real numbers, n, n × 1 = 1 × n = n.
for b ≠ 0
Shown at the left and on the next 2 pages are diagrams
If the value of a rectangle is 1 and the value of that can be used as the basis for proving each equation.
an edge of the rectangle is b, then the value of A sample explanation accompanies the diagram for b).
the other edge is 1/b. So, since the product of While all of the examples shown are based on the area
the values of the edges equals the value of the methods of multiplication and division and the area
rectangle, it must be that b × 1/b = 1. Note: b concept of a fraction, students may use other visual
and 1/b are called reciprocals since their product models as the basis for proofs.
is 1. The expression 1/b is also written b –1. The
inverse for multiplication property states that Before a volunteer gives a verbal explanation of their
for every nonzero number, b, there is a recipro- reasoning, you might have them sketch their proof and
cal, 1/b. invite the other students to speculate about the reason-

168 / Math Alive! Course III

Properties, Operations, and Algorithms Lesson 7
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS
COMMENTS COMMENTS
c) a
ing behind the proof. Encourage students to give one
b another critical feedback regarding these proofs, but
and b ba so, ab = ba keep in mind that it is not intended that students per-
a ab
fect proofs, or that they memorize these properties or
proofs. Rather, the purposes here are: to engage students
d) in the process of building, refining, and debating con-
ab
__
a b ceptually based arguments; to provide a rich mathemati-
ab cal context for reviewing operations with integers; and
and so, __
a =b
a ab a ab
for a ≠ 0 to promote growth in students’ number and operation
sense.
b
1 + __
a
e) b
__ k) a____
+b a
__ b
__
b 1 a a a
b
and so, __
b =1 and so, a____
+b
= a
__ b
+ __ b
= 1 + __
b b b b a a+b a a b a a a a
for b ≠ 0 for a ≠ 0

f) a
__ a
__ l)
b b b ab ab
a
a and so, b(__
b) = a and but so,
b b(__
b) b a c bc c a(bc) c (ab)c
for b ≠ 0 a(bc) = (ab)c

Multiply edge b by a.
g) a
___ This multiplies the value
a
⁄b b of the rectangle by a.
a
___
a
__ and a
__ so, a⁄b = b
a a Note: the above diagrams illustrate the associative
b b
for a, b ≠ 0
property for multiplication.

h) b
__ b
__ m) 1
___
a a
b
___
1
⁄a a
1
___
and b
___ so, a = b
⁄a 1
__ and 1
__ so, =a
a b b
⁄a b
for a, b ≠ 0 a 1 a 1 1
⁄a

a
__ a
__
i) a c c
n) 2
a______
+ ab a+b
a a b
ba a ba a a2 + ab
b ba and b __
c
but b b(__
c)
so, __
c
= b(__ ) 2 and 2 so, ______
a =a+b
c a a + ab a a ab

Dividing the The value of a rect-

value of an edge angle is the product ac
__
by c also divides of the value of its o) bc
a
__ a
__ ac
__
the value of the edges. b so, b
= bc
rectangle by c. bc ac
b a and for b, c ≠ 0

j) b+c
Multiplying the value of the rect-
b+c b c
angle by c multiplies the value of
and so, a(b + c) = ab + ac
a a(b + c) a ab ac one edge by c, but doesn’t change
the value of the other edge.
Note: this illustrates the distributive property for
multiplication over addition. (Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 169

Lesson 7 Properties, Operations, and Algorithms
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

2 (continued.)
p) abc
___ s) 1
___ c
__
b ac b
⁄c b
abc so, since the top
and so, ___
b = ac b
__ and
b abc b bac = abc 1 edge did not
for b ≠ 0 c b
__ ×c=b1×c=c 1 c
c change, ___ = __
b
⁄c b

1 1
q) abc
Note: bc × b c = 1 and b c = bc ; so, bc × c
b
= 1. This
___
c ab shows that bc and bc are reciprocals.
abc
and c(ab) = so, ___
c = ab
c abc c
abc for c ≠ 0 t) a+b
_____
a+b 1
a+b
and a a so, _____
a+b = 1
a+b a+b
r) abc
___ b b for a + b ≠ 0
bc a
abc
___
and so, =a
bc
bc abc bc abc
for b,c ≠ 0 u) –(ab)
____
b –a
–(ab) and (–a)b ___ = –a for b ≠ 0
b b so, –ab
b
= –ab = –ab

3 Write 3 ⁄ 5 + 2 ⁄ 3 on the overhead and ask each student 3␣␣Julie’s approach is based on a series of “maneuvers”
to think privately about strategies for computing this on adjacent rectangles. This approach was introduced in
sum. Then give each group a copy of Focus Master B. Lesson 20 of Math Alive! Course II for computing fraction
Tell the students that these diagrams were made by a sums and differences. You might reread that lesson for
student to illustrate the sequence of her thought pro- discussion ideas.
cesses to solve 3 ⁄ 5 + 2 ⁄ 3 . Ask the groups to discuss their
ideas about Julie’s reasoning. Clarify as needed. Following is Julie’s description of her process:

I think of 3 ⁄ 5 as the value of 1 edge of a rectangle with value

Lesson 7 Properties, Operations & Algorithms 3 and other edge value 5, and I think of 2 ⁄ 3 as the value of 1
Focus Master B
edge of a rectangle with value 2 and other edge value 3. In
my first diagram I positioned the 2 rectangles so they are
Julie's Method adjacent and the bottom edges represent the sum 3 ⁄ 5 + 2⁄ 3 .
3
__
5
2
+ __
3
Then I multiplied the value of a vertical edge of the 1st
rectangle by 3 and the value of a vertical edge of the 2nd
rectangle by 5. This forms a new rectangle with edge values
15 and (3 ⁄ 5 + 2 ⁄ 3 ). The value of this rectangle is 3 + 3 + 3 + 2
2 3 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 = 19. So, the bottom edge has value 19 ÷ 15
5 3
= 19 ⁄ 15 . Therefore, 3 ⁄ 5 + 2 ⁄ 3 = 19 ⁄ 15 . I can also see that 3 ⁄ 5 + 2 ⁄ 3
2 3 = 9 ⁄ 15 + 10 ⁄ 15 .
5 3 2 3 15 19
After students speculate about Julie’s reasoning, you
2 3 might read aloud her statement and encourage compari-
5 3 5 3 sons to the students’ speculations.
2 3 2 3
19
__
3
__ 2
__ 3
__ 2
__ 15
5 3 5 3

170 / Math Alive! Course III

Properties, Operations, and Algorithms Lesson 7
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

4␣ ␣ Ask the groups to use Julie’s method as the basis for 4␣␣The intent here is to encourage students to identify
solving 3 different fraction addition problems, using features of Julie’s process that generalize. Notice that, in
fractions whose denominators are different from those Action 8, students create symbolic generalizations. Here
on Focus Master B. Invite several volunteers to pose are some examples of student responses:
their addition problems to the class for solution using
Julie’s method. Discuss the students’ reasoning and We always start with 2 small adjacent rectangles. If the
results, and their observations and generalizations about denominators are the same, their heights are the same, and
Julie’s method. they combine to form a larger rectangle. If the 2 small rect-
angles have different heights we expand the height and area
of one or both of them to form a single larger rectangle.

There are an infinite number of larger rectangles we can form

by expanding the heights and areas of both of the rectangles.

Expanding the height of a rectangle by a factor automatically

expands the area by the same factor, and vice versa.

To form a single large rectangle from 2 smaller adjacent

rectangles, it always works to expand the height (and there-
fore the area) of each rectangle by the number that is the
height of the other rectangle. Therefore, the height of the large
rectangle is the product of the heights of the 2 smaller rect-
angles. If one denominator is a multiple of the other, then we
only have to expand 1 rectangle.

If we only expand the height of the rectangles, the area

changes by the same factor, but the other dimension of the
rectangle doesn’t change. We don’t want to change the edge
that represents a fraction we are adding, since that would
change the problem.

5␣ ␣ Ask the groups to determine whether/how Julie’s 5␣␣Julie’s method can be adapted for use with decimal
method could be used to determine sums of decimal sums. For example, to add .03 + .2, since .03 = 3 ⁄ 100 and
fractions, for example .03 + .2. Ask for volunteers to use .2 = 2⁄ 10 :
examples to support their conclusions. Discuss other
algorithms that students know for computing fraction
and decimal sums; encourage discussions of reasons why
these methods work and ways they compare to Julie’s
methods.

100 3 100 3 2 × 10 = 20 100 23

2 10 10
.2 .20 23
___
100
= .23
.03 .03
Notice that this process creates an equivalent sum whose
addends have the same number of decimal places.

Math Alive! Course III / 171

Lesson 7 Properties, Operations, and Algorithms
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

6␣␣Ask the students to determine whether/how Julie’s 6␣␣Algebraic fractions are rational expressions with vari-
method works for the following sums of algebraic frac- ables in the numerator and/or denominator. Julie’s
tions: methods can be applied as follows:

a) x⁄ 3 + 2x ⁄ 5 a) x⁄ 3 + 2x ⁄ 5
3 x
b) 2x ⁄ 7 + 3x ⁄ 2 2x 5
(3x + 2) (2x + 1)
c) 3
+ 2 3 x
( x + 1)
d) 2
+ x
5
3 x 2x 5 15 11x
e) 4 ⁄ x + 5⁄ 3

f) x ⁄ 7 + 3 ⁄ x 3 x

2x 5 2x 5
3 x 3 x

x
__ 2x
__ 5x
__ 6x
__ 11x
___
3 5 15 15 15

b) 2x ⁄ 7 + 3x ⁄ 2
3x 2
7 2x 3x 2
3x 2
3x 2 14 25x
3x 2
7 2x 7 2x 3x 2
3x 2 3x 2
3x
__ 21x
___ 25x
___
2x
__ 2 4x
__ 14 14
7 14

(3x + 2) (2x + 1)
c) 3
+ 2

2x + 1 2
3 3x + 2
2x + 1 2 6 12x + 7
3 3x + 2 3 3x + 2
2x + 1 2 2x + 1 2
3x +2
_____ 2x +1
_____ 6x +4
_____ 6x +3
_____ 12x +7
______
3 2 6 6 6

( x + 1)
d) 2
+ x
5
2 x+1
2 x+1 x 5
2 x+1 7x + 5 10
x 5 2 x+1
x 5
2 x+1 2 x+1
x+1
_____ x
__ 5x + 5
______ 2x
__ 7x + 5
______
2 5 10 10 10

172 / Math Alive! Course III

Properties, Operations, and Algorithms Lesson 7
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

e) 4 ⁄ x + 5 ⁄ 3 x 4

x 4 5x 3x 5x + 12 3x

x 4 5 3 x 4
4
__ 5
__ 12
__ 5x
__ 5x + 12
_______
x 3 3x 3x 3x

f) x ⁄ 7 + 3 ⁄ x
3 x
3 x
3 x
7x x2 3 x 7x x2 + 21
3 x
7 x 3 x
3 x 3 x
x
__ 3
__ x2
___ 21
___ x2 + 21
_______
7 x 7x 7x 7x

7␣ ␣ Place a transparency of Focus Master B (see Action 3) 7␣␣Here is one student’s series of equations to represent
on the overhead. Tell the students that mathematicians Julie’s methods:
often use equations to represent the thought processes,
actions, sketches, and mental images they use to solve Step 1: 3
5
+ 2
3
=?
computations. Ask the groups to record equations that
3×3 5×2
could represent each step of Julie’s method of comput- Step 2: 3×5
+ 5×3
= 9
15
+ 10
15
ing 3 ⁄ 5 + 2 ⁄ 3 , i.e., to use numbers and math symbols only
3+3+3+2+2+2+2+2
to communicate as much detail as possible about Julie’s Step 3: 3×5
= 19
15
thinking. Invite volunteers to show their equations to
the class for discussion.

8␣ ␣ If it hasn’t already come up, pose the following for 8␣␣Here is a generalization of Julie’s methods:
completion by the groups.
d groups b groups
a⁄ b c⁄ d,
of area a of area c
For any fractions, and where a, b, c, and
d are positive integers, according to Julie’s
method, here is an algorithm for a ⁄ b + c ⁄ d …

Ask for volunteers to show their group’s ideas.

bd (d groups
of length b) bd (b groups
ad bc bd ad + bc
of length d)

c d
b a
ad + bc
_______
a
__ c
__ ad
___ bc
___
b
+ d bd bd
bd

Some students may refer to the above general visual

procedure as an algorithm; others may suggest the end
result, ba + cd = adbd+ bc , as an algorithm.

Math Alive! Course III / 173

Lesson 7 Properties, Operations, and Algorithms
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

9␣ ␣ Give each group a sheet of butcher paper and mark- 9␣ ␣ Students may use a variety of procedures and, hence,
ing pens. Ask each group to invent one or more algo- invent a variety of algorithms. The following diagram
rithms for subtracting fractions, and to prepare a visual illustrates how, if one thinks of subtraction as addition
demonstration, verbal explanation, and symbolic repre- of the opposite, Julie’s method can be applied to sub-
sentation of each algorithm. Ask them to include several traction. Note: this approach also relies on the area
specific examples to show how their methods work for method of multiplying and dividing integers developed
common fractions, decimal fractions, and algebraic in Lessons 7 and 8 of Math Alive! Course II.
fractions. Have the groups post their results; then pro-
vide time for groups to peruse one another’s algorithms.
Discuss.
–1 3
5 3

–1 3

5 3 –1 3 4 15

–1 3

5 3 5 3
–1 3 –1 3

4
__
3
__ –1
__ 9
__ –5
__ 15
5 3 15 15
3
__ 1
__ 9
__ 5
__
5
– 3 15
– 15

In general, a ⁄ b – c ⁄ d can be solved using Julie’s method as

shown below, to get ab – dc = adbd– bc .

ad + –bc =
bd ad –cb bd bd ad – bc

b a –c d

a
__ –c
__ ad
___ –cb
____ ad – bc
_______
b d bd bd bd

a c ad – bc
Therefore, –
b d
=
bd
.

10␣ ␣ Select one or more of the students’ subtraction 10␣ ␣ a) 2⁄ 15 b) 1 ⁄ 8 c) 3x ⁄ 14 d) 5 ⁄ 6

algorithms from Action 9 for the class to use to solve the
following:

a) 4 ⁄ 5 – 2⁄ 3 b) 7 ⁄ 8 – 3⁄ 4 c) 5x ⁄ 7 – x ⁄ 2 d) 31 ⁄ 2 – 22⁄ 3

174 / Math Alive! Course III

Properties, Operations, and Algorithms Lesson 7
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

11␣ ␣ Write 3
4
× 2
on the overhead and ask the students
5
11␣ ␣ Linden explained her thinking as follows: The value
to think privately about strategies for computing this of the large square is 1 × 1 = 1. The value of the shaded part
product. Then give each group a copy of Focus Master C is 34 × 52 , and since there are 3 × 2 = 6 small squares shaded
and ask them to speculate about Linden’s and Erica’s out of 4 × 5 = 20 total small squares, the value of the shaded
thinking. Discuss. Next ask the groups to create 3 other part is (3 × 2) ÷ (4 × 5) = 20 6
of the value of the large square,
multiplication problems involving fractions with unlike or 20 × 1 = 20 . Therefore, 4 × 52 = 34 ×× 52 = 20
6 6 3 6 .

denominators, and to solve those problems using both

Linden’s and Erica’s methods. Discuss. Then repeat for 3 Erica gave the following explanation: After expanding the
multiplication problems involving decimal fractions, horizontal edges by 4 and the vertical edges by 5, there are
and 3 involving algebraic fractions. Discuss other meth- 4 × 5 = 20 congruent parts with total value 3 × 2 = 6. The
ods students know. value of 1 part is: 20 1 of 6, or 6 . So, A = 3 × 2 = (3 × 2) ÷
20 4 5
(4 × 5) = 4 × 5 = 20 .
3 × 2 6

Properties, Operations, and Algorithms Lesson 7

Focus Master C
Notice that Linden’s method is based on the part-to-
whole concept of a fraction, while Erica’s is based on the
division concept. Some students may point out that
Linden’s Method: 3⁄ 4 × 2⁄ 5 Linden’s and Erica’s methods show that 6 ⁄ 20 of 1 equals
1
1 ⁄ 20 of 6. They may also generalize from other problems

that a ⁄ b × 1 equals 1 ⁄ b × a. Encourage such discussion.

3
__
4

2
__ 3×2=6
5 shaded parts
Example based on part-to-whole concept of a fraction:
1 4 × 5 = 20
total parts .7
.3 × .7 = .21
.3 .21
3×2
3
Therefore, __ × 2
__ = _____ = 6
__ .
4 5 4×5 20

Erica’s Method: 3⁄ 4 × 2⁄ 5
3
__
3 3
2
__
4
2
__
Example based on division concept of a fraction:
5 A 5 A A
3 2
A = __ × __
4 5 2 6 .6 6 6
.2 .2
.2 × .6 = .12
3 2 3×2 6 . 2 12
So, A = __ × __ = (3 × 2) ÷ (4 × 5) = _____ = __
4 5 4×5 20

(2 × 6) ÷ (10 × 10) = 12
___ = .12
100
2×6
So, .2 × .6 = ______ = .12
10 × 10

Example based on division concept of a fraction:

2x
___ 2x
___ × 7 = 2x 2x
7 7
1
__ 1
__
3 3
1
__ ×3=1 2x
1 2x 3
__
3
× ___
7
1 2x (1)(2x) 2x
__
3
× ___
7
= ______
(3)(7)
= ___
21

Math Alive! Course III / 175

Lesson 7 Properties, Operations, and Algorithms
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

12␣ ␣ Ask the groups to write one or more algorithms for 12␣ ␣ Students’ generalizations may be oral and based on
computing the product a ⁄ b × c ⁄ d , where a, b, C, and d are examples. Here is a more formal generalization of
integers and b and d are not equal to zero. Invite groups Linden’s method:
to show their algorithms to the class and to use visual
models to show why their algorithms work. Discuss. 1
a 1
__
b
=a × __
b

a
__ 1 __
__ 1 __
1 … 1 __
__ 1 … 1
__
b b b b b b b 1 divided into b equal parts
… …
1
__
d
a×c
c
__ a
__ × __
c c
__ =c× 1 1
__ __
d b d d d d parts There are ac shaded
shaded parts out of bd total

…
a×c
1 1
__
a
parts. So, __ × __
c
= _____
b×d
ac
= ___
d b × d total parts b d
is the part of the whole
bd

…
square that is shaded.
1
__
d

1 divided into d equal parts

Here is a generalization of Erica’s method:

a
__ a
b
__
b
× b=a a
c c
__
d
a
__ × __
c __
d
a c
( __b × __d ) × b
b d

c
d ×
__
d=c ( __ba × __dc ) × b × d = ac

Multiplying one edge of the original rectangle by b and

the other edge by d creates bd copies of the original
rectangle. This new rectangle has value ac. So, the
ac a c
bd = b × d .
value of the original rectangle is ___ __ __

13␣ ␣ Point out that according to the Distributive Prop- 13␣␣a) 20 + 7

erty a(b + c) = ab + ac, as established during Action 2: So, 3 × 27 = 3(20 + 7)
3 3 × 20 3×7 = 3(20) + 3(7)
b+c = 60 + 21
b+c b c
= 81
a a(b + c) and a ab ac So, a(b + c) =
The same model can be used for each of the multiplica-
ab + ac
tions in b) and c). The linear and area units change; in
the case of –32 × –21 the signs of the edges also change,
Ask the students to complete a) below. Discuss. Repeat while a variable is involved in (3x + 2)(2x + 1).
for b) and c).

176 / Math Alive! Course III

Properties, Operations, and Algorithms Lesson 7
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

a) Show how to use a visual model for the distributive b) 20 + 1

property to compute 3 × 27.

b) Show visually how to apply the distributive property

twice to compute 32 × 21.
30 30 × 20 30 × 1
c) Determine whether/how the distributive property
works for (–32) × (–21); for 32 ⁄ 3 × 21 ⁄ 3 ; 3.2 × 2.1; for
320 × 210; for (3x + 2)(2x + 1); and for 43 × 52. What +
stays the same and what changes for these problems?
2 2 × 20 2×1
32 × 21 = (30 × 21) + (2 × 21)
= 30 (20 + 1) + 2(20 + 1)
= [(30 × 20) + (30 × 1)] + [(2 × 20) + (2 × 1)]
= 600 + 30 + 40 + 2
= 600 + 70 + 2
= 672
c) 1
__
–20 –1 2 3

–30 –30 × –20 –30 × –1 3 3×2 3 × __

3
1

2 2 2 1
–2 –2 × –20 –2 × –1 __
3
__
3 ×2 __
3 × __
3

–32 × –21 = 600 + 30 + 40 + 2 32 ⁄ 3 × 21 ⁄ 3 = 6 + 3 ⁄ 3 + 4 ⁄ 3 + 2 ⁄ 9

= 600 + 70 + 2 = 6 + 7⁄ 3 + 2⁄ 9
= 672 = 8 5⁄ 9

2 + .1 200 + 10

3 3×2 3 × .1 300 300 × 200 300 × 10

.2 .2 × 2 .2 × .1 20 20 × 200 20 × 10

3.2 × 2.1 = 6 + .3 + .4 + .02 320 × 210 = 60,000 + 3,000 + 4,000 + 200

= 6 + .7 + .02 = 60,000 + 7,000 + 200
= 6.72 = 67,200

(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 177

Lesson 7 Properties, Operations, and Algorithms
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

13 (continued.) 50 2

2x 1

40 40 × 50 40 × 2
3x 3x × 2x 3x × 1

2 2 × 2x 2×1 3 3 × 50 3×2

(3x + 2)(2x + 1) = 6x2 + 3x + 4x + 2 43 × 52 = 2,000 + 80 + 150 + 6

= 6x2 + 7x + 2 = 2236

c d
In general,

a ac ad

b bc bd

(a + b)(c + d) = ac + ad + bc + bd

14␣ ␣ Ask the groups to discuss the following: 14␣ ␣ If one views subtraction as “adding the opposite,”
then the product a(b – c) can be viewed as a(b + –c) and
Determine whether the distributive property the distributive property for multiplication over addi-
holds for multiplication over subtraction. tion can be applied. For example:
Show your reasoning.
b + –c
Discuss the groups’ findings, and ask them to identify b –c
examples of computations for which this property is
a(–c)
convenient. a ab
= –ac

a(b – c) = a(b + –c)

= ab + (–ac)
= ab – ac
This property can be useful for mentally calculating
100 products such as 32 × 98. Using the distributive property
98 2 32 × 98 = 32 (100 – 2) = 3200 – 64, as shown at the left.
2 × 32 = 64 Note: students may be interested in discussing ways of
32 3200 – 64 mentally computing differences such as 3200 – 64 =
3200 – 60 – 4 = 3140 – 4 = 3136.

178 / Math Alive! Course III

Properties, Operations, and Algorithms Lesson 7
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

15␣ ␣ Draw the following diagram on the overhead: 15␣␣It may be helpful to recall the various meanings of
division discussed during the Connector activity. If not
3
__ ÷ 2
__ suggested by students, you might ask the groups to
4 3 investigate ways to use “rectangle maneuvers” to com-
pute 3 ⁄ 4 ÷ 2 ⁄ 3 . In the example shown below, notice the
2
__ 3
__
3 4 top dimension, 3 ⁄ 4 ÷ 2 ⁄ 3 is not changed.
3
__
4
÷ 2
__
3
3
__
4
÷ 2
__
3
3
__
4
÷ 2
__
3
3
__
4
÷ 2
__
3
9
= __
8
Ask the groups to investigate visual strategies that show 2 3 2 3
__ __ __ __
why 3 ⁄ 4 ÷ 2 ⁄ 3 = 9 ⁄ 8 . Discuss. Then ask the groups to adapt 3 4 3 4
and/or apply their methods to division problems involv- 2
__ 3
__ 2
9
__
3 4 4
ing other common fractions. Have them determine 2 3
__ __
which methods also work for decimal fractions, mixed 3 4
numbers, and algebraic fractions. Invite volunteers to
pose problems for the class to solve.
9
__
2 4

8 9

9
__
2 4

9
__
2 4

16␣ ␣ Tell the students that there is an old saying about 16␣␣Students may be surprised to hear that this rhyme
division of fractions: is how many teachers and parents learned division of
fractions. Depending on lesson timing, you might pose
Yours is not to reason why, just invert and this as a homework assignment, adding the requirement
multiply! that they demonstrate “the reason why” to an adult and
have the adult write “I appreciate…” and “I wish…”
Suggest that you would like to rephrase this adage to statements regarding the demonstration.
read as follows,
Here is one student’s explanation using rectangle ma-
Ours is to give reasons why we just invert and neuvers such as those shown in Comment 15 and using
multiply! several properties established in Action 2.

Have the groups report their conclusions and reasoning. a

__
b
÷ __
d
c
= ad
__
bc
Since the area is now ad and
the side dimension is bc, the
top dimension (which hasn’t
a
__
b
÷ c
__
d changed) is ad . So, an algo-
bc
a
__ ÷ c
__ ad
__
b ×
b d bc b = ad rithm for dividing fractions
a ad
c
__ a
__ d
c
__ × d=c __
b × d= __
b
is: ab ÷ dc = ad
bc
. This is equiva-
d b lent to computing ab × dc . So,
to divide ab by dc , multiply ab
Multiply the side dimen- Multiply the side by dc . Notice that dc is dc
sion dc by d. This multi- dimension c and inverted!
plies the area ab by d. the area ad
b
by b.

Math Alive! Course III / 179

Lesson 7 Properties, Operations, and Algorithms
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

17␣ ␣ If students haven’t suggested a general algorithm, 17␣␣This activity provides a setting for reinforcing the
ask the groups to invent algorithms for solving a ⁄ b ÷ c ⁄ d meaning of division and for discussing the roles and
(b, c, d ≠ 0), reflecting their strategies from Actions 15 uses of algorithms and the invention of algorithms. See
and 16. Discuss. Comments 15 and 16 for ideas that may come up here.

18␣ ␣ Distribute calculators if the students do not have 18␣ ␣ For example, to use the TI-83 to compute 3⁄ 4 + 2⁄ 3,
them. Ask the groups to discuss possibilities for using enter 3 ÷ 4 + 2 ÷ 3, then activate the “frac” function
their calculators to compute fraction sums, differences, from the MATH menu, and the calculator provides the
products, and quotients. Then discuss as a large group. answer in fraction form. Another method is to change
Finally, place a transparency of Focus Master A (see fractions to their decimal form and then compute.
Action 2) on the overhead and ask the groups to use
their calculators to test examples of each property for
fractions and decimals.

19␣ ␣ Write 397 + 268 on the overhead for students to 19␣ ␣ Several students may use the equal sums strategy to
compute mentally. Discuss their strategies. Use this as a compute 397 + 268. Students explored this strategy in
context for discussing the equal sums strategy. Math Alive! Courses I and II. One equal sums strategy is to
compute 397 + 268 = (397 + 3) + (268 – 3) = 400 + 265 =
665. In general, this strategy involves forming a sum
that is equal to a given sum by subtracting an amount
from one addend and adding the amount subtracted to
the other addend. This is a particularly useful strategy
for computing sums mentally.

20␣ ␣ Place a transparency of Focus Master D on the 20␣ ␣ Following is an example of a “proof without
overhead revealing only the equal sums strategy. Dem- words” that shows how and why the equal sums strategy
onstrate the use of notecards for a “proof without works. The comments to the left of the diagrams provide
words” that shows how and why the computation a series of actions that you can carry out silently while
strategy equal sums works. Discuss the students’ ideas the students observe.
regarding your thinking and reasoning. Then ask each
group to list 5 computations for which they think the Step 1: Draw a line to subdi-
equal sums strategy would be particularly convenient, vide a card into 2 different a
including at least one example involving whole num- regions. Label the regions to
bers, one involving integers, one with fractions, one show one region has area a, b
with decimals, and one with algebraic expressions. the other has area b, and the
total area of the card is a + b.

Lesson 7 Properties, Operations, and Algorithms Step 2: Draw and label a third
Focus Master D
region with area c so the 3 a–c
regions formed now have
For real numbers a, b, and c. areas c, a – c, and b. c b

Step 3: Cut out region c.

Equal sums: a + b = (a – c) + (b + c)
Translate and tape region c
to region b. Since the total
area of the card has not a–c
changed the original area, +
a + b = (a – c) + (b + c). b +c

180 / Math Alive! Course III

Properties, Operations, and Algorithms Lesson 7
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

Here are several addition problems for which the equal

sums strategy is useful:

37 + 53 = (37 + 3) + (53 – 3) = 40 + 50;

381 ⁄ 4 + 293 ⁄ 4 = (381⁄ 4 – 1 ⁄ 4 ) + (293⁄ 4 + 1⁄ 4 ) = 38 + 30;

151.2 + 23.8 = (151.2 + .8) + (23.8 – .8) = 152 + 23;

–39 + 41 = (–39 – 1) + (41 + 1) = –40 + 42;

72x + 13 + 38x + 57 = (72x + 8x) + (13 – 3) + (38x – 8x) +

(57 + 3) = 80x + 10 + 30x + 60 = 110x + 70.

21␣ ␣ Give each group of students 12 notecards, scissors, 21 ␣ Groups may need additional notecards, so it is
and tape. Reveal the remainder of Focus Master D at the helpful to have extras on hand. The following series of
overhead. Ask the groups to use the notecards to invent diagrams illustrates equal differences, a – b = (a + c) –
“proofs without words” that demonstrate how and why (b + c) and a – b = (a – c) – (b – c):
the equal differences, equal products, and equal quotients
strategies work. For each strategy, ask the groups to This shows that a – b = (a + c) – (b + c):
provide 5 computations for which that strategy would
be particularly convenient, with one example involving
whole numbers, one for integers, one for fractions, one a c + a
for decimals, and one for algebraic expressions. Invite
volunteers to share their proofs and examples with the
class. Discuss.
b a–b c + b a–b
Lesson 7 Properties, Operations, and Algorithms
Focus Master D

This shows that a – b = (a – c) – (b – c):

For real numbers a, b, and c.

Equal sums: a + b = (a – c) + (b + c) a c a–c

Equal differences: a – b = (a + c) – (b + c), and

a – b = (a – c) – (b – c)
b–c

b a–b c a–b
Equal products: a × b = (a × n ) × ( b ÷ n )
That is, ab = (an)( b n)

Notice, as long as equal amounts are added to, or sub-

Equal quotients: a ÷ b = (a × n) ÷ (b × n), and tracted from, the original numbers, the difference is not
a ÷ b = (a ÷ n) ÷ (b ÷ n) affected.
a
an , and a = n
That is, ba = bn b bn
You may wish to have the students write descriptions of
their thinking and reasoning for each step of their
proofs, as shown by the captions for the steps given in
Comment 20.
(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 181

Lesson 7 Properties, Operations, and Algorithms
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS
a 21 (continued.)
At the left is an example of a
2a group’s visual proof of the
b ab equal products strategy, show-
b
__
2 ab ing ab = (2a)(b⁄2) = (3a)(b⁄3) =
(4a)(b⁄4) = … = (na)(b⁄n).

In general, to form equal

ab products, if one factor is
3a
b
__
divided by a non-zero num-
3 ab ber, the other factor must be
multiplied by the same
number, and vice versa.

ab
4a
b
__
4 ab
…

ab
na
b
__
n ab

a a na
As established in previous actions, multiply-
__ __ ___
b b nb ing or dividing one dimension of a rectangle
b a b a by a factor multiplies or divides the area by
the same factor, and the other dimension
remains unchanged. Hence, equal quotients
can be formed by multiplying or dividing the
divisor and the dividend by the same num-
b a ber. The diagram at the left shows one
na
group’s proof of the equal quotients strategy,
a
a = na = n .
nb b nb n
b

b a The equal quotients strategy is useful for

mentally calculating quotients. For example,
one way to compute 312 ÷ 28 is to note that
312 ÷ 28 = 156 ÷ 14 = 78 ÷ 7 ≈ 11. The equal
quotients strategy is also useful for approxi-
mating quotients and for determining
a equivalent fractions (see the Connector,
b
Actions 3 and 4).

na
___ = a
__ Note: The equal products and equal quotients
nb b
a
__
a⁄ n
___
b⁄ n
strategies shown above illustrate inverse and
b b direct variation, respectively (see Lesson 13 of
__
a
__
b a n
n this course).
a⁄ n
___ a
__
b⁄ n
= b

182 / Math Alive! Course III

Properties, Operations, and Algorithms Lesson 7
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

22␣ ␣ Write statement a) on the overhead and ask the 22␣ ␣Based on the needs of your students you might add
groups to use a diagram and/or a logical argument to other statements to this list. For example, if there is a
illustrate why the statement is always, sometimes, or mathematical relationship students have had difficulty
never true. Ask them to provide examples to support grasping, you might write a statement based on that
their arguments. Repeat for statements b)-f). relationship.

a) To multiply by 1 ⁄ b is equivalent to dividing by b. a) True for all real numbers b except 0.

b) True only for c = 1.
b) Given a rectangle with edges a and b, to multiply one c) True for all real numbers a, b, and c.
edge by c divides the area by c. d) True for all real numbers. This is called the transitive
property of equality.
c) Given a rectangle with edges a and b, to add c to side e) False. If a > 1, then 1 ⁄ a < 1.
a adds bc to the area. f) True. Here is one group’s visual proof and explana-
tion that, if a ⁄ b = c ⁄ d , then ad = bc.
d) If a = b and b = c, then a = c. a c
__ = __
b d Start with a rectangle with
e) If a > 1 then 1 ⁄ a > 1. area a and 1 dimension b.
b a We are given that a ⁄ b = c ⁄ d , so
f) If a ⁄ b = c ⁄ d , then ad = bc (for b, d ≠ 0). the top dimension is a ⁄ b = c ⁄ d.

c
__
d
×d=c
Multiply the top dimension
and the area by d. The top
b a × d = ad dimension is now c ⁄ d × d = c
and the area is ad.

c The area of the rectangle is

the product of its dimen-
b ad sions, or b × c = bc. But the
area is also ad. So, ad = bc.

23␣ ␣ Tell the students that, in a proportion a⁄ b = c⁄ d , b and 23␣ ␣ Some students may use a visual procedure such as
c are called the means of the proportion, and a and d are that shown in Comment 22. Others may use the results.
called the extremes, and the property that is illustrated Either is appropriate, as long as students understand
by statement f) from Action 22 is sometimes called the why the property is true.
means-extremes property. This property, i.e., if a ⁄ b = c ⁄ d ,
then ad = bc, can be used as an algorithm for solving a) If 3⁄ 5 = x ⁄ 25, then:
proportions. Ask the students to determine how the 3 x x
means-extremes property can be used to help find the
__
5
__
= 25 ( 25
__
)25 = x
value of x in each of the following proportions.
5 3 5 (3)(25) = 75
a) 3 ⁄ 5 = x ⁄ 25 d) 3 ⁄ x = 12 ⁄ 8

b) 4 ⁄ 7 = 32 ⁄ x e) x⁄ 8 = 9 ⁄ 12 So, since the area is 75 = 5x, then 15 = x.

c) x⁄ 2 = 8 ⁄ x f) a ⁄ x = b ⁄ c b) 4x = 224, so x = 56
c) x2 = 16, so x = ±4
d) 12x = 24, so x = 2
e) 12x = 72, so x = 6
f) bx = ac, so x = ac ⁄ b

Math Alive! Course III / 183

Lesson 7 Properties, Operations, and Algorithms
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

24␣ ␣ Give each student a copy of Focus Student Activity 24␣ ␣ Calculators are appropriate here; the intent is for
7.1. Point out that the 37 at the top of diagram 1a) students to use relationships they can “see” in the dia-
means the value of the whole square is 37. Ask the grams to determine what to compute.
students to shade 12% of the square and to reason from
the diagram to determine the value of the shaded part. You might keep a supply of Percent Grids (see Blackline
Invite volunteers to demonstrate their methods on a Masters) and a transparency of the grids on hand for
transparency of the activity. Repeat by having them students to use in testing their generalizations and
shade and determine the value of 35% of b) and 59% of algorithms.
c). Then ask the groups to discuss generalizations and
algorithms regarding percent problems like those in 1a)- Students may approach these percentage problems in a
1c). Discuss. variety of ways. Although students are asked to general-
ize and invent algorithms, it is important not to suggest
Properties, Operations, and Algorithms Lesson 7
that the “bottom line” or best solution is to use sym-
bolic procedures. What is important is that students
Focus Student Activity 7.1 have access to a number of strategies and choose the one
NAME DATE
that makes the most sense for a given context. Algo-
37 2 168
rithms may be visual or symbolic.
1 a) b) c)

1a) One way to solve this problem is to determine the

value of 1 small square from the grid, which is 37 ÷ 100
= .37, and then multiply by 12 to determine the value of
12 small squares, 12 × .37 = 4.44. Other students may
12% of 37 = ________ 35% of 2 = _________ 59% of 168 = _______
d) Generalizations and algorithms:
note that determining the value of 12% of 37 is equiva-
lent to solving the proportion 12⁄100 = x ⁄ 37. Hence, one
2 a) b) c)
91
way to solve this problem is to apply the means ex-
6.2
tremes property and determine the value of x for which
12
× 37)
12 × 37 = 100x. Thus, x = (12100 .
25% of ________ = 91 _____% of _____ = 6.2 _____% of _____ = 12 1b) .7
d) Generalizations and algorithms:
1c) 99.12

3 556 37
b) c)
3 a)
105.6
1.7
.16

________ % of 3 = 1.7 ____ % of ____ = 105.6 ____% of 37 = .16

d) Generalizations and algorithms:

25␣ ␣ Repeat Action 24 for Problems 2 and 3 on Focus 25␣ ␣ If students have difficulties with these problems or
Student Activity 7.1. need more conceptual work in percents, background on
percents is in Math Alive! Course I, Lesson 39, and Math
Alive! Course II, Lessons 21-23.

2a) One way to solve this problem is to determine the

value of 1 small square from the grid, which is 91 ÷ 25 =
3.64, and then multiply this value by 100 to obtain 364,
the value of the whole square. Another approach is to
use proportions, 25 ⁄ 100 = 91⁄ x , and using the means and
extremes property, 25x = 9100, so x = 364.

184 / Math Alive! Course III

Properties, Operations, and Algorithms Lesson 7
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

2b) ≈ 16.76
2c) 162⁄ 3

3a) One approach is to divide 3 by 100 to obtain .03 as

the value of 1 small square, and then divide 1.7 by .03
to determine the number of small squares (the percent)
corresponding to 1.7. Since 1.7 ÷ .03 = 562 ⁄ 3, 562⁄ 3 % of 3
is 1.7.
3b) ≈ 18.99%
3c) .43%

26␣ ␣ Place a transparency of Focus Master E on the 26␣ ␣ Rather than having each group create and solve a
overhead. Give the groups their specific assignments. problem for every condition listed, you might assign
When problems and solution keys have been created, selected conditions to each group. You could have all
ask the groups to exchange and solve each other’s prob- groups solve all other groups’ problems, or you could
lems. have each group exchange with only 2 or 3 other
groups. Or, you could photocopy the groups’ problems
and distribute a full set to each student for completion
as homework and discussion in their groups.

Properties, Operations, and Algorithms Lesson 7 Lesson 7 Properties, Operations, and Algorithms
Focus Master E Focus Master E (cont.)

For each of the following conditions, create an interesting and 5. Proportions, m⁄ n = p⁄ q

challenging math problem based on a situation from everyday a) m is unknown; n, p, and q are positive integers
life outside of school. You could write a separate problem for b) n is unknown; m, p, and q are positive integers
each condition listed, or you could combine more than one condi-
tion in a problem. On a separate sheet, show how to solve your 6. Algebraic expressions
problems. a) addition
b) subtraction
1. Fractions c) multiplication
a) addition of 3 mixed numbers with unlike denominators d) division
b) subtraction of 2 mixed numbers with unlike denominators
c) multiplication of 2 mixed numbers with unlike denominators
d) division of 2 fractions with unlike denominators

2. Decimals
a) addition, the sum is greater than 150.713
b) subtraction, the difference is less than .001
c) multiplication, the product is a mixed decimal
d) division, 14.452 is a multiple of the quotient

3. Integers
a) addition, the sum is negative
b) subtraction, the difference is greater than – 50
c) multiplication, the product is a negative square number
d) division, the quotient is less than – 250

4. Percents, r % of s equals t
a) r is unknown
b) s is unknown
c) t is unknown

(Continued on back.)

Math Alive! Course III / 185

Lesson 7 Properties, Operations, and Algorithms

TEACHER NOTES:

186 / Math Alive! Course III

Properties, Operations, and Algorithms Lesson 7

Follow-up Student Activity 7.2

NAME DATE

1␣ ␣ Determine if each equation below is true, assuming a, b, and c

are integers such that denominators are not equal to zero. If an
equation is true create a visual proof, and if it is false show a counter
example.
a–b a2 – ab
a) a−b
=1 f) =a–b
a
a+b
b) a
= 1+ b g) a ÷ (b + c) = (a ÷ b) + (a ÷ c)

c)
a
1
= 2a h) a
= ac
2 b bc

d) a + (b × c) = (a + b) × (a + c) i) –abc
c
= –ab

e)
a
a+b
= 1
b j)
a
1
= a
b
b

2␣ ␣ Show how to solve each of the following computations, using

whatever visual or symbolic method you wish. Be sure to show the
steps of your thinking.
x+3 2x – 1
a) 3
7
× 25 f) .7 × 32 k) +
2 5

b) –1
3
+ 5
8
g) .8 ÷ .15 l) 6
x
+ 1
3x

c) 3
4
÷ 29 h) .46 – .008 m) 7.23 – 4.8

d) 3
8
– 5
6
i) 3x
5
– 2x
3
n) x
3
÷ 72

e) .2 + .43 5 ÷21
j) 14 12 o) 3 81 – 1 74
3

3␣ ␣ Show one or more visual methods for computing each of the

following, where a, b, c, and d are integers with b ≠ 0 and d ≠ 0. For
each visual method, write a symbolic algorithm (using only num-
bers and math symbols) that is based on the method.

a) a
b
+ c
d
b) a
b
– c
d
c) a
b
× c
d
d) a
b
÷ c
d

(Continued on back.)
Math Alive! Course III / 187
Lesson 7 Properties, Operations, and Algorithms
Follow-up Student Activity (cont.)

4␣ ␣ Show how to solve each of the following computations using the

equal sums, equal differences, equal products, or equal quotients
strategy. Use numbers and math symbols to record your thought
processes.

a) 17 89 + 6 49 c) 36.98 – 4.28 e) 12 × 1155 g) 288 ÷ 60

b) 14 19 – 8 59 d) 9.85 + 14.9 f) 16 ÷ 73 h) 2 23 × 27

5␣ ␣ Show how to reason from diagrams to determine the missing

value for each of the following percent problems. Next to each dia-
gram show the steps in your reasoning and all of your calculations.

a) _____% of 350 = 63 b) 84% of _____ = 504 c) 28% of 92.5 = _____

6␣ ␣ An excerpt from Linden’s journal is shown below. Write what

you think she said in place of “…” and give examples to illustrate
each statement.

I notice that the following aspects of each operation never change, regard-
less the type of number or variable that I use:

addition… subtraction… multiplication… division…

7␣ ␣ Suppose that a and b are integers. Tell whether each of the fol-
lowing is always, sometimes, or never true. If a statement is always
true or never true, explain why. If a statement is sometimes true,
explain the conditions necessary for it to be true. Give examples to
support your reasoning.

a + b is greater than both a and b

a – b is greater than both a and b

a × b is greater than both a and b

a ÷ b is greater than both a and b

8␣ ␣ Repeat Problem 7, but suppose that a and b are fractions between

0 and 1.

188 / Math Alive! Course III

Properties, Operations, and Algorithms Lesson 7
Connector Master A

Complete the following thought starter. If you think

about a term from the list in more than one way, be
sure to include all of your ideas.

Here is how I think about the meaning of each term

below, together with an example or examples to
illustrate my understanding of the term and ways it
is related to other terms in the list…

a) addition
b) subtraction
c) multiplication
d) division
e) whole number
f) fraction
g) decimal
h) integer
i) percent

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 7 Properties, Operations, and Algorithms

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Properties, Operations, and Algorithms Lesson 7
Focus Master A

Assume that a, b, and c are integers such that denominators are not zero.

a) a ( ac ) = c l) a(bc) = ab(c)

b) (b1 )b = 1 m)
1
1
a
=a

a2 + ab
c) ab = ba n) a = a +b

ab a ac
d) a =b o) b
= bc

b abc
e) b
=1 p) b
= ac

f) b (ba ) = a q) abc
c = ab

a
g) a
=b r) abc
=a
b bc

b
h) b
=a s) 1 = c
b
a c b

i) b ( ac ) = bac t)
a +b
a +b
=1

–ab
j) a(b + c) = ab + ac u) b
= –a

a +b
k) a = 1 + ba

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 7 Properties, Operations, and Algorithms
Focus Master B

Julie’s Method
3
__ 2
__
+
5 3

2 3
5 3

2 3

5 3 2 3 15 19

2 3

5 3 5 3
2 3 2 3
19
__
3
__ 2
__ 3
__ 2
__ 15
5 3 5 3

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Properties, Operations, and Algorithms Lesson 7
Focus Master C

Linden’s Method: 3⁄ 4 × 2⁄ 5
1
3
__
4

2
__ 3×2=6
5 shaded parts

1 4 × 5 = 20
total parts

3×2
3
Therefore, __ × 2
__ = _____ = 6
__ .
4 5 4×5 20

Erica’s Method: 3⁄ 4 × 2⁄ 5
3
__
4 3 3
2
__ 2
__
5 A 5 A A
3 2
A= __
4
× __
5 2 6

3 2 3×2 6 .
So, A = __ × __ = (3 × 2) ÷ (4 × 5) = _____ = __
4 5 4×5 20

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 7 Properties, Operations, and Algorithms
Focus Master D

For real numbers a, b, and c.

Equal sums: a + b = (a – c) + (b + c)

Equal differences: a – b = (a + c) – (b + c), and

a – b = (a – c) – (b – c)

Equal products: a × b = (a × n ) × ( b ÷ n )
That is, ab = (an)( b n)

Equal quotients: a ÷ b = (a × n) ÷ (b × n), and

a ÷ b = (a ÷ n) ÷ (b ÷ n)
a
a = an a =
That is, b bn , and b b n
n

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Properties, Operations, and Algorithms Lesson 7
Focus Master E

For each of the following conditions, create an interesting and

challenging math problem based on a situation from everyday
life outside of school. You could write a separate problem for
each condition listed, or you could combine more than one condi-
tion in a problem. On a separate sheet, show how to solve your
problems.

1. Fractions
a) addition of 3 mixed numbers with unlike denominators
b) subtraction of 2 mixed numbers with unlike denominators
c) multiplication of 2 mixed numbers with unlike denominators
d) division of 2 fractions with unlike denominators

2. Decimals
a) addition, the sum is greater than 150.713
b) subtraction, the difference is less than .001
c) multiplication, the product is a mixed decimal
d) division, 14.452 is a multiple of the quotient

3. Integers
a) addition, the sum is negative
b) subtraction, the difference is greater than – 50
c) multiplication, the product is a negative square number
d) division, the quotient is less than – 250

4. Percents, r % of s equals t
a) r is unknown
b) s is unknown
c) t is unknown

(Continued on back.)
© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 7 Properties, Operations, and Algorithms
Focus Master E (cont.)

5. Proportions, m⁄ n = p⁄ q
a) m is unknown; n, p, and q are positive integers
b) n is unknown; m, p, and q are positive integers

6. Algebraic expressions
a) addition
b) subtraction
c) multiplication
d) division

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Properties, Operations, and Algorithms Lesson 7

Focus Student Activity 7.1

NAME DATE

37 2 168

1 a) b) c)

12% of 37 = ________ 35% of 2 = _________ 59% of 168 = _______

d) Generalizations and algorithms:

2 a) b) c)
91
6.2
12

25% of ________ = 91 _____% of _____ = 6.2 _____% of _____ = 12

d) Generalizations and algorithms:

3 556 37
b) c)
3 a)
105.6
1.7
.16

________ % of 3 = 1.7 ____ % of ____ = 105.6 ____% of 37 = .16

d) Generalizations and algorithms:

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 7 Properties, Operations, and Algorithms

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Properties, Operations, and Algorithms Lesson 7

Follow-up Student Activity 7.2

NAME DATE

1␣ ␣ Determine if each equation below is true, assuming a, b, and c

are integers such that denominators are not equal to zero. If an
equation is true create a visual proof, and if it is false show a counter
example.
a–b a2 – ab
a) a−b
=1 f) =a–b
a
a+b
b) a
= 1+ b g) a ÷ (b + c) = (a ÷ b) + (a ÷ c)

c)
a
1
= 2a h) a
= ac
2 b bc

d) a + (b × c) = (a + b) × (a + c) i) –abc
c
= –ab

e)
a
a+b
= 1
b j)
a
1
= a
b
b

2␣ ␣ Show how to solve each of the following computations, using

whatever visual or symbolic method you wish. Be sure to show the
steps of your thinking.
x+3 2x – 1
a) 3
7
× 25 f) .7 × 32 k) +
2 5

b) –1
3
+ 5
8
g) .8 ÷ .15 l) 6
x
+ 1
3x

c) 3
4
÷ 29 h) .46 – .008 m) 7.23 – 4.8

d) 3
8
– 5
6
i) 3x
5
– 2x
3
n) x
3
÷ 72

e) .2 + .43 5 ÷21
j) 14 12 o) 3 81 – 1 74
3

3␣ ␣ Show one or more visual methods for computing each of the

following, where a, b, c, and d are integers with b ≠ 0 and d ≠ 0. For
each visual method, write a symbolic algorithm (using only num-
bers and math symbols) that is based on the method.

a) a
b
+ c
d
b) a
b
– c
d
c) a
b
× c
d
d) a
b
÷ c
d

(Continued on back.)

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 7 Properties, Operations, and Algorithms
Follow-up Student Activity (cont.)

4␣ ␣ Show how to solve each of the following computations using the

equal sums, equal differences, equal products, or equal quotients
strategy. Use numbers and math symbols to record your thought
processes.

a) 17 89 + 6 49 c) 36.98 – 4.28 e) 12 × 1155 g) 288 ÷ 60

b) 14 19 – 8 59 d) 9.85 + 14.9 f) 16 ÷ 73 h) 2 23 × 27

5␣ ␣ Show how to reason from diagrams to determine the missing

value for each of the following percent problems. Next to each dia-
gram show the steps in your reasoning and all of your calculations.

a) _____% of 350 = 63 b) 84% of _____ = 504 c) 28% of 92.5 = _____

6␣ ␣ An excerpt from Linden’s journal is shown below. Write what

you think she said in place of “…” and give examples to illustrate
each statement.

I notice that the following aspects of each operation never change, regard-
less the type of number or variable that I use:

addition… subtraction… multiplication… division…

7␣ ␣ Suppose that a and b are integers. Tell whether each of the fol-
lowing is always, sometimes, or never true. If a statement is always
true or never true, explain why. If a statement is sometimes true,
explain the conditions necessary for it to be true. Give examples to
support your reasoning.

a + b is greater than both a and b

a – b is greater than both a and b

a × b is greater than both a and b

a ÷ b is greater than both a and b

8␣ ␣ Repeat Problem 7, but suppose that a and b are fractions between

0 and 1.

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Experimental and Theoretical Probability
Experimental & Theoretical Probability Lesson 8 Lesson 8

.
.
.
.
THE BIG IDEA .. CONNECTOR
.
. OVERVIEW MATERIALS FOR TEACHER ACTIVITY
Probability is useful for .
.
Students conduct binomial ✔ Connector Student Activ- ✔ Connector Masters B, C,
making decisions about ..
. experiments with equally ity 8.1 (2 pages), 1 copy and D (optional), 1 copy
.
a situation whose . likely outcomes and with per group and 1 trans- of each per group and 1
.
. unequally likely outcomes, parency. transparency of each.
outcomes are not .
. and compare the experi- ✔ Connector Master A, ✔ Cubical dice, 1 per stu-
.
immediately obvious. . mental and theoretical 2 copies per student plus dent and 2 for use at the
.
. probabilities of such out- 1 copy per group and 1 overhead.
Carefully organized .
. comes. transparency.
. ✔ Game markers, 1 per stu-
experimentation with .
. dent and 1 for use at the
.
the situation, or a . overhead.
.
.
simulation of the .
.
.
situation, can provide .
.
FOCUS
.
powerful evidence . OVERVIEW MATERIALS FOR TEACHER ACTIVITY
.
.
regarding possible . Students use simulations to ✔ Focus Student Activity ✔ Focus Master C, 1 copy
.
. gather data and determine 8.2, 1 copy per pair of per pair of students and
outcomes and can .
. experimental probabilities students and 1 transpar- 1 transparency.
.
reveal insights about . for different strategies of ency. ✔ Bobby pins or paper
.
. playing a game called ✔ Focus Masters A, B, and clips, 1 per pair of stu-
the theoretical prob- .
. Monty’s Dilemma. The pro- D, 1 transparency of dents.
.
abilities of the situa- . cess of carrying out these each.
. ✔ Coins, 1 per pair of stu-
. simulations provides in-
tion. . dents.
. sights about the theoretical
.
. probabilities of the various
. strategies.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
FOLLOW-UP
.
. OVERVIEW MATERIALS FOR STUDENT ACTIVITY
.
. Students determine experi- ✔ Student Activity 8.3,
.
. mental probabilities of 1 copy per student.
.
. equally likely and unequally
.
. likely events. Simulations
.
. are used to determine the
.
. probabilities of strategies
.
. for several games.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

Math Alive! Course III / 189

Lesson 8 Experimental and Theoretical Probability

LESSON IDEAS TEACHER NOTES:

. .
. QUOTE . that give rise to these
. .
. Probability, the measure . numbers (e.g., 2⁄5 as it re-
. .
. of the likelihood of an . lates to the probability of
. .
. event, can be determined . choosing a red marble
. .
. theoretically or experi- . from a hat). Students must
. .
. mentally. Students in the . not only understand the
. .
. middle grades must ac- . relationship between the
. .
. tively participate in experi- . numerical expression and
. .
. ments with probability so . the probability of the
. .
. that they develop an un- . events but realize that the
. .
. derstanding of the rela- . measure of certainty or
. .
. tionship between the nu- . uncertainty varies as more
. .
. merical expression of a . data are collected.
. .
. probability and the events . NCTM Standards

SELECTED ANSWERS

2. P(A) = 1 ⁄ 27 , P(B) = 6 ⁄ 27 , P(C) = 12 ⁄ 27 , P(D) = 8 ⁄ 27

3.d) Stick Strategy probability is 1 ⁄ 4, as there is an equal

chance that the prize is behind any 1 of the 4 doors.

Flip Strategy probability is 1 ⁄ 2 , as there is an equal

chance that the prize is behind 1 of the 2 unopened
doors.

Switch Strategy probability is 3 ⁄ 4, as the only way the

contestant can lose with this strategy is if the initial se-
lection was the door with the prize, and this probability
is 1 ⁄ 4 . Or, once the contestant has selected a door, the
probability the prize is behind 1 of the 3 remaining
doors is 3 ⁄ 4 . After 2 of the doors without the prize are
opened, the probability that the prize is behind the re-
maining door is 3 ⁄ 4 .

e) The probabilities for the extended versions of Monty’s

game:

5 doors: P(Stick) = 1 ⁄ 5 ; P (Flip) = 1 ⁄ 2 ; P(Switch) = 4⁄ 5

6 doors: P(Stick) = 1 ⁄ 6 ; P(Flip) = 1 ⁄ 2 ; P(Switch) = 5 ⁄ 6
n doors: P(Stick) = 1 ⁄ n ; P(Flip) = 1⁄ 2 ; P(Switch) = (n – 1)⁄n

190 / Math Alive! Course III

Experimental and Theoretical Probability Lesson 8

Connector Teacher Activity

OVERVIEW & PURPOSE MATERIALS
Students conduct binomial experiments with equally likely ✔ Connector Student Activity 8.1 (2 pages), 1 copy per
outcomes and with unequally likely outcomes, and compare group and 1 transparency.
the experimental and theoretical probabilities of such out- ✔ Connector Master A, 2 copies per student plus 1 copy
comes. per group and 1 transparency.
✔ Connector Masters B, C, and D (optional), 1 copy of
each per group and 1 transparency of each.
✔ Cubical dice, 1 per student and 2 for use at the over-
head.
✔ Game markers, 1 per student and 1 for use at the
overhead.

ACTIONS COMMENTS

1␣ ␣ Arrange the students in groups and distribute a 1␣ ␣ Procedures for the Checker-A game are as follows:
standard cubical die, a game marker, and a copy of
Connector Master A to each student. Using a transpar- Step 1. Place a marker in the START square.
ency of Connector Master A, illustrate procedures for
moving markers in the Checker-A game. Discuss as Step 2. Toss a die. If the upturned number is EVEN, the
needed. marker is moved 1 space forward diagonally to the LEFT.
If the upturned number is ODD, the marker is moved 1
space forward diagonally to the RIGHT. Note: a marker
Experimental and Theoretical Probability Lesson 8
Connector Master A
always moves from a shaded square to a shaded square.
O
D
D

Step 3. Repeat until the marker is in 1 of the lettered

G

squares A-G. Note: this requires 6 tosses of the die (see

Comment 2).
F

Since each trial, or toss of the die, has only 2 possible

outcomes, odd or even, performing these trials is called
a binomial experiment.
E
Checker Game Board

START
D
C
B
A

FINISH
V
E

Math Alive! Course III / 191

Lesson 8 Experimental and Theoretical Probability
Connector Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

2␣ ␣ Ask the students to predict where they think the 2␣ ␣ Students may say it is impossible to tell, or they may
marker will land after 6 tosses of a die, and why they feel pick a favorite square, anywhere on the board, with no
this way. Solicit predictions from the students without other reason for choosing it. Some students may think
judging their responses. Then have the students each the marker will land somewhere in the middle of the
play one game. After playing one game, discuss any board. Some may predict the marker will land in the top
adjustments students wish to make in their predictions row, but think that it is impossible to tell in which
about the position of the marker after 6 tosses. square (A-G). Still others may think that the marker will
end in the top row and that some squares will be more
likely than others (for a variety of reasons, some correct
and some not). For example, students may reason that
since there are as many even numbers as odd numbers
on a die, the marker should land in square D, because it
is in the center of the top row of the board. Rather than
affirming or correcting the students’ predictions, note
there will be opportunities throughout the rest of this
activity for them to discover errors in their reasoning or
predictions.

It is the case that after 6 tosses a marker will always land

in one of squares A-G.

3␣ ␣ Ask the groups to imagine playing the Checker-A 3␣ ␣ Some students may suggest calculating the theoreti-
game 50 times and to discuss their intuitions about cal probability by determining all the possible paths of a
where the marker might land most often and least often. marker, which is the objective of Actions 5 and 6. You
Out of the 50 games, how many times do they think the might suggest that for now students make predictions
marker would be likely to land in square A? square B? C? based on their intuitions, so that later they can compare
D? E? F? G? their predictions to experimental and theoretical prob-
abilities they compute.

4␣ ␣ Discuss the students’ ideas about the meanings of 4␣ ␣ When the likelihood, or chance, of an event is ex-
experimental probability and theoretical probability, clarify- pressed as a number that is based on the results of an
ing as needed. Then give each group a copy of Connec- experiment, that number is called the experimental
tor Student Activity 8.1 to complete. When groups have probability that the event will occur. The experimental
completed all of the activity, have them post their bar probability of an outcome is a number that tells the
graphs on the wall. frequency of the outcome relative to the frequency of all
possible outcomes for a given experiment. For example,
Discuss similarities and differences among the posted if a marker lands in square C a total of 20 times out of
graphs. How do students account for these similarities 50 games, then the experimental probability of landing
and differences? What observations can they make in square C is P(C) = 20⁄ 50 = .4 = 40%.
about the overall shapes of the graphs? Would they
make different predictions about the outcomes of 50 The theoretical probability of an event occurring is based
games now? Why or why not? on what should happen under ideal conditions. The
theoretical probabilities for outcomes of the Checker-A
game are determined in Action 6. Experimental and
theoretical probability were also explored in Math Alive!
Courses I and II.

192 / Math Alive! Course III

Experimental and Theoretical Probability Lesson 8
Connector Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

Experimental and Theoretical Probability Lesson 8 Lesson 8 Experimental and Theoretical Probability
Connector Student Activity 8.1 (cont.)
Connector Student Activity 8.1
2␣ ␣ Make a bar graph showing the relative frequency of the marker
NAME DATE ending in each column, based on your group’s experimental results:

1␣ ␣ Each group member is to play the Checker-A game several times

and keep a record of the number of times the marker lands in each
of squares A-G. Your group needs to play a total of 50 games. When 60
everyone has finished, record your data and totals on the following
chart:

Players’ Ending Square on Game Board Total

Names A B C D E F G Games 50
1
2
3
40
4 P
5 E
Group Totals 50
R
C
E 30
Based on your group’s experimental results, determine the experi-
mental probability of landing in each of squares A-G on the game
N
board. Express each answer as a fraction, decimal, and percent. T
Note: P(A) stands for “the probability of landing in square A.”

a) P(A) = b) P(B) = c) P(C) = 20

d) P(D) = e) P(E) = f) P(F) =

10

g) P(G) =

A B C D E F G
(Continued on back.) Ending Square

Students could keep track of the ending position of the

marker by making tally marks on their game boards, as
illustrated below:
FINISH

A B C D E F G

Once the graphs are posted, some students may suggest

computing average (mean, median, and/or mode) values
for the relative frequencies. They may point out a result
that seems to be an outlier, i.e., a value that is widely
separated from the rest of the data. Some may suggest
graphing all of the A’s from the class results together, all
of the B’s together, etc., and then make predictions
based on the overall shape of this graph. It is important
to encourage such discussion; pursue ideas based on
student interest and needs.

Note that these graphs will be compared to theoretical

graphs during Action 7, so it is important not to discard
these graphs now.

Math Alive! Course III / 193

 Lesson 8 Experimental and Theoretical Probability
Connector Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

5␣ ␣ Discuss the students’ ideas about ways to determine 5␣ ␣ Notice there is only 1 path to get to square A (see
all the Checker-A game paths possible on the game diagram at left), namely, the result of 6 even tosses in a
board. Have volunteers trace on the overhead a few row. Two of the 6 possible paths to square B are shown.
paths that a marker could follow from start to finish.
Then ask the groups to determine the number of paths There are many patterns that students may notice. For
that end in each of squares A-G, encouraging them to example, they may note symmetry in the board—the 1
make note of any patterns they discover. Discuss their path to square A is the mirror image of the 1 path to
observations and results. square G; the number of paths to square B is the same as
the number of paths to square F; and so forth. It may be
helpful to have available extra copies of Connector
Master A (the game board) for tracing and counting
FINISH

A B C D E F G paths. Following are several ways that students have

recorded and counted paths.

E Method 1: We let E stand for an even toss and O stand for

O
V an odd toss, and recorded the sequence of rolls needed to get
D
E
N
D to each of squares A-G. The following diagram shows that
with 1 toss of the die there are 2 possible outcomes, E or O;
with 2 tosses there are 4 possible outcomes, EE, OE, EO, or
OO; and with 3 tosses there are 8 possible outcomes.
START
OEE OEO
EEE EOE EOO OOO 3 tosses, 8 outcomes
EEO OOE
OE
EE or OO 2 tosses, 4 outcomes
EO

E O 1 toss, 2 outcomes

START

Continuing in this manner, EOEEOE for example, represents

an even-odd-even-even-odd-even sequence of tosses and a
path that ends at square C. EEEOEE is 1 of the paths to
square B. We found all 64 possible paths!

Method 2: We kept track of the number of paths that land

at each of the shaded squares (see left). We notice that the
FINISH

A B 6 C15
15 D20
20 E 15
15 F 6 G
1 1 number of ways to reach a given shaded square is the sum of
5 10 10 5 the number of ways to reach the shaded squares that touch
1 1 the lower corner or corners of the given square. The numbers
E
4 6 4 of paths to A, B, C, D, E, F, and G are 1, 6, 15, 20, 15, 6,
1 1 O
V and 1, respectively.
3 3 D
E
1 1 D
N
2 Note: The numbers in the shaded squares in the diagram
1 1
at the left are the numbers in the first 7 rows of Pascal’s
1 1 triangle which is explored in Math Alive! Course IV.
1
START Method 3: There are 2 possible paths from the START
square to the 1st row of squares above START. From each of
those paths, there are 2 possible paths to the 2nd row above

194 / Math Alive! Course III

 Experimental and Theoretical Probability Lesson 8
Connector Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

START; so there are 2 × 2 ways to get to that row. From each

of those paths, there are 2 possible ways to get to the 3rd row
above START; so there are 2 × (2 × 2) paths to the 3rd row.
From each of those paths, there are 2 possible paths to the
4th row above START; so there are 2 × (2 × 2 × 2) ways to
get to the 4th row. And so on. In general, the number of
paths to each row is 2 times the number of paths to the previ-
ous row, and there are 2n paths to the nth row above START.
Therefore, the number of paths to the 6th row (the row with
the lettered squares) is 2 × (2 × 2 × 2 × 2 × 2) = 26 = 64.

6␣ ␣For each shaded square on the game board, ask the 6␣ ␣ The theoretical probability of landing in a particular
groups to determine the theoretical probability of land- shaded square is the number of paths to that square
ing in that square. Discuss their strategies and results. divided by the total number of paths to the shaded
squares in that row. Students may express probabilities
as fractions, decimals, or percentages. In the following
discussions, all probabilities are expressed as fractions.

The probability of landing in the START square is 1 since

it is certain that the marker must begin there. Note: if it
is impossible that an event can occur (e.g., landing in an
unshaded square), the probability of that event is 0. All
other probabilities vary from 0 (impossible) to 1 (certain).

Checker-A Game Theoretical Probabilities Since there is 1 path to each square in the 1st row above
START, and there are 2 possible paths to that row, the
probability of reaching each square in that row is 1 ⁄ 2 .
FINISH

A __
1 B __
6 C 15
__ D20
__ E 15
__ F __
6 G__
1
64 64 64 64 64 64 64
1 5 10 10 5 1
There are 3 shaded squares in the 2nd row above START
__ __ __ __ __ __
32 32 32 32 32 32 and 22 = 4 paths to that row (see Method 3 in Comment
E
1
__ 4
__ 6
__ 4
__ 1
__ 5). Since the number of paths to these squares are 1, 2,
16 16 16 16 16 O
V and 1, respectively (reading left to right or right to left),
1
__ 3
__ 3
__ 1
__ D
E 8 8 8 8 the probabilities of reaching these squares are 1 ⁄ 4 , 2 ⁄ 4 , and
D
N 1 ⁄ 4 , respectively (see diagram at the left).
1
__ 2
__ 1
__
4 4 4
1
__ 1
__
2 2 There are 23 = 8 paths to the 3rd row above START, and
1 there are, respectively, 1, 3, 3, and 1 paths to the shaded
START
squares in that row. Therefore, the probabilities of reach-
ing the shaded squares in the 3rd row above START are
1 ⁄ 8 , 3 ⁄ 8 , 3 ⁄ 8 , and 1 ⁄ 8 , respectively. Continuing in this man-

ner, there are 26 = 64 paths to the 6th row above START

(the row with the lettered squares) and there are, respec-
tively, 1, 6, 15, 20, 15, 6, and 1 paths to the squares in
that row. So, the probability of landing on each of the
squares A, B, C, D, E, F, and G, respectively, is 1 ⁄ 64 , 6 ⁄ 64,
15 ⁄ 64 , 20 ⁄ 64 , 15 ⁄ 64 , 6 ⁄ 64 , and 1 ⁄ 64 . Notice the sum of the

probabilities in any row is 1, since landing in the row is

certain during a Checker-A game.

(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 195

Lesson 8 Experimental and Theoretical Probability
Connector Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

6 (continued.)
Another approach to determining the probability of
landing in each shaded square is to associate each square
with the even and odd outcomes of the die. Since there
are only 2 possible outcomes on the first roll, E or O,
and each outcome is equally likely, there is a 1 ⁄ 2 chance
of landing in each square in the 1st row above START. In
general, once a marker is in a square, there is a 1⁄ 2
chance that the next roll will be E and 1 ⁄ 2 chance it will
be O. Thus, the probability of getting each of the follow-
ing outcomes, EE, EO, OE, or OO is 1 ⁄ 2 × 1 ⁄ 2 = 1 ⁄ 4 , and the
probability of landing in the 3 squares of the 2nd row
above START are, respectively, 1 ⁄ 4 , 1 ⁄ 4 + 1 ⁄ 4 = 1 ⁄ 2 , and 1 ⁄ 4.

Based on the above reasoning, the chance of getting an

EEE, for example, is 1 ⁄ 2 the chance of getting an EE, or
1 ⁄ 2 × (1 ⁄ 2 × 1 ⁄ 2 ) = 1 ⁄ 2 × 1 ⁄ 4 = 1 ⁄ 8 . Similarly, the probability of

getting any one of the 8 possible outcomes for 3 rolls is

1 ⁄ 8 , and the probabilities of landing in the squares in the

3rd row above START are, respectively, 1 ⁄ 8 , 1 ⁄ 8 + 1 ⁄ 8 + 1 ⁄ 8 =

3 ⁄ 8 , 1 ⁄ 8 + 1 ⁄ 8 + 1 ⁄ 8 = 3 ⁄ 8 , and 1 ⁄ 8 .

Continuing in this manner, the chance of getting any

one of the possible outcomes from 4 rolls of the die are
1 ⁄ 2 × (1 ⁄ 2 × 1 ⁄ 2 × 1 ⁄ 2 ) = 1 ⁄ 16 . Since there are, respectively, 1,

4, 6, 4, and 1 outcomes that bring the marker to the

squares in the 4th row above START, the probabilities of
landing in these squares are, respectively, 1 ⁄ 16 , 4 ⁄ 16 , 6 ⁄ 16 ,
4 ⁄ 16 , and 1 ⁄ 16 .

Notice the probability of any one outcome from n rolls

of the die is (1 ⁄ 2 )n. Hence, the probability of landing in a
particular square in the nth row of the Checker Game
Board is the product of (1⁄ 2 )n times the number of out-
comes that bring the marker to that square.

7␣ ␣ Give each group a copy of Connector Master B and 7␣ ␣ The theoretical probability, rounded to the nearest
ask them to make bar graphs showing the theoretical tenth of a percent, of landing in each lettered square is:
probability of the marker landing in each lettered
square. Discuss their observations about similarities and A, 1.6%
differences in this theoretical graph and their experi- B, 9.4%
mental graphs from Action 4. How does the theoretical C, 23.4%
graph compare to experimental graphs for the combined D, 31.2%
data from Action 4? E, 23.4%
F, 9.4%
G, 1.6%

If the groups’ experimental data from Action 4 was not

combined and graphed previously, students can do so
now to see the results as the number of games played
increases. In general, as the number of Checker-A games

196 / Math Alive! Course III

Experimental and Theoretical Probability Lesson 8
Connector Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

increases, the experimental probability of landing in

Lesson 8 Experimental and Theoretical Probability
Connector Master B
each lettered square should approach the corresponding
theoretical probability. If you teach several classes,
Relative Frequencies—Theoretical Results combining the class’s experimental results may be useful
for illustrating this.
60

50

40
P
E
R
C
E 30
N
T

20

10

A B C D E F G
Ending Square

8␣ ␣ Give each group a copy of Connector Master A and a 8␣ ␣ Here are some issues to listen for as you observe
copy of Connector Master C (see next page), and ask the while the groups work: Is sample size (i.e., the total
groups to carry out the instructions. After the groups number of games) a factor in planning for their experi-
have made their presentations, play a class Checker-B ments? Are they establishing procedures to assure ran-
game according to the instructions on Connector Master dom tosses of the dice? Do they have recording methods
C. Discuss. established so their data can be analyzed after the ex-
periment? Are they devising methods that meaningfully
involve everyone in the group? Are they showing evi-
dence (theoretical and experimental) to support their
conclusions? Are students attempting to make sense out
of contradictions between experimental and theoretical
outcomes? Are they utilizing/expanding upon methods
from the Checker-A explorations?
× 1 2 3 4 5 6
1 2 3 4 5 6 Some students may use a grid such as the one at the left
1
to show all the possible products of numbers from 2
2 2 4 6 8 10 12 dice. Since 27 of these 36 products are even numbers,
the probability of tossing an even product is 27 ⁄ 36 = 3 ⁄ 4 ,
3 3 6 9 12 15 18
while the probability of an odd product is 9 ⁄ 36 = 1 ⁄ 4 .
4 4 8 12 16 20 24
5 5 10 15 20 25 30
6 6 12 18 24 30 36
(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 197

 Lesson 8 Experimental and Theoretical Probability
Connector Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

8 (continued.)
Experimental and Theoretical Probability Lesson 8
Connector Master C
Combinations of even (E) and odd (O) products produce
the same 64 paths for the Checker-B game as for the
Checker-B Game
Checker-A game. Hence, there are 64 possible outcomes
Replace each of the letters A-G on your group’s Checker Game
Board with one of the numbers 1-7 (one number per square and for the Checker-B game. The outcomes for the first 4
no numbers can be repeated) so that your group will be likely to rows of the game board are shown here:
win the following game.

Each group places a marker on the START square of their game

board. The teacher tosses a pair of dice, then computes and an-
OEE OEO
nounces the product of the numbers on the upturned sides of the
EEE EOE EOO OOO
EEO OOE
dice. If the product is an EVEN number, each group moves their
marker forward 1 square diagonally to the LEFT. If the product is OE
an ODD number, each group moves their marker 1 square diago- EE or OO
nally to the RIGHT. EO

The winning group is the group (or groups) whose marker ends in E O
the square with the highest number.

Your Group’s Task START

Record your responses to a)-c) on a poster. Plan to spend 2-3 min-
utes presenting your results to the class.

a) Without any data analysis or data collection, where do you pre- However, since the probabilities of rolling an even
dict you should place the numbers 1-7?
product and an odd product are not equal for the
b) Now reason mathematically to verify or adjust the numbering Checker-B game, the probabilities of landing in the
system you predicted in a). Write a sound mathematical argument
showing why this numbering is most likely to be a winning one. shaded squares are different from those in the Checker-A
Your arguments should include the following evidence: experi-
mental and theoretical probabilities, graphs, diagrams, and con-
game. That is, although the outcomes for a given row of
cise mathematical language. If your theoretical and experimental the Checker-A game are the same as the outcomes for a
probabilities suggest different numberings, explain how you deal
with that. given row of the Checker-B game (e.g., EE, OE, EO, and
c) Suppose your teacher were to pick at random a shaded square
OO for the 2nd row above START), the outcomes for a
on the game board. On your poster, explain how to determine the given row of the Checker-A game are equally likely to
probability that a marker would land on that square during a
Checker-B game. occur, while the outcomes for a given row of the
Checker-B game are unequally likely.

Just as for the Checker-A game, the probability of land-

ing in the START square is 1, since it is certain that the
marker begins there. However, the chance of rolling an
even number (E) is 3 ⁄ 4 and the chance of rolling an odd
number (O) is 1⁄ 4 . Therefore, the probabilities of the
marker landing in the left and right shaded squares of
the 1st row above START are 3 ⁄ 4 and 1 ⁄ 4 , respectively.

In general, once a marker is in a square, there is a 3 ⁄ 4

chance that the next roll will be E, and a 1 ⁄ 4 chance it
Checker-B Game Theoretical Probabilities will be O. Hence, the probability of rolling EE is 3 ⁄ 4 × 3⁄ 4
= 9 ⁄ 16 and the probability of rolling an EO is 3 ⁄ 4 × 1 ⁄ 4 =
3 ⁄ 16 . Thus, the probabilities of getting EE, EO, OE, or OO,
FINISH

A
729
____
B
1458
____
C
1215
____
D
540
____
E
135
____
F
18
____
G
1
____ respectively, are 3 ⁄ 4 × 3 ⁄ 4 , 3⁄ 4 × 1 ⁄ 4 , 1 ⁄ 4 × 3 ⁄ 4 , and 1 ⁄ 4 × 1 ⁄ 4 , or
4096 4096 4096 4096 4096 4096 4096 9 ⁄ 16 , 3 ⁄ 16 , 3 ⁄ 16 , and 1 ⁄ 16 . Therefore, the probabilities of
243
____ 405
____ 270
____ 90
____ 15
____ 1
____
1024 1024 1024 1024 1024 1024 landing in each of the 3 squares in the 2nd row above
E
81
___ 108
___ 54
___ 12
___ 1
___ START are, respectively, 9 ⁄ 16 , 3 ⁄ 16 + 3 ⁄ 16 = 6 ⁄ 16 , and 1 ⁄ 16 .
256 256 256 256 256
O
V 27
__ 27
__ 9
__ 1
__ D
E 64 64 64 64 Continuing with the above reasoning, the chance of
D
N
9
__ 6
__ 1
__ getting an EEE, for example, is (3 ⁄ 4 × 3 ⁄ 4 ) × 3⁄ 4 and the
16 16 16
chance of getting an EEO is (3 ⁄ 4 × 3 ⁄ 4 ) × 1 ⁄ 4 . Thus, for any
3
__ 1
__
4 4 given outcome with m E’s and n O’s, the probability of
that outcome is (3 ⁄ 4 )m × (1 ⁄ 4 )n. The numbers in each
1
shaded square of the game board shown at the left
START

198 / Math Alive! Course III

Experimental and Theoretical Probability Lesson 8
Connector Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

indicate the probability that the marker will land in that

square during a Checker-B game.

As another approach to determining the probabilities of

landing in any given square above START, some stu-
dents may compute the following: (3 ⁄ 4 times the prob-
ability for the square [if any] touching its lower right
corner) plus (1 ⁄ 4 times the probability for the square [if
any] touching its lower left corner).

The theoretical probabilities (rounded to the nearest ten-

thousandth) of reaching each of the lettered squares are:

A (3 ⁄ 4 )6 × 1 = .1780 (1 path of 6 evens)

B (3 ⁄ 4 )5 × (1⁄ 4 ) × 6 = .3560 (6 paths of 5 even and 1 odd)
C (3 ⁄ 4 )4 × (1⁄ 4 )2 × 15 = .2966 (15 paths of 4 even, 2 odd)
D (3 ⁄ 4 )3 × (1⁄ 4 )3 × 20 = .1318 (20 paths of 3 even, 3 odd)
E (3 ⁄ 4 )2 × (1⁄ 4 )4 × 15 = .0330 (15 paths of 2 even, 4 odd)
F (3 ⁄ 4 )1 × (1⁄ 4 )5 × 6 = .0044 (6 paths of 1 even, 5 odd)
G 1 × (1 ⁄ 4 )6 = .0002 (1 path of 6 odd)

Based on the above theoretical probabilities, the follow-

ing numbering would be most likely to win the Checker-
B Game: A, 5; B, 7; C, 6; D, 4; E, 3; F, 2; G, 1.

9␣ ␣ (Optional) Give each group a copy of Connector 9␣ ␣ You could also make this an individual assessment
Master D and give each student another copy of Con- activity by giving each student a copy of Connector
nector Master A. Have each student create a game board Master D and having them write mathematical argu-
and then play a class Checker-C game according to the ments involving theoretical and experimental probabili-
instructions on Connector Master D. Discuss. ties to support their assignments of the numbers 1-7 to
squares A-G.
Lesson 8 Experimental and Theoretical Probability
Connector Master D
The probability of moving left is 2⁄ 3 and the probability
of moving right is 1⁄ 3 . The probabilities (to the nearest
ten-thousandth) of landing on the squares A-G are:
Checker-C Game Procedures
P(A) = (2 ⁄ 3 )6 ≈ .0878 ≈ 8.78%
Each player replaces the letters A-G on her/his Checker
Game Board with the numbers 1-7 (one number per
P(B) = 6(2 ⁄ 3 )5(1 ⁄ 3 ) ≈ .2634 ≈ 26.34%
square, and no numbers can be repeated), positioning P(C) = 15(2 ⁄ 3 )4(1⁄ 3 )2 ≈ .3292 ≈ 32.92%
the numbers with the intent of winning the following P(D) = 20(2 ⁄ 3 )3(1 ⁄ 3 )3 ≈ .2195 ≈ 21.95%
game. P(E) = 15(2 ⁄ 3 )2(1 ⁄ 3 )4 ≈ .0823 ≈ 8.23%
P(F ) = 6(2 ⁄ 3 )(1 ⁄ 3 )5 ≈ .0165 ≈ 1.65%
All players place a marker in the START square of their
P(G) = (1 ⁄ 3)6 ≈ .0014 ≈ .14%
game boards. The teacher rolls a standard die, and an-
nounces the number obtained. If the number showing
on the die is 1, 2, 3, or 4, all players move their mark- Based on the above theoretical probabilities, the follow-
ers forward 1 space diagonally to the LEFT. If the num- ing numbering would be most likely to win the Checker-
ber showing on the die is 5 or 6, all players move their C game: A, 4; B, 6; C, 7; D, 5; E, 3; F, 2; G, 1.
markers 1 space forward diagonally to the RIGHT. The
winning player is the one whose marker ends in the
square with the highest number.

Math Alive! Course III / 199

Lesson 8 Experimental and Theoretical Probability

TEACHER NOTES:

200 / Math Alive! Course III

Experimental and Theoretical Probability Lesson 8

Focus Teacher Activity

OVERVIEW & PURPOSE MATERIALS
Students use simulations to gather data and determine ✔ Focus Student Activity 8.2, 1 copy per pair of students
experimental probabilities for different strategies of playing a and 1 transparency.
game called Monty’s Dilemma. The process of carrying out ✔ Focus Masters A, B, and D, 1 transparency of each.
these simulations provides insights about the theoretical
✔ Focus Master C, 1 copy per pair of students and
probabilities of the various strategies.
1 transparency.
✔ Bobby pins or paper clips, 1 per pair of students.
✔ Coins, 1 per pair of students.

ACTIONS COMMENTS

1␣ ␣ Arrange the students in pairs. Place a transparency of 1␣ ␣ Note that, when a contestant selects a door, it is not
Focus Master A on the overhead for the students to read. opened. Rather, Monty opens 1 of the 2 remaining
Ask them to discuss whether they think it is best to doors, and he always opens 1 that has a gag prize behind
STICK or SWITCH. it. At that point, the contestant may STICK (i.e., stay
with her/his original selection) or SWITCH to the other
Experimental and Theoretical Probability Lesson 8
unopened door.
Focus Master A

Some students may feel that it makes no difference

whether the contestant switches or sticks. For example,
Monty’s Dilemma
they may argue that only 2 unopened doors are left after
Monty reveals 1 gag prize, and the chance of winning a
On Monty’s TV game show, there are 3 doors. valuable prize is 1 out of 2, whether the contestant sticks
Behind 1 of the doors is a valuable prize and or switches. Be careful not to give clues regarding correct
behind the other 2 doors are gag prizes. To play or incorrect reasoning by students!
Monty’s game, a contestant is invited to choose
(but not open) 1 of 3 doors.

After the contestant chooses a door, Monty reveals

what is behind 1 of the other 2 doors, always show-
ing a gag prize. Then Monty presents the contestant
with the following dilemma:

“Would you like to STICK with the door you chose,

or SWITCH to the other unopened door?”

Math Alive! Course III / 201

Lesson 8 Experimental and Theoretical Probability
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

2␣ ␣ Place a transparency of Focus Master B, on the over- 2␣ ␣ It is not intended that students answer the given
head for the students to read. Clarify as needed. question now; rather the intent is to assure that students
notice the addition of a 3rd strategy—flip. Some stu-
dents may feel that the chance of winning a valuable
Lesson 8 Experimental and Theoretical Probability prize is 50% for all 3 strategies. Remember, no clues! In
Focus Master B
fact, you might encourage students to keep their predic-
tions private for now, noting there will be opportunities
Monty’s Strategies to test their ideas in subsequent actions.

After 1 of the doors with a gag prize has been

opened, which of these 3 strategies is most likely
to lead the contestant to the winning door?

STICK strategy. Keep the door that was originally

selected.

FLIP strategy. Choose again by randomly select-

ing a door from the remaining 2 closed doors.

SWITCH strategy. Switch from the original door

to the other closed door.

3␣ ␣ Discuss the students’ ideas regarding ways to conduct 3␣ ␣ Some students may suggest using actual doors or
an experiment that involves playing Monty’s game boxes to represent the doors. Others may suggest meth-
many times using each of the 3 strategies—stick, flip, ods such as using spinners or placing slips of paper in a
and switch—to see the effect of each strategy on the hat to represent the process of choosing doors. While
outcome of the game. Use this discussion as a context using real doors or boxes for the doors may help stu-
for introducing the use of simulations for modeling dents become more familiar with the game, such experi-
experiments that are too cumbersome or unrealistic to ments can be very time consuming. Using spinners
carry out. and/or selecting slips of paper from a hat to model the
real situation are examples of simulations. In general, a
simulation is a process in which experiments that closely
resemble the given situation are carried out repeatedly.
See also Lesson 17 of this course.

4␣ ␣ Place a transparency of Focus Master C on the over- 4␣ ␣ The spinner provides one possibility for simulating
head. Follow steps a)-d) below to briefly model the use each strategy. You may wish to use another method
of a spinner for simulating each of the strategies—stick, suggested by your students. Regardless the simulation
flip, and switch—to determine which of Monty’s strate- method, it is important to clarify the use of each strat-
gies is most likely to result in a contestant winning a egy before students begin their experiments.
valuable prize.
The point here is to give just enough information so
Step a) Ask the students to assume, for convenience’s sake, that students understand the procedures. In Action 5
that the prize is behind Door 1 and, when the spinner is students carry out a simulation to predict the best strat-
spun, the pointer determines the door selected by the egy—stick, flip, or switch.
contestant.

202 / Math Alive! Course III

Experimental and Theoretical Probability Lesson 8
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

Step b) Spin Spinner I and ask the students to deter- Step a) A bobby pin, or a paper clip with one end un-
mine the outcome using the STICK strategy. Discuss folded, held in place with a pencil point at the center of
students’ ideas and questions. the spinner can be used as a pointer for the spinner. If
the pointer lands on a line, the spin can be repeated.
Step c) Spin Spinner I and ask the students to determine
the outcome using the FLIP strategy. Discuss. The following discussion is intended to clarify use of the
spinners and the 3 strategies for selecting a door:
Step d) Spin Spinner I and ask the students to deter-
mine the outcome using the SWITCH strategy. Discuss. Step b) The STICK strategy. Suppose the spinner lands
on 2 and this means the contestant chooses Door 2.
Monty opens door 3 (a gag prize), the contestant sticks
Experimental and Theoretical Probability Lesson 8
Focus Master C
with Door 2 and loses.

Spinner I
2
prize bobby pin
2 1
prize 3
1
Step c) The FLIP strategy. Suppose the spinner lands on
3 Door 2 and this means the contestant choses Door 2.
Spinner II Monty opens Door 3 to reveal a gag prize. The contes-
tant then flips a coin to decide whether to (heads) stick
with Door 2 or (tails) switch to Door 1. Thus, there are 2
2 possible outcomes: (1) the coin lands heads, the contes-
tant sticks with Door 2 and loses; or (2) the coin lands
tails, the contestant switches to Door 1 and wins.

1 Step d) The SWITCH strategy. Suppose the spinner lands

on Door 2 and this means the contestant choses Door 2.
3 Monty opens Door 3 to reveal a gag prize. The contes-
tant then switches to Door 1 and wins.

Rather than illustrating with more examples for the class,

you might move on to Action 5, circulating and clarify-
ing questions about procedures while the pairs work.

5␣ ␣ Give each pair of students a copy of Focus Master C, 5␣ ␣ It is important that students actually carry out the
a copy of Focus Student Activity 8.2 (see next page), a simulation, because in the process of doing so, they may
bobby pin or paper clip, and a coin. Ask the pairs to develop insights regarding the actual chances of win-
complete 20 trials for each of Monty’s 3 strategies and to ning with each strategy.
record their results on Focus Student Activity 8.2. When
completed, record the total class data on a transparency To avoid confusion, you might suggest that students use
of Focus Student Activity 8.2. Ask the pairs to use this 1 strategy for 20 consecutive spins, then a 2nd strategy
data as the basis for determining the winning strategy. for 20 consecutive spins, and finally, the 3rd strategy for
Discuss their conjectures, conclusions, and reasoning. 20 spins.

(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 203

Lesson 8 Experimental and Theoretical Probability
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

5 (continued.)
Lesson 8 Experimental and Theoretical Probability
Rather than designate one of the 3 doors as having the
Focus Student Activity 8.2 prize, as in step a) of Action 4, some pairs of students
NAME DATE may find the game more interesting if played as follows:
Tallies and Totals for Each Strategy
• Student A spins Spinner II to obtain the number of the
WINS LOSSES door with the valuable prize and conceals this number
from Student B.
• Student B chooses Door 1, 2, or 3.
• Student A tells Student B the number of 1 door that
STICK
contains a gag prize.
• Student B chooses a door based on either the stick,
Total: Total: flip, or switch strategy.
• Student A announces whether Student B wins or loses,
and records the result.

FLIP Depending on your time needs, this data collection

could take place at home. The question of determining
the best strategy in Monty’s game may be an engaging
Total: Total:
one for families.

The data may point to the switch strategy as the win-

SWITCH ning strategy, showing less than 50% chance of winning
with the stick strategy, about 50% chance with the flip
strategy, and considerably more than 50% chance with
Total: Total: the switch strategy.

Here are examples of a few observations made by stu-

dents:

We can win with the stick strategy only if our first choice is
the door with the prize. Our chance of doing that is 1 out of
3, so the probability of winning with the stick strategy is 1 ⁄ 3 .

With the flip strategy, we have to flip the coin to determine

the choice of doors. Our chances of getting the door with the
prize are 1 out of 2, so the probability of winning with the
flip strategy is 1 ⁄ 2.

The difference between the flip and stick strategies is that

with the flip strategy we make a new choice, randomly,
between 2 doors after 1 of the doors has been opened. With
the flip strategy we use the information about the gag prize
door; with the stick strategy we don’t use that information,
we just stay with our original choice.

The only way we can lose with the switch strategy is if our
first choice is the door with the prize behind it. So, the prob-
ability of losing with the switch strategy is 1 ⁄ 3 , and the
probability of winning is 2 ⁄ 3.

204 / Math Alive! Course III

Experimental and Theoretical Probability Lesson 8
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

6␣ ␣ If it didn’t come up during Action 5, ask the pairs to 6␣ ␣ The theoretical probabilities for the stick, flip, and
determine the theoretical probability of winning the switch strategies are 1⁄ 3 , 1 ⁄ 2 , and 2 ⁄ 3 , respectively. See the
game with each of the 3 strategies. Discuss. sample student comments listed in Comment 5 for a
discussion of the reasoning behind these probabilities.

7␣ ␣ Write the following on the overhead for each student 7␣ ␣ This provides an opportunity for individual students
to complete: to organize, clarify, and communicate their understand-
ings regarding why each strategy has a different prob-
Write a letter to a friend explaining the chances ability of winning.
of winning with each of Monty’s strategies—
stick, flip, and switch—so your friend will be You might suggest that the recipient of the letter already
confident about which strategy to use when knows how to play the game. Thus, students’ energy will
playing Monty’s game. Tell your friend what be spent describing the reasoning behind the use of each
surprised you about Monty’s game. strategy.

Note that more information about this game can be

found in the April 1991 issue of the Mathematics Teacher,
Vol. 84, No. 4, pp. 252-256.

8␣ ␣ Pose one or both of the following extensions of 8␣ ␣ Students may benefit from recalling the simulation
Monty’s Dilemma for the pairs of students to investi- with the 3-part spinners in Action 4 in order to design
gate. spinners and simulations for these extensions of
Monty’s Dilemma.
Monty’s 4-Door Dilemma: A valuable prize is behind 1
of 4 doors and after the contestant selects 1 door, Monty The stick strategy continues to be the best strategy for
opens a door with a gag prize. Which of the 3 strate- these extensions of Monty’s Dilemma.
gies—stick, flip, or switch—is the best?
Monty’s 4-Door Dilemma: Stick Strategy, probability 1 ⁄ 4 ;
Monty’s 5-Door Dilemma: Same as 4-door problem but Flip Strategy, probability 1 ⁄ 3 ; Switch Strategy, probability
the prize is behind 1 of 5 doors. 3 ⁄ 8 . With the Switch Strategy, once a door with a gag

prize behind it is opened, the probability the prize is

behind 1 of the remaining 3 doors is 3 ⁄ 4 , and by switch-
ing there are 2 doors to choose from. Thus, the 3 ⁄ 8 prob-
ability is obtained from (1 ⁄ 2 )(3 ⁄ 4 ).

Monty’s 5-Door Dilemma: Stick Strategy, probability 1 ⁄ 5 ;

Flip Strategy, probability 1 ⁄ 4 ; Switch Strategy, probability
4 ⁄ 15 . With the Switch Strategy, once a door with a gag

prize behind it is opened, the probability the prize is

behind 1 of the remaining 4 doors is 4 ⁄ 5 , and by switch-
ing there are 3 doors to choose from. Thus the 4 ⁄ 15 prob-
ability is obtained from (1 ⁄ 3 )(4 ⁄ 5 ).

Math Alive! Course III / 205

Lesson 8 Experimental and Theoretical Probability
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

9␣ ␣ Place a transparency of Focus Master D on the over- 9␣ ␣ Initially, students may incorrectly predict that Kelsey
head for the students to read. Discuss the students’ ideas has a 50% chance of winning with her ticket, since the
regarding possible simulation methods (not solutions). coach is holding 2 tickets and 1 of them is the winning
Then ask the pairs to complete Parts 1 and 2 on Focus ticket. Avoid giving clues!
Master D. When completed, discuss their results and
reasoning. 1a) It is important to discuss ways to simulate this situa-
tion since it is critical that students’ simulations model
the conditions of the problem. If students have diffi-
Lesson 8 Experimental and Theoretical Probability
Focus Master D
culty designing an appropriate simulation, you might
suggest the following approach which uses 10 numbered
slips of paper in a hat (note that students investigate
Kelsey’s Dilemma simulations in depth in Lesson 17 of this course).
The school tennis team is holding a special drawing
for a new tennis racket. A total of 10 tickets were given
Student A randomly selects a number from the hat and
out—1 to each of the 10 tennis team members. This shows the number to Student B who records the number
morning Coach Ward said the following to Kelsey, “I as Kelsey’s and replaces it in the hat. Next Student B
have 2 ticket stubs in my hand, yours and another one. randomly selects and records the winning number
One of these 2 ticket stubs has the winning number. without showing Student A. If that number is different
Would you like to STICK with your ticket number, or
SWITCH for the other number I am holding?” What
from Kelsey’s, then that number is both the winning
should Kelsey do? number and the “other number” in Coach Ward’s hand.
If that number is Kelsey’s, then Kelsey’s number is the
1. Design and carry out a simulation to help you solve winning number, and Student B records a number
Kelsey’s dilemma. which is 1 greater or 1 less than Kelsey’s as the “other
number” (note: choosing a number that is 1 more or 1
a) Describe the step-by-step procedures of your
simulation. less than Kelsey’s number assures randomness). Then,
b) Make an organized listing of all the data that you without seeing the “other number” recorded by Student
collect. B, Student A decides whether Kelsey sticks or switches,
c) Use experimental probabilities as the basis for and Student B reports whether Kelsey wins or loses.
solving Kelsey’s dilemma.

2. Use theoretical probabilities to solve Kelsey’s di- For example, suppose that Student A selects the number
lemma. Explain how you determine these probabili- 1 as Kelsey’s number. Then suppose that Student B
ties. selects the number 7 as the winning number. If Kelsey
sticks with her number, she loses; if she switches to the
7, she wins. Or, as another example, suppose Student A
selects the number 1 as Kelsey’s number, and suppose
that Student B also selects the number 1 as the winning
number; hence, the “other number’ recorded by Student
B is 2. If Kelsey sticks with her number, she wins; if she
switches to the 2 she loses.

1b)-c) Students’ simulations should strongly support

switching as the best choice.

2) The theoretical probability that Kelsey’s original

number will be the winning number is 1 ⁄ 10, since there is
only 1 way out of 10 possibilities that her number can
be selected. Hence, if Kelsey sticks with her original
number, the probability she will win is 1 ⁄ 10 . Notice that
the only way Kelsey can lose by switching is if the coach
selects Kelsey’s number as the winning number, and
there is only 1 ⁄ 10 chance that he will select her number.
Hence, the theoretical probability that Kelsey will win
by switching is 9 ⁄ 10 !
206 / Math Alive! Course III
Experimental and Theoretical Probability Lesson 8

Follow-up Student Activity 8.3

NAME DATE

1␣ ␣ Explain in your own words the meaning of each of the following

terms. Include an example to clarify each explanation.

• Probability • Sample size

• Experimental probability • Binomial experiment
• Theoretical probability • Equally likely outcomes
• Simulation • Unequally likely outcomes

2␣ ␣ Replace the letters A-D on the Checker 1-4 Game Board shown
below with the numbers 1-4 so that you are most likely to win the
Checker 1-4 Game.

Checker 1-4 Game

Each player places a marker on the START square of their game
board. One player spins a bobby pin or paper clip on the spinner
shown below to determine the direction (left or right) of a forward
diagonal move of every player’s marker. Repeat until the markers
each reach a numbered square. Each player records the number of
the ending square for their marker. The winner is the player with
the highest total after 20 games.

Checker 1- 4 Game Board

A B C D
left right

right START

Explain the mathematical reasoning behind your numbering sys-

tem, using theoretical and experimental probabilities as supporting
evidence. Show all data that you collect to determine experimental
probabilities, and show all information that you use to determine
theoretical probabilities.

(Continued on back.)
Math Alive! Course III / 207
Lesson 8 Experimental and Theoretical Probability
Follow-up Student Activity (cont.)

3␣ ␣ This version of the game, Monty’s Dilemma, involves 4 doors—

one with a valuable prize and 3 with gag prizes. After the contestant
selects a door (but doesn’t open it), Monty opens 2 of the remaining
doors, both with gag prizes. A contestant may choose 1 of the fol-
lowing strategies:

i) STICK with the original choice

1 2 3 4
ii) FLIP a coin to determine which door
to choose

iii) SWITCH from the original choice to

the remaining door

a) Design a simulation of the game. Write a description of the step-

by-step procedures of your simulation. Give several examples to
show how each strategy works in your simulation.

b) Carry out your simulation at least 10 times for each of the 3

given strategies. Show an organized listing of all the experimental
data that you collect.

c) Based on an analysis of your experimental data, write a convinc-

ing argument telling which strategy is most likely to be a winning
strategy for a contestant. Use experimental probabilities to support
your position.

d) Based on theoretical probabilities, which strategy is most likely

to be a winning strategy? Show how you determine each theoretical
probability.

e) Determine the probabilities of winning and why with the stick,

flip, or switch strategies for each of the following versions of
Monty’s game: there are 5 doors, 4 gag prizes, and Monty opens 3
doors; there are 6 doors, 5 gag prizes, and Monty opens 4 doors;
there are n doors, n – 1 gag prizes, and Monty opens n – 2 doors.

208 / Math Alive! Course III

Experimental and Theoretical Probability Lesson 8
Connector Master A

O
D
D
G
F
E
Checker Game Board

START
D
C
B
A

FINISH
V
E

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 8 Experimental and Theoretical Probability
Connector Master B

Relative Frequencies—Theoretical Results

60

50

40
P
E
R
C
E 30
N
T

20

10

A B C D E F G
Ending Square
Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Experimental and Theoretical Probability Lesson 8
Connector Master C

Checker-B Game

Replace each of the letters A-G on your group’s Checker Game

Board with one of the numbers 1-7 (one number per square and
no numbers can be repeated) so that your group will be likely to
win the following game.

Each group places a marker on the START square of their game

board. The teacher tosses a pair of dice, then computes and an-
nounces the product of the numbers on the upturned sides of the
dice. If the product is an EVEN number, each group moves their
marker forward 1 square diagonally to the LEFT. If the product is
an ODD number, each group moves their marker 1 square diago-
nally to the RIGHT.

The winning group is the group (or groups) whose marker ends in
the square with the highest number.

Your Group’s Task

Record your responses to a)-c) on a poster. Plan to spend 2-3 min-

utes presenting your results to the class.

a) Without any data analysis or data collection, where do you pre-

dict you should place the numbers 1-7?

b) Now reason mathematically to verify or adjust the numbering

system you predicted in a). Write a sound mathematical argument
showing why this numbering is most likely to be a winning one.
Your arguments should include the following evidence: experi-
mental and theoretical probabilities, graphs, diagrams, and con-
cise mathematical language. If your theoretical and experimental
probabilities suggest different numberings, explain how you deal
with that.

c) Suppose your teacher were to pick at random a shaded square

on the game board. On your poster, explain how to determine the
probability that a marker would land on that square during a
Checker-B game.
© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 8 Experimental and Theoretical Probability
Connector Master D

Checker-C Game Procedures

Each player replaces the letters A-G on her/his Checker

Game Board with the numbers 1-7 (one number per
square, and no numbers can be repeated), positioning
the numbers with the intent of winning the following
game.

All players place a marker in the START square of their

game boards. The teacher rolls a standard die, and an-
nounces the number obtained. If the number showing
on the die is 1, 2, 3, or 4, all players move their mark-
ers forward 1 space diagonally to the LEFT. If the num-
ber showing on the die is 5 or 6, all players move their
markers 1 space forward diagonally to the RIGHT. The
winning player is the one whose marker ends in the
square with the highest number.

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Experimental and Theoretical Probability Lesson 8

Connector Student Activity 8.1

NAME DATE

1␣␣Each group member is to play the Checker-A game several times

and keep a record of the number of times the marker lands in each
of squares A-G. Your group needs to play a total of 50 games. When
everyone has finished, record your data and totals on the following
chart:

Players’ Ending Square on Game Board Total

Names Games
A B C D E F G
1
2
3
4
5
Group Totals 50

Based on your group’s experimental results, determine the experi-

mental probability of landing in each of squares A-G on the game
board. Express each answer as a fraction, decimal, and percent.
Note: P(A) stands for “the probability of landing in square A.”

a) P(A) = b) P(B) = c) P(C) =

d) P(D) = e) P(E) = f) P(F) =

g) P(G) =

(Continued on back.)

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 8 Experimental and Theoretical Probability
Connector Student Activity 8.1 (cont.)

2␣␣Make a bar graph showing the relative frequency of the marker

ending in each column, based on your group’s experimental results:

60

50

40
P
E
R
C
E 30
N
T

20

10

A B C D E F G
Ending Square
Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Experimental and Theoretical Probability Lesson 8
Focus Master A

Monty’s Dilemma

On Monty’s TV game show, there are 3 doors.

Behind 1 of the doors is a valuable prize and
behind the other 2 doors are gag prizes. To play
Monty’s game, a contestant is invited to choose
(but not open) 1 of 3 doors.

After the contestant chooses a door, Monty reveals

what is behind 1 of the other 2 doors, always show-
ing a gag prize. Then Monty presents the contestant
with the following dilemma:

“Would you like to STICK with the door you chose,

or SWITCH to the other unopened door?”

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 8 Experimental and Theoretical Probability
Focus Master B

Monty’s Strategies

After 1 of the doors with a gag prize has been

opened, which of these 3 strategies is most likely
to lead the contestant to the winning door?

STICK strategy. Keep the door that was originally

selected.

FLIP strategy. Choose again by randomly select-

ing a door from the remaining 2 closed doors.

SWITCH strategy. Switch from the original door

to the other closed door.

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Experimental and Theoretical Probability Lesson 8
Focus Master C

Spinner I

2
prize
1
3
Spinner II

1
3

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 8 Experimental and Theoretical Probability
Focus Master D

Kelsey’s Dilemma

The school tennis team is holding a special drawing

for a new tennis racket. A total of 10 tickets were given
out—1 to each of the 10 tennis team members. This
morning Coach Ward said the following to Kelsey, “I
have 2 ticket stubs in my hand, yours and another one.
One of these 2 ticket stubs has the winning number.
Would you like to STICK with your ticket number, or
SWITCH for the other number I am holding?” What
should Kelsey do?

1. Design and carry out a simulation to help you solve

Kelsey’s dilemma.

a) Describe the step-by-step procedures of your

simulation.
b) Make an organized listing of all the data that you
collect.
c) Use experimental probabilities as the basis for
solving Kelsey’s dilemma.

2. Use theoretical probabilities to solve Kelsey’s di-

lemma. Explain how you determine these probabili-
ties.

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Experimental and Theoretical Probability Lesson 8

Focus Student Activity 8.2

NAME DATE

Tallies and Totals for Each Strategy

WINS LOSSES

STICK

Total: Total:

FLIP

Total: Total:

SWITCH

Total: Total:
© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 8 Experimental and Theoretical Probability

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Experimental and Theoretical Probability Lesson 8

Follow-up Student Activity 8.3

NAME DATE

1␣␣Explain in your own words the meaning of each of the following

terms. Include an example to clarify each explanation.

• Probability • Sample size

• Experimental probability • Binomial experiment
• Theoretical probability • Equally likely outcomes
• Simulation • Unequally likely outcomes

2␣␣Replace the letters A-D on the Checker 1-4 Game Board shown
below with the numbers 1-4 so that you are most likely to win the
Checker 1-4 Game.

Checker 1-4 Game

Each player places a marker on the START square of their game
board. One player spins a bobby pin or paper clip on the spinner
shown below to determine the direction (left or right) of a forward
diagonal move of every player’s marker. Repeat until the markers
each reach a numbered square. Each player records the number of
the ending square for their marker. The winner is the player with
the highest total after 20 games.

Checker 1- 4 Game Board

A B C D
left right

right START

Explain the mathematical reasoning behind your numbering sys-

tem, using theoretical and experimental probabilities as supporting
evidence. Show all data that you collect to determine experimental
probabilities, and show all information that you use to determine
theoretical probabilities.

(Continued on back.)

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 8 Experimental and Theoretical Probability
Follow-up Student Activity (cont.)

3␣␣This version of the game, Monty’s Dilemma, involves 4 doors—

one with a valuable prize and 3 with gag prizes. After the contestant
selects a door (but doesn’t open it), Monty opens 2 of the remaining
doors, both with gag prizes. A contestant may choose 1 of the fol-
lowing strategies:

i) STICK with the original choice

1 2 3 4
ii) FLIP a coin to determine which door
to choose

iii) SWITCH from the original choice to

the remaining door

a) Design a simulation of the game. Write a description of the step-

by-step procedures of your simulation. Give several examples to
show how each strategy works in your simulation.

b) Carry out your simulation at least 10 times for each of the 3

given strategies. Show an organized listing of all the experimental
data that you collect.

c) Based on an analysis of your experimental data, write a convinc-

ing argument telling which strategy is most likely to be a winning
strategy for a contestant. Use experimental probabilities to support
your position.

d) Based on theoretical probabilities, which strategy is most likely

to be a winning strategy? Show how you determine each theoretical
probability.

e) Determine the probabilities of winning and why with the stick,

flip, or switch strategies for each of the following versions of
Monty’s game: there are 5 doors, 4 gag prizes, and Monty opens 3
doors; there are 6 doors, 5 gag prizes, and Monty opens 4 doors;
there are n doors, n – 1 gag prizes, and Monty opens n – 2 doors.

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Reasoning and Radicals
Reasoning & Radicals Lesson 9 Lesson 9

.
.
.
.
THE BIG IDEA .
.
CONNECTOR
.
. OVERVIEW MATERIALS FOR TEACHER ACTIVITY
Examining relation- .
.
. Students form squares on ✔ Connector Masters A, B, ✔ 1-cm grid paper (see
ships among squares .
. grids to illustrate the mean- and C, 1 copy of each per Blackline Masters), 2
.
and right triangles . ing of square root. They pair of students and 1 sheets per student and
.
. explore a visual proof of the transparency of each. 1 transparency.
provides a meaningful .
. Pythagorean Theorem. ✔ Connector Student Activ- ✔ Blank paper, 2 sheets per
.
context for developing . ity 9.1, 1 copy per stu- pair of students.
.
. dent and 1 transparency.
inductive and deductive . ✔ Blank note card, 1 card
.
. per pair of students.
reasoning strategies .
. ✔ Scissors and tape, 1 for
.
and lays groundwork . each pair of students.
.
.
for understanding proof .
.
.
and the development of . FOCUS
.
.
a mathematical system. .
. OVERVIEW MATERIALS FOR TEACHER ACTIVITY
.
Such investigations . Students investigate an- ✔ Focus Masters A and D, ✔ 1-cm grid paper (see
.
. other proof of the Pytha- 1 copy of each per group Blackline Masters), 1
also reveal important .
. gorean Theorem. They use and 1 transparency of sheet per student and
.
relationships related to . inductive and deductive each. 1 transparency.
.
. reasoning to demonstrate
the Pythagorean . ✔ Focus Masters B and C, ✔ Ruler, protractor, and
. and prove mathematical
. 1 transparency of each. scissors, 1 of each per
Theorem and its appli- . relationships for right tri-
. ✔ Focus Master E, 2 copies student.
. angles and radical expres-
cations and provide a . per student and 1 trans- ✔ String, 1 18-inch length
. sions. They apply these
. parency. per group.
conceptual basis for . properties to 30°- 60°- 90°
.
. and 45°- 45°- 90° triangles. ✔ Focus Student Activities ✔ Butcher paper strips
computing with radical .
. 9.2 and 9.3, 1 copy of (4"- 6" long) and marking
.
expressions. . each per student and 1 pens, several of each per
. transparency of each.
. group.
.
. ✔ Blank paper, 1 sheet per
.
. student.
.
.
.
.
.
. FOLLOW-UP
.
.
. OVERVIEW MATERIALS FOR STUDENT ACTIVITY
.
.
. Students use their under- ✔ Student Activity 9.4,
.
. standing of relationships 1 copy per student.
.
. among equivalent radical
.
. expressions to construct the
.
. square roots of selected
.
. whole numbers. They use
.
. the Pythagorean Theorem
.
. to find areas, perimeters,
.
. and lengths involving radi-
.
. cals expressions.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

Math Alive! Course III / 209

Lesson 9 Reasoning and Radicals

LESSON IDEAS TEACHER NOTES:

.
LOOKING AHEAD . QUOTE
.
Rather than having students . Reasoning is fundamental
.
memorize rules and proce- . to the knowing and doing
.
dures that are more effi- . of mathematics. Although
.
ciently carried out by a cal- . most disciplines have
.
culator, the motive for . standards of evaluation by
.
having students explore . which new theories or dis-
.
and invent strategies for . coveries are judged, no-
.
simplifying radicals is to . where are these standards
.
promote understanding, to . as explicit and well formu-
.
generate expressions that . lated as they are in math-
.
prompt generalizations . ematics. Conjecturing and
.
about 30°- 60°- 90° and 45°- . demonstrating the logical
.
45°- 90° triangles, and to . validity of conjectures are
.
prompt other insights that . the essence of the creative
.
will be useful in more ad- . act of doing mathematics.
.
vanced work in algebra and . To give more students ac-
.
trigonometry. . cess to mathematics as a
.
. powerful way of making
.
. sense of the world, it is
.
. essential that an emphasis
.
. on reasoning pervade all
.
. mathematical activity.
.
. NCTM Standards

SELECTED ANSWERS

1. For example, eight of these square roots can be ob- 6. The diagonals have length l 2 + w 2 + h2 .
tained from multiples of √2 and their opposites: √2, –√2,
2√2 = √8, –√8, 3√2 = √18, –√18, 4√2 = √32, –√32. 7. The diagonals have length s2 + s2 + s2 = s 3 .

2. AF = FE = EG = GC = HJ = JI = JE = IG = √2 ⁄ 4 ; 8. a) For example, a square with area 5 and diagonal

AH = HD = FJ = DI = IC = 1 ⁄ 2 ; BE = √2 ⁄ 2 length √10 can be formed by dissecting and rearranging
adjacent squares with areas 1 and 4. A square with area
Areas: HDI = 1 ⁄ 8 ; AEB = BEC = 1 ⁄ 4 ; GIC = FJE = 1 ⁄ 16 ; EJIG = 7 and diagonal length √14 can be formed from adjacent
AHJE = 1 ⁄ 8 . squares with areas 5 and 2.

3. Each side length is 5 times its corresponding length in c) A square with area 3, side length √3, and diagonal √6,
Problem 2 and each region has an area which is 25 can be formed by dissecting and rearranging adjacent
times its corresponding area in Problem 2. squares with areas 1 and 2.

4. Determine the distance between each pair of points and 9. The lengths of the sides of square S and square T are
compare the sum of the squares of the 2 shortest dis- √ab and a ⁄ 2 + b ⁄ 2, respectively.
tances to the square of the greatest distance. If the sum
is equal to the square of the greatest distance, the tri-
angle is a right triangle; if the sum is greater than the
square of the greatest distance, the triangle is acute;
otherwise, the triangle is obtuse.

5. Yes, similar right triangles will be obtained.

210 / Math Alive! Course III

Reasoning and Radicals Lesson 9

Connector Teacher Activity

OVERVIEW & PURPOSE MATERIALS
Students form squares on grids to illustrate the meaning of ✔ Connector Masters A, B, and C, 1 copy of each per
square root. They explore a visual proof of the Pythagorean pair of students and 1 transparency of each.
Theorem. ✔ Connector Student Activity 9.1, 1 copy per student
and 1 transparency.
✔ 1-cm grid paper (see Blackline Masters), 2 sheets per
student and 1 transparency.
✔ Blank paper, 2 sheets per pair of students.
✔ Blank note card, 1 card per pair of students.
✔ Scissors and tape, 1 for each pair of students.

ACTIONS COMMENTS

1␣ ␣ Arrange the students in pairs and give each student a 1␣ ␣ a) One can view √16 as the length of an edge of a
sheet of 1-cm grid paper. Write expression a) on the square with area 16 square units. Since a 4 × 4 square
overhead, and ask the students to each sketch a geomet- has area 16, 4 = √16. (See also Math Alive! Course II,
ric representation of the meaning of the expression. Ask Lesson 28.)
for volunteers to demonstrate their thinking on a trans-
parency of grid paper. Repeat for b)-e).

16 square
a) √16
units
b) √2
16
linear units
c) 32

d) (√5)2 Some students may describe the meaning of √16, in

nongeometric terms, as the positive solution of the
e) 3√2 equation x 2 = 16. The negative solution of the equation
x 2 = 16 is negative square root of 16, written –√16. This
can be verified by noting that (√16)2 = (–√16)2 = 16.
Note that any positive real number n has two square
roots—its positive, or principal square root, written √n, and
its negative square root, written –√n. So, since lengths are
only positive numbers, the length of the edge of a square
of area 16 is the positive, or principal, square root of 16.

A square with value 16 has edges all of value √16, or all

of value –√16. Hence, from a geometric perspective,
finding all of the possible solutions for the equation
x 2 = 16 is equivalent to finding the possible values of the
edges of a square whose value is 16.

In general, for any square of value n, where n is a posi-

tive real number, the edges of the square have length √n
and there are two possibilities for the value of the edges:
+√n and –√n.

(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 211

Lesson 9 Reasoning and Radicals
Connector Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

1 (continued.)
Students may be interested in the origin of the radical
symbol, which was introduced in 1525 by Christoff
Rudolff. He chose the symbol because it looks like a
small r, the initial letter of the Latin word radix, mean-
ing root.

b) √2 may be viewed as the length of the edge of a

square whose area is 2, or as one of the two possible

2
2 values of the edge of a square whose value is 2 (the other
possible value is –√2). Note that √2 is an irrational num-
ber since it is a nonrepeating, nonterminating decimal, and
√2 is the actual length/value, whereas 1.4, 1.41, 1.414,
etc., are decimal approximations of √2.

c) The expression 32, or “three squared,” can be viewed

as the value of a square whose edges have value 3 (or the
area of a square whose edges have length 3). Some
32
students may view “squaring a number n” literally as
“forming a square on a segment whose length is n.”
32 = 3

d) √5 is the length of the edge of a square whose area is

5. Since the area of a square with side length s is s × s =
s2, the area of a square with side length √5 is √5 × √5 =
5
(√5)2 = 5.
5

e) Since √2 is the length of the edge of a square whose

2

area is 2, then 3√2 can be viewed as that length tripled,

2 or √2 + √2 + √2.
2

2
2

2
2

Some students may point out that the length 3√2 is also
3

the length of the edge of a square whose area is 18.

Hence, 3√2 is equivalent to √18, as illustrated below.

2
2 2
2 2 2
2 2
18

2
=
2
3

212 / Math Alive! Course III

Reasoning and Radicals Lesson 9
Connector Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

2␣ ␣ Give each pair of students 2 sheets of blank paper, 1 2␣ ␣ It may be helpful to remind the students about
copy of Connector Master A, 1 copy of Connector Mas- common notation for line segments and their lengths. For
ter B, a blank note card, tape, and a pair of scissors. Ask example, when referring to the line segment with end-
the pairs to carry out the instructions on Master B. points R and S, one typically uses the notation RS. This
Discuss their observations and their ideas about com- refers to the set of points R and S and all the points
pleting the “Notice that …” statements in Steps C, D, between them on the line connecting R and S. Fre-
and F on Connector Master B. quently, the length of a segment is represented by a
single letter, such as a or b; other times the length is
denoted by the letters of the endpoints of the segment
Reasoning and Radicals Lesson 9 with no bar over the letters. For example, the length of
Connector Master A
RS can be denoted as RS.

Lesson 9 Reasoning and Radicals

Connector Master B

a2 a c
Step A Draw squares with edge lengths a and b
b
on the legs of the right triangle on Connector Mas-
ter A. Use a note card as a straightedge and guide b2

for drawing right angles.

a
Step B Trace the squares from Step A to form 2
adjacent squares with right edges collinear.
b

c
a b

Q
Step C Label points P and Q as shown at the right. a
Locate a point T on edge PQ so that PT = a. Notice b

that TQ = b, since…
b b T
a
P

Q
II
Step D Draw the dotted lines shown to form the
regions labeled I, II, and III. Notice that regions II
and III are congruent. Notice also that the angle I T
formed at the intersection of the dotted lines is a c
III
right angle since… P

c
Step E Cut out regions I, II, and III. Then reas-
semble the regions to obtain a square.
T

Step F Tape the square formed in Step E on the

hypotenuse of the triangle on Connector Master A.
Notice that…
Region II is
congruent to
1 3 Region III, so the In Step D, the angle formed at the intersection of the
II corresponding dotted lines is a right angle because its measure is 180°
angles are minus the measures of 2 acute angles of a right triangle
2 congruent. (see diagram at the left). Keep in mind that students’
I 4 explanations may be less detailed than the one shown at
1 1
the left.
III III
2 3 2 3

∠1 + ∠2 + ∠3 = 180° ∠1 + ∠2 + ∠4 = 180° (they

Since ∠3 = 90°, then form a straight angle). Since
∠1 + ∠2 = 90°. ∠1 + ∠2 = 90°, then ∠4 = 90°. (Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 213

Lesson 9 Reasoning and Radicals
Connector Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

2 (continued.)
The procedure described on Master B demonstrates the
Pythagorean Theorem, i.e., given a right triangle with legs
of lengths a and b and hypotenuse of length c, squares
of areas a2 and b2 can be dissected and rearranged to
form a 3rd square of area c2; hence, a2 + b2 = c2. This
procedure was introduced in Lesson 28 of Math Alive!
Course II. You might reread that lesson for other discus-
sion ideas.

The Pythagorean Theorem is named after the Greek

philosopher, Pythagoras, who is considered the first
person to have proven it. It is referred to as a theorem
because it has been proven. Although Pythagoras proved
this theorem during the 5th century B.C., there is evi-
dence the relationship was used centuries earlier (see the
Focus Activity, Action 4).

3␣ ␣ Give each pair of students 2 sheets of 1-cm grid paper 3␣ ␣ Some students may need help interpreting the lan-
and a copy of Connector Master C. Ask them to com- guage and notation on Connector Master C.
plete a). Discuss their results. Then repeat for b)-d).
a) Since √1, √2, √3, … √12 are the lengths of the sides of
squares with areas 1, 2, 3, … 12, the lengths √1, √2, √3,
Reasoning and Radicals Lesson 9 … √12 can be formed by constructing squares with areas
Connector Master C
1-12.

Use a note card as a straightedge and as a guide for drawing The numbers 1, 4, and 9 are perfect squares. Hence, if 1
square corners.
small square on a grid is 1 area unit and the length of an
a)␣ ␣ From a geometric perspective, √n is the length of the edge of a edge of an area unit is 1 linear unit, squares of areas 1, 4,
square whose area is n. On 1-cm grid paper and using a 1-cm
square as 1 area unit, form all the actual lengths √n, for every in- and 9 area units have edge lengths √1 = 1, √4 = 2, and √9
teger n such that 1 ≤ n ≤ 12. Tape your results, in order, on an-
other sheet of paper, showing the square associated with each
= 3 linear units, respectively. The edges of these squares
length. Label actual lengths. coincide with grid lines, and vertices coincide with
b)␣ ␣ On plain (no grid) paper, draw any 2 noncongruent squares so intersections of grid lines (see below). “Tilted squares”
they are adjacent and their right edges are collinear. Then, dissect with edge lengths √2, √5, √8, and √10 and with vertices
and rearrange these 2 adjacent squares to form a 3rd square
whose area is equal to the sum of the areas of the 2 squares. that coincide with intersections of grid lines can also be
i) How many different 3rd squares are possible for a pair of
formed, as illustrated below. In Lessons 11 and 28 of
adjacent squares? Math Alive! Course II students developed formula free
ii) What if the 2 adjacent squares are congruent?
strategies for finding the areas of such tilted squares.
c)␣ ␣ Challenge. On plain paper, draw a large square. Dissect and re-
arrange this large square to form 2 noncongruent adjacent
squares whose total area equals the area of the large square.

i) How many different pairs of adjacent squares can be 5

formed so the sum of their areas equals the area of the
2 5
large square? 2 4 4=2
ii) What if the 2 adjacent squares must be congruent? 1 1=1
iii) What if the area of the large square and the area of 1 of the
2 adjacent squares are given?
8 or
d)␣ ␣ List your conjectures, questions, and generalizations. 2 2
10
8 10
9 9=3

214 / Math Alive! Course III

Reasoning and Radicals Lesson 9
Connector Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

To form squares with areas 3, 6, 7, 11, and 12 it is neces-

1 1 1 sary to combine pairs of squares. For example, using the
dissection method from Connector Master B, a square of
area 3 can be formed by dissecting and rearranging
2 2 2 squares of areas 1 and 2 (see diagram at the left).
3
Similarly, a square of area 6 can be formed from squares
of areas 4 and 2, or 5 and 1; area 7 from 5 and 2, or 6
Form adjacent Dissect Rearrange to form
and 1; area 11 from 9 and 2, or 10 and 1; and area 12
squares of area a square of area
from 10 and 2, 8 and 4, 3 and 9, 5 and 7, or 11 and 1.
1 and 2 (√1)2 + (√2)2 = (√3)2
Note: the vertices of these squares do not all coincide
=3
with the intersections of grid lines.

b) i) one

b) ii) If the 2 adjacent squares are congruent, a 3rd

a a2 square can be constructed as shown at the left (students
may use specific examples rather than the general case).
2a2
a2

In this case, some students may “see” the length of c as

2a
+

a a2 a a
a2

the hypotenuse of an isosceles right triangle with legs of

c
=
c

length a; hence, they may record c as a2 + a2 (see dia-

a a a
gram below). Others may “see” the length c as the edge
Form adjacent Dissect Rearrange to form of a square whose area is 2a2; hence they may record c =
squares each a square of area 2a2 (see below). Still others may point out that ex-
of area a 2 a2 + a2 = c2 panding each side of an isosceles right triangle with
sides of length 1 and hypotenuse √2 by a factor of a
produces an isosceles right triangle with sides a, a, and
a 2 (see below). Hence, c = a2 + a2 = 2a2 = a 2 . Note:
equivalent radicals are explored in the Focus activity of
this lesson.

2
a
=
2

a×1=a
×
a
=
c

1
2a2 1
a2

a×1=a
2a
+

a a
a2

=
c
=
c

c as the result of expand-

a a
ing both legs of a right
c as the hypotenuse c as the edge of a triangle by a factor of a,
of a right triangle square with area assuming the legs have
with legs a and a. 2a 2. length 1 unit.

c) i) Steps 1 and 2 on the next page illustrate a method

of using a note card to mark congruent right triangles
on adjacent sides of a square. Those triangles are cut and
rearranged in Steps 3 and 4 to form adjacent squares.
There are an infinite number of right triangles that can

(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 215

Lesson 9 Reasoning and Radicals
Connector Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

3 (continued.)
be marked off by the note card in Step 1. Hence, given a
square, there are an infinite number of pairs of adjacent
squares whose total area equals the area of the given
square.

note
card
cu
t

t
cu
R R R R

t
note

cu
card

Step 1 Step 2 Step 3 Step 4

c) ii) Dissect a square into 4 congruent right triangles

and rearrange to form 2 congruent squares, as shown
below.

c) iii) In this case, there is only one 3rd square possible.

4␣ ␣ Give each student a copy of Connector Student 4␣ ␣ The intent here is to illustrate the usefulness of
Activity 9.1 and ask them to complete Problem 1. Invite knowing a variety of ways to determine areas and
volunteers to demonstrate their reasoning and results at lengths. To ensure that students explore certain meth-
the overhead. Repeat for Problems 2-5. ods in Problems 1-3, restrictions are placed on the strate-
gies to use. Then in Problems 4 and 5 students are free
to use any strategy they wish. Notice that methods that
are convenient in one setting, may be less convenient or
not at all useful in another.

1) For this problem, students need to rely on “formula

1
2
of a rectangle 2 3 free” strategies (see Lessons 11 and 28 of Math Alive!
2 2
with area 2 2 Course II and Lessons 19 and 35 of Course I ) that are
1 based on the meanings of area and perimeter, together
of a rectangle
1 2
with their understanding of the meaning of √n as the
2
with area 3
length of the edge of a square whose area is n. One
strategy for finding the area of this polygon is to enclose
Area = 9 – 2 – 2 ⁄ 2 – 3 ⁄ 2 – 1 ⁄ 2 it in a rectangle and subtract the area of the portion of
= 4 square units the rectangle that is not part of the polygon, as shown
at the left.

216 / Math Alive! Course III

Reasoning and Radicals Lesson 9
Connector Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

Another method for finding the area is to subdivide the

Reasoning and Radicals Lesson 9
polygon into parts:
Connector Student Activity 9.1
NAME DATE

1␣ ␣ Without using any measuring tools, without using the 1 area unit 2
Pythagorean Theorem, and without using area formulas, find the 2
area and perimeter of Polygon A shown at the right. Mark the A
diagram to show your methods. Give actual measures rather 3
than decimal approximations.
1
2
1 2

2␣ ␣ Use the Pythagorean Theorem where necessary to find all

actual side lengths of Polygon B. Label each length on the dia-
B
Area = 1 ⁄ 2 + 1 + 2 ⁄ 2 + 3 ⁄ 2
gram and show all of your calculations. = 4 square units

3␣ ␣ Use area formulas to compute the area of Polygon C. Label C Computing the length of each “tilted segment” without
the diagram to show your calculations and formulas.
using the Pythagorean Theorem requires constructing a
square on the length and finding the area of the square.
4␣ ␣ Complete a)-c) below for Polygon D. Show your methods. D The length is the positive square root of the area of the
a) Determine its actual area. square:
b) Determine its actual perimeter.

c) Determine the actual and approximate lengths of its 3

altitudes.

5
5␣ ␣ Show the methods that you use to find the area and perim- E
10
eter of Polygon E.

23
Perimeter = 2 + 5 + 10 + 3

Note that some students may incorrectly conclude that

√2 + √5, for example, is √7. Computing √2 + √5 on their
calculators and comparing the result to √7 shows that
√2 + √5 ≠ √7, and in general that a + b ≠ a + b . This
idea is investigated further in Action 9 of the Focus
activity.

2) Side lengths can be determined using the Pythagorean

Theorem, as shown below.

12 + 22 = 5 1 1
12 + 32 = 10
2
1 3
1
1
2
(1 × 3) 12 + 12 = 2
1
2
(1 × 1)
3) Area formulas were developed in Lesson 3 of this
1
2
[1 × (1 + 3)] course. To use formulas to compute the area of this
polygon requires breaking it into parts. For example, the
Area = 1 ⁄ 2 + 2 + 3 ⁄ 2 = 4 square units polygon can be divided into 2 triangles and 1 trapezoid,
Perimeter = √2 + √5 + √10 + 3 linear units as shown at the left.

(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 217

Lesson 9 Reasoning and Radicals
Connector Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

4 (continued.)

4a) The area of the triangle is 5.5 square units.

4b) The perimeter is √13 + √17 + √10 linear units.

4c) Students may need to be reminded that an altitude of

a triangle is a segment extending from a vertex perpen-
dicular to the opposite side (the base) of the triangle; the
term altitude is also used to represent the length of a
segment that is an altitude. Every triangle has 3 alti-
tudes.

Students may be challenged by the fact that the alti-

tudes of this triangle—see a1, a2, and a3 in the diagram
at the left—do not intersect their corresponding bases at
13

a1
17
dots on the grid. However, since the area of a triangle is
a2 1 ⁄ 2 the product of the base length times the corre-
a3
sponding altitude, and since the area is 5.5, the follow-
10
ing equations can be used to determine the 3 altitudes,
a1, a2, and a3:

5.5 = ( 12 )(√10)(a1),
5.5 = ( 12 )(√17)( a2), and
5.5 = ( 12 )(√13)(a3).

Note that students may reason in a variety of ways to

solve the above equations (rather than using rote proce-
dures). For example, some may reason that since the
area of the triangle is 5.5 = ( 12 )(√10)(a1), then by com-
bining 2 copies of the triangle, a parallelogram with area
11, base √10, and altitude a1 can be formed. Hence, the
area of the parallelogram is 11 = (√10)(a1), and so the
exact value of a1 is 1110
(this is a correct response—it
isn’t expected that students simplify radicals here).
11
Similarly, the values of the other 2 altitudes are: a2 = 17
11
and a3 = 13 . The approximate lengths of a1, a2, and a3
to 2 decimal places are 3.48, 2.67, and 3.05 linear units,
respectively.

5) The area of this polygon is 1 square unit, and its

perimeter is 2√10 + 2√5 linear units.

218 / Math Alive! Course III

Reasoning and Radicals Lesson 9

Focus Teacher Activity

OVERVIEW & PURPOSE MATERIALS
Students investigate another proof of the Pythagorean Theo- ✔ Focus Masters A and D, 1 copy of each per group and
rem. They use inductive and deductive reasoning to demon- 1 transparency of each.
strate and prove mathematical relationships for right tri- ✔ Focus Masters B and C, 1 transparency of each.
angles and radical expressions. They apply these properties to
✔ Focus Master E, 2 copies per student and 1 transpar-
30°- 60°- 90° and 45°- 45°- 90° triangles.
ency.
✔ Focus Student Activities 9.2 and 9.3, 1 copy of each
per student and 1 transparency of each.
✔ 1-cm grid paper (see Blackline Masters), 1 sheet per
student and 1 transparency.
✔ Ruler, protractor, and scissors, 1 of each per student.
✔ String, 1 18-inch length per group.
✔ Butcher paper strips (4"- 6" long) and marking pens,
several of each per group.
✔ Blank paper, 1 sheet per student.

ACTIONS COMMENTS

1␣ ␣ Arrange the students in groups and give each group a 1␣ ␣ Following are possibilities for Steps B-D (students
copy of Focus Master A, folded so the written statements may have other correct wordings):
associated with Steps A-E are concealed. Ask the groups
to write their own statements that describe the sequence Step B: Draw a square on each leg of the top triangle,
of diagrams shown for Steps A-E, unfolding Master A to and draw a square on the hypotenuse of the bottom
read the “starters” if they get stuck or to prompt refine- triangle. (Note: the lengths of the edges of the triangles
ments of their ideas. Invite volunteers to share their determine the lengths of the edges of the squares.)
group’s statements. Use this as a context for discussing
the differences between inductive and deductive reasoning Step C: Enclose the top figure and the bottom figure
and how theorems and proofs are used in building a each in the smallest square possible. Notice the areas of
mathematical system. the enclosing squares are equal because they each have
side length a + b.

Step D: Draw a diagonal of the rectangle in the lower

left corner of the top figure. Notice the 8 triangles (4 on
the top figure and 4 on the bottom) are congruent
because their corresponding sides and angles are all
Reasoning and Radicals Lesson 9
Focus Master A
congruent.

Step A Step B Step C Step D Step E

c
Step E: If the 8 triangles are cut away, then the total area
a a2
b
of the 2 squares that remain in the top figure equals the
b2 area of the remaining square in the bottom figure,
because equal areas have been subtracted from equal
c2
areas.
c
a
b
In summary, if a right triangle has legs of length a and b
One visual proof of the Pythagorean Theorem is based on the dia- and hypotenuse of length c, then a2 + b2 = c 2. That is,
grams shown above. Write statements that describe each step of
this “proof.” If needed, use the statements below as “thought the sum of the areas of the squares on the legs of a right
starters.” triangle is equal to the area of the square on the hypot-
Step A Draw 2 congruent right triangles one triangle at the top of enuse.
(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 219

Lesson 9 Reasoning and Radicals
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

1 (continued.)
Reasoning and Radicals Lesson 9
Focus Master A
The Egyptians and Babylonians used geometry facts and
relationships in surveying and architecture more than
Step A Step B Step C Step D Step E
c
5000 years ago. However, because they had no system
a a2
b for proving that formulas and procedures produced
b2
correct results, they frequently obtained incorrect re-
sults. It was the ancient Greeks, around 400-200 B.C.,
c2
who shifted emphasis from computation to proving
a
c theorems and from reasoning inductively based on ex-
b
perimentation to reasoning deductively based on given
One visual proof of the Pythagorean Theorem is based on the dia- information. While the Greeks used experimentation
grams shown above. Write statements that describe each step of
this “proof.” If needed, use the statements below as “thought and observations (i.e., inductive reasoning) to formulate
starters.” their ideas, they did not accept ideas without proof by
Step A Draw 2 congruent right triangles, one triangle at the top of deductive reasoning.
a sheet of paper, and the other at the bottom of the sheet. On
each triangle, label the length of the short leg a, the long leg b,
and the hypotenuse c. Perhaps the most famous example of Greek mathemati-
Step B Draw a square on each leg of the top triangle, and draw cal reasoning is Euclid’s Elements, a series of 13 books
a… written about 300 B.C. In the Elements, Euclid used 10
Step C Enclose the top figure and the bottom figure each in the basic statements (called postulates) to deductively prove
smallest square possible. Notice that the areas of the enclosing over 600 theorems. A mathematical system has a specified
squares are equal because…
set of undefined terms (terms like point, line, and plane
Step D Draw a diagonal of the rectangle in the lower left corner of
the top figure. Notice the 8 triangles (4 in the top figure and 4 in
that are used to define other terms), definitions, and
the bottom) are congruent because… postulates (statements that are assumed to be true with-
Step E If the 8 triangles are cut away, then… because… out proof). These undefined terms, definitions, and
postulates provide the basis for proving statements
In summary, if a right triangle has legs of length a and b and
hypotenuse of length c, then… called theorems. Once a theorem is proven, it can be used
in proofs of other theorems.

Many of the conjectures that students have formulated

throughout this course and earlier Math Alive! courses
have involved reasoning inductively from observations.
The visual proof presented on Focus Master A illustrates
the process of reasoning deductively from facts that are
already known or proven. Although creating formal
proofs is not the focus of this lesson, regularly asking
students to build arguments that show why their conjec-
tures are true (as compared to only giving specific ex-
amples to show that the conjectures are true) lays impor-
tant groundwork for the more formal study of proof by
deduction.

The method from Focus Master A and the method from

Connector Master B are both deductive proofs of the
Pythagorean Theorem.

220 / Math Alive! Course III

Reasoning and Radicals Lesson 9
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

2␣ ␣ Give each student a ruler, a protractor (see Blackline 2␣ ␣ Acute and obtuse triangles are also referred to as
Masters), and a sheet of blank paper. Place a transpar- oblique triangles.
ency of Focus Master B on the overhead and ask the
groups to complete a). Discuss, using their findings as a a) Here is an informal argument that one group of
context for introducing the triangle inequality. Then have students gave to support the idea that the sum of the
them complete and discuss b) and c). lengths of any 2 sides of a triangle is always greater than
the length of the 3rd side:
Lesson 9 Reasoning and Radicals
Focus Master B
If a, b, and c are the lengths of 3 line segments, and a + b =
c, then 2 congruent line segments can be formed, but not a
triangle:
a) Reason visually to determine which, if any, of the following
statements are true about all triangles with side lengths a, b, and a+b=c
c:
a b
a+b=c
a+b<c
a+b>c c

b) Use a straightedge to draw 4 noncongruent acute triangles.

This diagram shows that if a + b < c, then all 3 segments
couldn’t meet:
i) Use a protractor and ruler to measure all side lengths and
angles. Label your drawings to show lengths to the nearest
tenth of a centimeter and angles to the nearest degree. a+b<c
ii) Draw squares on each side of each triangle and record the a b b
areas of the squares. a
iii) Using information from i)-ii) as evidence, reason inductively c c
to complete Conjecture 1 below. Then give deductive argu-
ments to show why your conjecture must always be true.
Therefore, in order to form a triangle, a + b must be greater
Conjecture 1 If a triangle is acute with side lengths a, b, and c,
where c is the longest side length, then a2 + b2 … than c:

a+b>c
c) Complete Conjecture 2 below and give inductive and deduc-
tive arguments to support your conjecture: a b a b
Conjecture 2 If a triangle is obtuse with side lengths a, b, and c,
where c is the longest length, then a 2 + b2 … c c

We can use the same reasoning to show that b + c must be

greater than a, and a + c must be greater than b, in order to
form a triangle.

The above relationship—the sum of the lengths of any 2

sides of a triangle must be greater than the length of the
3rd side—is called the triangle inequality.

b) iii) If students report that a2 + b 2 ≠ c2, you might ask

them to describe the inequality more specifically—i.e.,
area less than c 2 can ≠ be replaced by < or by >? Here is one group’s
length less argument:
than c

c2
If we form a right triangle with a the shortest side length and
c the longest, then a2 + b 2 = c2. However, to make the tri-
c c a angle acute, we can keep a and b constant and “reduce” the
a a
length of c. This also reduces c2. Therefore, a2 + b 2 > c 2, as
b b b shown at the left.

(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 221

Lesson 9 Reasoning and Radicals
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

area greater than c 2 2 (continued.)

c) Using similar reasoning to that given above for b), if
length greater the right angle of a right triangle is increased to form an
than c
c2 obtuse triangle and side lengths a and b are held con-
stant, then side length c increases, and hence, the area
a c c
a of the square on side c increases. Thus, a2 + b 2 < c2, as
b b shown at the left.

Hence, for any triangle with side lengths a, b, and c,

where c is the longest side, a + b > c, and one of the
following is true:

a2 + b 2 = c 2 (the triangle is a right triangle)

a2 + b 2 > c 2 (the triangle is acute)
a2 + b 2 < c 2 (the triangle is obtuse)

3␣ ␣ If it hasn’t come up previously, discuss the meaning 3␣ ␣ A statement of the form “If_____, then _____” is
of the converse of a conditional statement. Then, ask each called a conditional statement. The “if” portion of the
group of students to complete a) below. Discuss their statement is called the hypothesis, and the “then” por-
ideas, clarifying as needed. Repeat for b). tion is called the conclusion. For a true conditional state-
ment, whenever the hypothesis is true, the conclusion is
a) Write the converse of the Pythagorean Theorem. also true.

b) Conjecture about whether the converse of the If the hypothesis and conclusion of a statement are
Pythagorean Theorem is true, and build arguments to interchanged, the new statement is called the converse of
show why it is or is not true. the original. The fact that a statement is true does not
necessarily mean its converse is true. For example, the
conditional statement, “If a polygon is a square, then it
is a rectangle” is true. However, the converse, “If a
polygon is a rectangle, then it is a square” is not neces-
sarily true.

The Pythagorean Theorem states, “If a triangle is a right

triangle with legs of length a and b and hypotenuse of
length c, then a2 + b 2 = c 2.” Hence, the converse of the
Pythagorean Theorem is: “If a triangle has sides of
length a, b, and c, and a2 + b 2 = c 2, then the triangle is a
right triangle.” Some students may reason inductively
by finding examples that verify the converse of the
Pythagorean Theorem. For example, they may draw
several triangles for which the sum of the areas of the
squares on 2 sides is equal to the area of the square on
the 3rd side, and then measure to show that each con-
tains a right angle. Such evidence leads to the conjecture
that the converse holds, but it is not proof that it holds.

Some students may provide a visual proof that the con-

verse of the Pythagorean Theorem is true. For example:

The statement a2 + b2 = c2 about a triangle with sides of

length a, b, and c, tells us there are squares with side lengths

222 / Math Alive! Course III

Reasoning and Radicals Lesson 9
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

a and b whose total area equals the area of a square with

side length c. In the Connector activity, we showed that 2 ad-
jacent squares with areas a2 and b2 can be dissected and re-
arranged to form exactly one 3rd square with area a2 + b2.

To form this 3rd square, we cut off (from the 2 adjacent

a2 a squares) and rearranged 2 congruent right triangles with legs
of lengths a and b and hypotenuse c (see diagram at the left).
c2 We think there is only one possible triangle that can have
b2 b side lengths a, b, and c; therefore, the triangle with side
c c lengths a, b, and c must be a right triangle. Note that in
a a
? Lesson 10 students explore in depth the notion that 3
b b side lengths determine a unique triangle.

4␣ ␣ Give each group of students a piece of string (about 4␣ ␣ a) Reasoning according to the converse of the
18") and a marking pen. Place a transparency of Focus Pythagorean Theorem, if one can form a triangle with
Master C on the overhead, revealing part a) only for side lengths a, b, and c such that a2 + b 2 = c 2, then the
students to investigate. Suggest that they mark equal triangle is a right triangle. For example, a 12-unit string
lengths on the string rather than tie knots. Then invite length can be formed into a triangle with side lengths 3,
volunteers to share their group’s ideas with the class. 4, and 5 linear units (where the space between 2 con-
Repeat for parts b) and c). Use this as a context for secutive knots is 1 linear unit). Since 32 + 42 = 52, the
discussing the meanings of these terms: prime numbers, triangle is a right triangle. The students may find it
factors, multiples, composite numbers, relatively prime helpful to use pencil points to anchor the corners of the
numbers, and Pythagorean triples. triangle.

Reasoning and Radicals Lesson 9

Focus Master C

a) Paintings in ancient Egyptian tombs from the 15th

century B.C. show Egyptian geometers—called “rope
stretchers,” or surveyors—using long ropes with
equally spaced knots. Historians believe these ropes
were used to aid in the construction of right angles and Notice that, while there are other right triangles that can
right triangles. How do you think the rope stretchers did be formed from a string 12 units long, there is exactly 1
this? right triangle with integral side lengths and perimeter 12
units.

b) What are all the different right triangles with integral b) A 35-knot rope contains 34 linear units. Right tri-
side lengths that can be formed from all or part of a 35- angles with the following integral side lengths can be
knot rope? formed using a 35-knot rope: 3-4-5; 6-8-10; and 5-12-13.

c) Three positive integers that work in the Pythagorean

c) The terms primitive and multiple, as related to Pytha-
Theorem are called a Pythagorean triple. A Pythagorean
triple is called a primitive if the 3 integers have no com- gorean triples, are not intended for memorization. Rather,
mon factors other than 1—that is, a triple is a primitive if discussing them provides a context for determining and
the 3 integers are relatively prime. Enlarging a right tri- discussing Pythagorean triples and for recalling and
angle by a scale factor that is a whole number creates a clarifying the students’ understandings of the meanings
new Pythagorean triple that is called a multiple of the
of factors and multiples of a number, prime and com-
original triple.
posite numbers, and relatively prime numbers. These
What are all the Pythagorean triples such that each terms were introduced in Math Alive! Courses I and II.
number in the triple is less than 35? Which of these are
primitives? Which are multiples of primitives?
(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 223

Lesson 9 Reasoning and Radicals
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

4 (continued.)
From a geometric perspective, the positive factors of a
positive integer n are the dimensions of all possible rect-
angles that can be formed by n whole square tile, where
the length of the edge of a tile is 1 linear unit. For ex-
ample, the positive factors of 12 are 1, 12, 3, 4, 2, and 6
since the only rectangles that can be formed from 12
whole tile have dimensions 1 by 12, 3 by 4, and 2 by 6.

A prime number is a positive integer that has exactly 2

positive factors, itself and 1. Hence, the only rectangle
that can be formed from a prime number of whole
square tile is a non-square rectangle whose dimensions
are 1 and the prime number. For example, 7 is prime
because it has exactly 2 positive factors (1 and 7). The
only rectangle that can be formed by 7 whole tile has
dimensions 1 by 7.

A composite number is a positive integer with more than

2 positive factors; hence, more than 1 rectangle can be
formed from a composite number of whole tile. Notice
the number 1 is neither prime nor composite, since it has
only 1 whole number factor.

Two or more integers are relatively prime if they have no

common positive factors other than the number 1. Note
that the numbers in a set of relatively prime numbers
are not necessarily prime themselves. For example,
neither 4 nor 15 are prime numbers, but they are rela-
tively prime. The positive factors of 4 are 1, 4, and 2; the
positive factors of 15 are 1, 15, 3, and 5. The only posi-
tive factor that 4 and 15 have in common is 1; hence,
they are relatively prime.

c) Notice that this question asks the students to find

triples such that each number is less than 35, whereas a)
asks them to determine triples such that the total of the
3 numbers is less than 35.

In the example at the left, since the scale factor of en-

largement, 2, is a positive integer, the Pythagorean triple
6-8-10 is called a multiple of the primitive 3-4-5.
10
The Pythagorean triples that contain integers less than
6
35 are listed below:
5
3
Primitives: 3-4-5, 5-12-13, 7-24-25, 8-15-17
4
8 Multiples: 6-8-10, 9-12-15, 12-16-20, 15-20-25, 18-24-30,
10-24-26, 16-30-34

224 / Math Alive! Course III

Reasoning and Radicals Lesson 9
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

5␣ ␣ Give each group of students a copy of Focus Master 5␣ ␣ If students find these problems particularly challeng-
D, and ask them to complete Problem 1. Discuss their ing, you might give each student a sheet of 1-cm grid
results. Repeat for Problem 2. Discuss the distance formu- paper and ask them to sketch the coordinate axes, mark
las and midpoint formulas invented by the students. 2 points in the first quadrant, and determine the dis-
tance between those points and the coordinates of the
midpoint. Then repeat for points in other quadrants.
Lesson 9 Reasoning and Radicals
Focus Master D
1 i) Finding the distance between A and B is equivalent
1. Given 2 points A and B with coordinates (3,7) and (9,25): to finding the length of the segment with endpoints A
and B. Drawing segments AC and BC so that AC is
30
B (9,25) perpendicular to BC, as shown below, creates a right
25

20
triangle with right angle C. Hence, AC2 + BC2 = AB2.
15 Since AC = 9 – 3 = 6, and BC = 25 – 7 = 18, then AB2 =
10
62 + 182 and AB = 62 + 18 2 ≈ 18.97.
5 A (3,7)

2 4 6 8 10 12 14

i) Find the distance between A and B. 30

ii) Write the coordinates of the midpoint of AB.
B (9,25)
25
2. Given 2 points M and N with coordinates (x1,y1) and (x2,y2),
20

2
respectively:

18
25 – 7 = 18

+
15

62
N (x2,y2)

10
M (x1,y1) A (3,7) 9–3=6 C (9,7)
5

2 4 6 8 10 12 14
i) Write a formula for the distance between the 2 points.
ii) Write a formula for the coordinates of the midpoint of MN.
iii) Do you think your results for i) and ii) work for any 2 points 1 ii) Some students may compute the x-coordinate of
on the coordinate system? Explain your reasoning. the midpoint of AB as 3 + 6 ⁄ 2 = 6, and the y-coordinate as
7 + 18⁄ 2 = 16.

Or, since the average (mean) of 2 numbers is midway

between the numbers, some students may determine the
coordinates of the midpoint of AB by finding the aver-
age, or “leveled-off,” value of the x- and y-coordinates of
points A and B. Thus, the midpoint of AB has x-coordi-
(3 + 9)
nate, 2 and y-coordinate (7 + 25) . So, the midpoint of
2
AB is (6,16).

30
25 B (9,25)

20
9 + 3 25 + 7
Midpoint ( _____ , ______)
15 2 2

10
A (3,7)
5

2 4 6 8 10 12 14

(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 225

Lesson 9 Reasoning and Radicals
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

5 (continued.)
N (x2,y2)
2 i) Constructing a right triangle, as in Problem 1, and
d
y2 – y 1 applying the Pythagorean Theorem, the distance, d,
M (x1,y1) between M and N is the length of MN, or d =
x2 – x 1
(x2 – x1 )2 + (y 2 – y1 )2 . This is commonly referred to as
the distance formula, the formula for the distance be-
tween 2 points.

d = (x2 – x1)2 + (y2 – y1)2 2 ii) Some students may compute the x-coordinate of
Distance Formula the midpoint of MN as x1 + x2 2– x1 , and the y-coordinate
as y1 + y 2 2– y1 . Or, some may determine the midpoint of
MN by averaging the x- and y-values of the endpoints, i.e.,
( )
x2 + x1 y2 + y1
2
, 2 . These formulas for determining the mid-
point of a line segment are commonly referred to as
midpoint formulas (see diagrams below).

N (x2,y2) N (x2,y2)
y2
P y1 + y2
_______
P
y2 – y1 2
_______
M (x1,y1) 2 y1
x2 – x1
_______ M (x1,y1)
2

x1 x1 + x2
_______
x2
2

The coordinates of P, the midpoint The coordinates of P, the

x2 – x1 y 2 – y1 x1 + x2 _______
y +y
of MN are (x1 + _______ , y1 + _______ ). midpoint of MN are ( _______ , 1 2 ).
2 2 2 2
Midpoint Formulas

2 iii) To predict whether the formulas developed for i)

and ii) apply for all pairs of points on the coordinate
system, you might encourage students to explore several
examples, including segments whose endpoints fall in
any of the 4 quadrants. Note: the distance and midpoint
formulas for 2 points apply regardless the position of the
points on the coordinate system.

6␣ ␣ Give each student a blank sheet of paper (no grids). 6␣ ␣ It is sufficient for students to make rough sketches
Read aloud a)-g) below, pausing to allow time for stu- rather than to use rulers to measure. Here are diagrams
dents to complete each step before proceeding to the that illustrate a)-f) and show several equivalent radical
next one. Then discuss the students’ observations about expressions:
the squares. Point out equivalent radical expressions for 12 12
the actual lengths of edges as they are shared during a)-b) c)-d)
discussion of g). Then complete h). 12 12 12
12

a) Sketch a square and label its area 12 square units. 2 12 = 48

12 12
b) Label the length of an edge of the square.
e)-f)
c) Sketch a 2nd square so that the area of the 12 12 12 12
4 4 4 3 3= 4
2nd square is 4 times the area of the original square.
12 12
4 4

226 / Math Alive! Course III

Reasoning and Radicals Lesson 9
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

d) Label the area and length of an edge of the 2nd g) Here are several equivalent radical expressions illustrated
square. by the squares formed in a)-f): 12 = 248 = 2 3 = 48 4
;
3 = 12
2
= 4
48
. Some other possible observations in-
e) Sketch a 3rd square such that the area of the 3rd clude: the length of the edge of a square is multiplied by
square is 1⁄4 the area of the original square (i.e., the 2 when the area of the square is multiplied by 4; the
square from a). length of the edge of a square is multiplied by 4 when
the area is multiplied by 16.
f ) Label the area and edge length of the 3rd square.
h) Here are some equivalent expressions that may be
g) Record your observations about mathematical suggested by students’ sketches: √8 = 2√2 = 32 ; √32 =
2
relationships among these squares and their edges. 2√8 = 4√2; √2 = 8 = 32 .
2 4

h) (Optional) Repeat steps a)-g) for a square of area 8 Note: these problems involve only positive, or principal,
square units. square roots (see Comment 1) since length is a positive
measure.

7␣ ␣ Distribute 2 copies of Focus Master E and a pair of 7␣ ␣ Some possibilities determined by paperfolding to
scissors to each student, and have them cut out the large form smaller congruent squares are shown here:
square on each copy of Master E. Ask the students to
27 12
assume that one of the cutout squares has area 108
square units, and to paperfold to determine several 12 12 12
equivalent radical expressions for the actual length of the 27 27
edge of the square. Invite volunteers to share their 108 = 2 27 12 12 12 108 = 3 12
conclusions and reasoning. Then, if not already sug-
27 27
gested by students, ask them to determine expressions 12 12 12
that are equivalent to √108 but based on edges of
squares that are larger than the square given on Master E.
3
3 108
Reasoning and Radicals Lesson 9 16
Focus Master E 108
108 = 4 16
108 = 6 3
3
_________ linear units = 4 64

Another method of obtaining equivalent expressions for

lengths is to combine squares to form larger squares, as
shown here:
972
Area = _________ square units 108 108 108
432

108 108 108 108 108

108

108 108 108 108 108 108

432 972
3
= 108 3
= 108

432 972 ,
This shows: 108 = 3
= 3
and 432 = 2 108 ,
and 972 = 3 108 .

Math Alive! Course III / 227

Lesson 9 Reasoning and Radicals
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

8␣ ␣ Ask the groups to determine equivalent radical ex- 8␣ ␣ As students formulate conjectures and generaliza-
pressions for several of the following, and to prove tions, suggest they test them on several problems before
visually that the expressions are equivalent. Encourage sharing with the class. Here are a few equivalent expres-
efforts to generalize. Point out simplified radical expres- sions which can be determined by combining squares to
sions as they are shared and ask the students to approxi- form larger squares or by subdividing squares into
mate the decimal value of each expression. Discuss. smaller congruent squares:

a) 40 f) 9
j) 700 a) 40 = 2 10 = 160 40 2 10 160
4 2
40
10 10
40 40 160
b) 99 g) 17
k) 64 10 10 2
9 25
40 40
c) h) 29
l) 16
180 2 3
b) 99 = 3 11 = 396
2
d) i) m) 17
75 18 8
c) 180 = 6 5
e) 21
f) 9
= 3
= 2 9
4 2 16

Some students may subdivide the square with area 49

into smaller parts and find that the equivalent expres-
sions for 49 become more complicated, as shown here:

9 9 9
4 16 2 16
9 9
9 16 16 9
4 9 9 4
16 16

The diagram below illustrates how 4 copies of the square

with area 49 can be combined to form a larger square
with area 9 and edge length √9 = 3, showing that 2 49 = 3,
so 49 = 23 .

9 9 3
4 2 4
9=3 3 2

9 9 9 9 9 9
4 4 4 4 4 4

9
9 9 9 9
4 4 4 4

17
3
17 17 g) Nine copies of the square with area 17
9
can be ar-
9 9
ranged to form a larger square with area 17 and edge
17 17 17 17
9 9 9 9 length 17 , showing that 17 = 17 .
9 3

17 17 17
9 9 9 17 Students may observe that folding a square into 4 con-
gruent squares produces an equivalent expression for
17 17 17
9 9 9 the length of the edge of the square which is 2 times a
17
3 radical. Similarly, folding a square into 9 congruent
So, 17 squares produces an equivalent expression for the length
9 of the edge which is 3 times a radical. Notice that, in

228 / Math Alive! Course III

Reasoning and Radicals Lesson 9
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

general, if a number has a perfect square as a factor,

then the square root of the number can be written as the
product of a whole number (the square root of the
perfect square factor) and the square root of a whole
number. That is, a2b = a b for a > 0.

One way to define the simplest form of the square root of

a whole number is to say that a square whose area is the
given number cannot be subdivided to form a square
array of smaller squares with whole number areas greater
than 1. That is, the radicand—the number under the
radical symbol—is a whole number and has no factors
greater than 1 which are perfect squares. A simplified
radical expression also does not have a radical in its
4
denominator (e.g., 3 is not simplified), or a fraction
inside the radical (e.g., 35 is not simplified).

A calculator provides one method of determining deci-

mal approximations for square roots. Some students
may use the following procedure to approximate 21 ,
for example: since 42 = 16 and 52 = 25 are the 2 perfect
squares “closest” to 21, and since 21 is slightly closer to
25 than to 16, a reasonable approximation of 21 is 4.6.

Note: for any number n that is not a perfect square, √n is

an irrational number—a nonrepeating, nonterminating
decimal. There is no exact decimal form of an irrational
number.

It is important to note that the accessibility of calcula-

tors and computers have diminished the need for profi-
ciency at simplifying complicated radical expressions;
however, some experience with this process is useful for
certain algebraic manipulations—those conveniently
solved mentally or with minimal paper and pencil
strategies. Emphasis here is on understanding the con-
cept of equivalence of radical expressions.

29 29 29 58 h) 29 is equivalent to 58 , as illustrated at the left.

= 2 2
2 2 58 2 2

29 29 29 so 29
While it may be tempting to provide students with rules
2 2 2 2
58 for simplifying radicals, such as an algorithm for “ratio-
29 29
2 2
nalizing the denominator of a radical expression,” we
encourage you to allow time for students to invent their
own rules that are based on relationships they can “see”
and understand. In so doing, they are more likely to
recall or be able to reinvent such procedures when
needed.

(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 229

Lesson 9 Reasoning and Radicals
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

8 (continued.)
i) Here is one possible sequence of sketches, leading to
the statement √18 = 3√2 (see diagram below).

18 2 2 2 3 2

2 2 2

18 2 2 2 18

2 2 2

In general, if n is a perfect square factor of the radicand,

r, then an equivalent radical expression can be deter-
mined by subdividing the square whose area is r into a
√n by √n array of squares.

j) 700 = 10√7

64 8
k) 25
= 5 , as illustrated here:

64 = 8 8
64 64 8
25 25 5
64 64 64
25 25 25

64 64

l) Here is one possible sequence of sketches for eliminat-

ing the denominator from the radicand of 16 3
:

16 16 4 3 16 4 3
3 3 48 3 3
= 3

16 16 16 16 3 3 3 3 16 16 16
3 3 3 3 3 3 3

16 16 16
3 3 3 3 16 16 16
3 3 3
48 3 3 3
3 3 3 3
16 16 16 16 16 16
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

m) Following are two possible methods of obtaining

17 = 34 .
8 4

230 / Math Alive! Course III

Reasoning and Radicals Lesson 9
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS
17 136 17 136 34
Method 1 8 8
= 8
= 4
136 34
17
8
17
8
17
8
17
8
17
8
17
8
17
8
17
8
so 17
8
17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17
8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8
17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 34 34
8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8
17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17
8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8
17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17
136
8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8
17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17
8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8
17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17
34 34
8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8
17 17 17 17 17 17 17 17
8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8

Method 2 17 17 34
8 8
= 4
34
17
8
17
8
17
8
17
8
so 17
8
17 17 17 17
8 8 8 8
17 17 17 17 34
8 8 8 8
17 17 17 17
8 8 8 8 If students have conjectures regarding general proce-
dures for simplifying radical expressions that contain a
fraction in the radicand, you might invite them to share
their ideas with the class. In general, if the radicand is a
fraction of the form a ⁄ b , where a and b are positive inte-
gers, b ≠ 0, and b is not a perfect square, then an equiva-
lent radical expression with no denominator in the
radicand can be determined by forming a larger square
from b 2 copies of the square with area a ⁄ b . Hence, ab =
ab , as illustrated here:
b

ab
a a a a ab
b b b b
= b
b b
so
a
b
a
b
a
b
×b=a a
b

a
b b
a
b
× b × b = ab ab

This shows that This shows that

a a
b b = ab b
= ab
b

9␣ ␣ Ask the groups to compare √S + √T and S + T for 9␣ ␣ In this action and Action 10, students generalize
positive S and T. Discuss their conclusions and reason- about the square root of sums, products, and quotients.
ing. If students reason inductively from examples, en-
courage them to develop deductive arguments that show For positive S and T, √S + √T > S + T . That is, the sum of
why their conclusions must be true. the square roots of positive numbers is greater than the
square root of their sum. The students may verify this
theorem by comparing the values of √S + √T and S + T
for specific values of S and T. For example, when S = 4
and T = 9, √S + √T = 5 and S + T = √13, which is less
than 4.

(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 231

Lesson 9 Reasoning and Radicals
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

9 (continued.)
The visual proof shown below, begins by noting that
√S + √T is the combined length of the edges of squares
of areas S and T, respectively. If the square of area T is
enlarged to a square of area S + T, the edge of the en-
larged square is less than the combined length of the
edges of the original squares:

T
S
S
T T
S

S+ T S+T

10␣ ␣ Repeat Action 9 for: 10␣ ␣ a) The students may conjecture that the square root
of the product of 2 numbers equals the product of their
a) ST and √S√T square roots by comparing the values of and √S√T
for specific values of S and T.
S S
b) T
and T
To visually prove the theorem that √S√T = ST , multi-
ply √T times both dimensions of a square with area S.
Notice this changes the area by a factor of √T × √T, or T,
as illustrated below. The result is a square of area ST
whose side has length √S√T. On the other hand, the
length of the side of a square is the square root of its
area, in this case ST . Thus, ST = √S√T.

S S T S T

S S S S T

S T S T T = ST ST

This shows that

S T = ST

b) The situation for quotients is similar to that for prod-

S S ucts. If a new square is obtained from a square whose
S T T area is S by dividing both dimensions of its side, √S, by
√T, the area of the new square is the area S of the origi-
S S S S
nal square divided by T, i.e., TS . Hence, TS = S . That
=
T
T T
T T
S T
S S S is, the square root of the quotient of 2 numbers is the
T
quotient of their square roots. This argument is illus-
This shows that trated at the left.
S
= S. T
T

232 / Math Alive! Course III

Reasoning and Radicals Lesson 9
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

11␣ ␣ Tell the students that the results of a) and b) from 11␣ a) 3
4
= 3
= 2
3
4
Action 10 are sometimes used to simplify radicals. For
example, √45 = √9√5 = 3√5; and 7 = 35 = 35 = 35 . b) 44 = 4 × 11 = 4 × 11 = 2 11
5 25 25 5

Ask them to simplify the following expressions, keeping c) 6 2

8
= 3 2
4
in mind the fact that simplified radicals contain no
perfect square factors, no denominators in the radicand, d) 8
11
and no radicals in the denominator:
e) 11 3
a) 3 e) 363
4
f) 4 125
2
=4 250
4
=4 250
=4 25 10
2
= 10 10
125 4
b) 44 f) 4 2
g) 21 2
5
c) 72 g) 3 98
8 5
h) 4 2
d) 64 h) 7
8
32 + 1
121 2
Note that removing a radical from the denominator, as
1
in the example 2 , is called rationalizing the denomina-
tor. Some students may invent algorithms for doing so.

12␣ ␣ Give each student a copy of Focus Student Activity 12␣ ␣ The purpose in asking for simplified radical expres-
9.2 (see below and next page) and ask them to complete sions is to reveal patterns in numerical relationships that
Problem 1. Discuss. Then repeat for Problems 2 and 3. lead to formulas for the area and perimeter of 30°- 60°-
90° and 45°- 45°- 90° triangles.

Reasoning and Radicals Lesson 9

Since the triangles in 1a)-1d) are equilateral triangles,
Focus Student Activity 9.2 each angle measures 180°3
= 60°, Based on explorations in
Lessons 1 and 2 of this course, students may point out
NAME DATE
that each altitude of an equilateral triangle is a line of
Fill in the blanks below. Be prepared to provide sound mathematical
arguments to support your answers. Write all radical expressions in symmetry for the triangle. Hence, an altitude is the
simplified form. For each problem, use only the given variables
without adding other variables. A = area, P = perimeter, h = altitude, perpendicular bisector of a side of the triangle, and
and s = side length.
subdivides the triangle into 2 congruent right triangles,
1 a) ? b) ?
as illustrated below:
8 8 5 5
42 + h2 = 82
1a)
so h2
? ? ? ?
8 5 = 64 – 16
h = ______
A = ______
h = ______
A = ______
h2 = 48
P = ______ P = ______ 8 h 8 h = 4 3
c) d)
? ?

7 7 s s 60° 60°
? ? ? ? 4 4
7 s

h = ______ h = ______ A = 12 (8)(4 3 )

A = ______ A = ______
P = ______ P = ______ = 16 3 square units
P = 8 + 8 + 8 = linear units
2 a) b)
? ?
5
?
17
?
1b) h = 5 3 linear units
2
? ?
5 17

A = ______ A = ______
A= 1
2
×5× 5
2
3 square units
P = ______ P = ______

(Continued on back.) P = 3 × 5 = 15 linear units

(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 233

Lesson 9 Reasoning and Radicals
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

12 (continued.)
Lesson 9 Reasoning and Radicals
Focus Student Activity 9.2 (cont.)
1c) h = 7
2
× 3= 21
2
linear units
c) ?
d) ?
3
?
s
? Students may compute the area as follows:
? ?

A = 2 × 7 × 2 = 4 square units, or
3 s 1 21 147

A = ______ A = ______ A = 2 × 7 × 2 = 2 × 7 × 7 2× 3 = 12 × 7 ×
1 21 1
2
3
= 7
4
3
P = ______ P = ______
P = 3 7 linear units

3 a)
30°
b)
30° 1d) h = 2s 3 linear units
2
A = 12 × s × 2s 3 = s4 3 square units
? 18
? ?

60°
5
60°
?
P = 3s linear units
A = ______ A = ______
P = ______ P = ______ If some groups have difficulty, you might have others
share “clues” for “seeing” a formula or relationship. For
c) d)
? 60°
5
s
?
example, here is one group’s visual reasoning and for-
60° 30°
30°
?
? mula for the area of an equilateral triangle with side
A = ______ A = ______ length s:
P = ______ P = ______

s2
s s 2 s 2
s s s – ( __
2) s2 – ( __
2
s 2
)

s s
__ s
__
s 2
s
__
2 2 ( __
2)
2

So, the area of the

equilateral triangle is
(2)
2 square units.
s s2 − s
2

Here is another group’s approach:

s
2 2
s s
s s h h h 2

s 1 2
__ 1 2
__
4 s 4 s

3 2
__ s
__
4 s 2

Since 41 s2 + h2 = s2, then h2 = s2 – 41 s2 =

3 2 3 s2 = s 3 linear units.
4 s . So, h = 4 2
Therefore, since the area of any triangle
is 1⁄2 × base × height, the area of the
equilateral triangle is 1 (s) s 3  = s2 3
2  2  4
square units.

234 / Math Alive! Course III

Reasoning and Radicals Lesson 9
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

Each triangle in 2a)-2d) involves an isosceles right tri-

angle, i.e., a 45°- 45°- 90° triangle.

2a) The following diagram illustrates one approach:

5
50

45° 50 = 5 2
25 5 5 5 5 5 2

45°
5 5 5
52 25
25
A= 2
= 2
square units P = 10 + 5 2 linear units

2b)
45°
17 2
17

45°
17
A= 1
2
× 17 × 17 = 144.5 square units
P = 17 + 17 + 17 2 = 34 + 17 2 linear units

2c)
45°
3 2 = 6
3

45°
3
1 3
A= 2
( 3 )2 = 2
square units
P = 3 + 3 + 6 = 2 3 + 6 linear units

2d)

2s2

2s2 = s 2
s2 s

s2

1 s2
A= 2
s2 = 2
square units
P = s + s + s 2 = 2s + s 2 linear units

(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 235

Lesson 9 Reasoning and Radicals
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

12 (continued.)
Lesson 9 Reasoning and Radicals
Focus Student Activity 9.2 (cont.)
Problem 3 involves 30°- 60°- 90° triangles. Students may
view these as “halves of equilateral triangles,” as illus-
trated below.
c) ?
d) ?
? ?
3 s

? ?
3a)
3 s
h2 = 102 – 52
A = ______
P = ______
A = ______
P = ______ 30° 30°
h2 = 100 – 25
10 h 10 h = 75 = 25 × 3 = 25 × 3
h = 5 3 linear units
3 a) b)
30° 30°
? 18
? ?
60° 60°
60°
5
60°
?
5 5
A = ______
P = ______
A = ______
P = ______
A = 12 × 5 × 5 3 = 252 3 square units
P = 10 + 5 + 5 3 = 15 + 5 3 linear units
c) d)
60° ?
? s
5
60° 30°
30°
?
? 3b)
A = ______ A = ______
P = ______ P = ______ 30° 30°
18
9 3

60° 60°
9
A = 9 × 29 3 = 812 3 square units
P = 18 + 9 + 9 3 = 27 + 9 3 linear units

3c)
2 5 60°
5
30°
5 3 = 15
A= 1
2
× 15 × 5
1
= 2
75
5 3
= 2
square units
P = 3 5 + 15 linear units

3d)
s s 3

60° 30°
2s
s2 3
A= 1
2
×s×s 3 = 2
square units
P = s + 2s + s 3 = 3s + s 3 linear units

236 / Math Alive! Course III

Reasoning and Radicals Lesson 9
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

13␣ ␣ Distribute several butcher paper strips and marking 13␣ ␣ If groups have difficulty getting started, you can
pens to each group of students. Ask the groups to write prompt ideas by encouraging them to write statements
several “We conjecture…We wonder…” statements that they think are true about the area, perimeter, and
about equilateral triangles, 45°- 45°- 90° triangles, and altitude of all equilateral triangles, all isosceles right
30°- 60°-90° triangles, and to identify those statements triangles, and all 30°- 60°-90° triangles.
they can prove. Ask the groups to post their statements.
Discuss the groups’ conjectures, questions, and proofs. Following are several conjectures that students fre-
Then have the class help sort the posted statements and quently suggest and support with visual proofs. If stu-
revise, refine, and/or combine statements as needed. dents’ suggestions are limited, you could pose one or
two statements and ask the groups to create visual
proofs that show why the statements are true or not
true.

Every 30°- 60°- 90° triangle is 1 ⁄ 2 of an equilateral triangle.

The hypotenuse of a 30°- 60°- 90° triangle is twice as long as

its short leg.

The length of the long leg of a 30°- 60°- 90° triangle is √3

times the length of its short leg.

The altitude of an equilateral triangle with side length s is

s 3.
2

The area of an equilateral triangle with side length s is

2 (
1 (s) s 3 = s 2 3 .
2 ) 4

The area of a 30°- 60°- 90° triangle with short leg s is

1 (s)(s 3 ) = s 2 3 .
2 2

The area of a 30°- 60°- 90° triangle with hypotenuse s is

1 ⁄ 2 the area of an equilateral triangle with side lengths s, or

2 (
1 s2 3 = s2 3 .
4 ) 8

Four copies of a 45°- 45°- 90° triangle fit together to form a

square. If the hypotenuse of the 45°- 45°- 90° triangle is s,
they fit together to form a square with side s and area s 2. So
the area of a 45°- 45°- 90° triangle with hypotenuse s is S ⁄ 4 .
2

On a 45°- 45°- 90° triangle, the sides opposite the 45° angles,
or the legs, are congruent.

If the legs of a 45°- 45°- 90° triangle have length s, then the
hypotenuse has length s 2 .

If the length of the hypotenuse of a 45°- 45°- 90° triangle is

s, then the legs have length s 2 .
2

The area of a 45°- 45°- 90° triangle with legs of length s is s2

2
.

(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 237

Lesson 9 Reasoning and Radicals
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

13 (continued.)
The area of a 45°- 45°- 90° triangle with hypotenuse of
length s is 12  s 22   s 22  = 2s82 = s42 .
  

All isosceles right triangles have angle measures 45°- 45°- 90°.

The hypotenuse is always the longest side of a right triangle.

The longest side of a triangle, if there is a longest side, is

always opposite the largest angle and the shortest side (if
there is one) is opposite the smallest angle.

14␣ ␣ Give each student a copy of Focus Student Activity 14␣ ␣ You might have the students complete and discuss
9.3 and assign selected problems for completion. Discuss Problem 1 before proceeding to Problem 2. These prob-
their results. lems could also be assigned as homework. Be sure to
allow plenty of time for students to confer about their
strategies and difficulties.
Reasoning and Radicals Lesson 9

Focus Student Activity 9.3 1) a) 4 2 b) 4 c) 10 3

d) 6 e) 3 f) 25
NAME DATE

g) 25 h) 10 3
3
i) 8+ 10 3
6
1␣ ␣ Without measuring, find the value of each missing angle or
length. Drawings are not necessarily to scale. q) 120° r) 45° s) 45°
10
6 2 t) 30° u) 60° v) 45°
a 45° c w°

z°
4
y°
x°
d
v°
w) 45° x) 60° y) 30°
6
20
b
z) 45°
g
s°
8
t° q° 2) a) 15 2 b) 216 3 c) 74 , 130 , 106
e 25 2 h
f 5
d) e) 289 3 f)
3
__
2
3 r°
60°
155 4 12 3
u°
i
3
__
2
3) See Comments 9 and 10.
2␣ ␣ Draw diagrams to help you find the following values. Briefly
explain and/or mark your diagrams to show your reasoning. Give
actual measures rather than approximations. 4) One possibility is to use the fact from Focus Student
a) The length of the diagonal of a square with area 225 cm2. Activity 9.2, 1d) that the area of an equilateral triangle
2
b) The area of a regular hexagon with side length 12 inches. with side lengths of s is 3s . Since a regular hexagon is
4
composed of 6 equilateral triangles, its area is 6 3s 2  =
 4 
c) The length of the diagonals of each face of a rectangular prism
with dimensions 5 inches by 7 inches by 9 inches. 3 3s 2 .
d) The length of the diagonals of the prism from Problem c). (Note:
2
such diagonals extend corner to corner through the center of the
prism.) 4 2 3
5) a) 2 6 b) 3 c) 3
e) The area of an equilateral triangle with sides of length 17 feet.
d) 2 5 e) 2 5 + 2 15 f) 3 5 + 5 3
f) The perimeter of an equilateral triangle whose area is 12 3 5
square centimeters. g) 4 10 h) 2 3 − 6
(Continued on back.)

238 / Math Alive! Course III

Reasoning and Radicals Lesson 9
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

6) a) A= 2 6,P= 2 3+2 8
Lesson 9 Reasoning and Radicals
49 42
Focus Student Activity 9.3 (cont.) b) A= 3,P= 3
3␣ ␣ For each of the following, give an example to show evidence that
c) A = 81
4
, P = 9 + 18
2
the statement is true for positive values of x and y. Then demon-
strate visually why each statement is true.
d) A = 18, P = 24
2
a) x × y = xy b) x + y ≠ x+y c)
x
y
= x
y
e) A = 27 3 , P = 30

4␣ ␣ Invent a formula for the area, A, of a regular hexagon with side

f) A = 7, P = 2 5 + 2( 7
5
)=2 5 + 14
5
= 2 5 + 145 5
length s. Be sure that A and s are the only variables in your formula.
g) A = 6, P = 4 6
5␣ ␣ Simplify each of the following radical expressions. h) A = 81 ,
8
P = 9+ 9 2
2
4
a) 24 d) 5
g) 32 × 5

b) 32
9
e) 20 + 60 h) 12 − 36
1
c) 3
f) 45 + 75

6␣ ␣ Sketch each of the following polygons on another sheet. Show

the reasoning you use to find the area and perimeter of each (in
some cases the area or perimeter is given). Drawings are not to scale.

9
a) c) 45° e)* 60° g)
3
6 6
9
8 60°
9
perimeter = 4 6

b) d) f) h)

6 5 Area = 7
7
45°
60° 60° 9 2
perimeter = 9 + 2

*Note: > and >> markings on sides indicate pairs of parallel sides.

Math Alive! Course III / 239

Lesson 9 Reasoning and Radicals

TEACHER NOTES:

240 / Math Alive! Course III

Reasoning and Radicals Lesson 9

Follow-up Student Activity 9.4

NAME DATE

1␣ ␣ One way to form the length 5 is to form a 1 by 2 rectangle and

draw its diagonal. One way to form the length 20 is to double the
length 5 . The points 5 , – 5 , 20 , and – 20 can be located on
a number line by copying the length of a diagonal of a 1 by 2 rect-
angle. Determine how to locate points on the number line for the
positive and negative square roots of all whole numbers less than
50, by constructing diagonals of the minimum number of rectangles.
Make a chart to show the dimensions of the rectangles required, the
length of the diagonals of each rectangle, and the points that can be
located using each diagonal.

2␣ ␣ Tangrams, one of the oldest and most popular of the ancient

Chinese puzzles, are made by constructing a geometric figure like
the one below and then cutting it into the seven pieces shown.

In the square ABCD: A B

• Point E is the intersection of the diagonals. F
• F and G are midpoints of AE and EC, respectively.
• H and I are midpoints of AD and DC, respectively. E
• J is the midpoint of HI. H
G
If AB is 1 linear unit, find the side lengths and area of each differ- J
ent tangram piece. Show the calculations that you use to deter- D C
mine each measure. I

3␣ ␣ Suppose that AB from Problem 2 is 5 linear units. Now find the

side lengths and area of each different tangram piece. Show your
reasoning.

4␣ ␣ Given the coordinates of any 3 points, without plotting the

points on grid paper, how can you tell whether they form a right
triangle? an obtuse triangle? an acute triangle? Show and explain
your reasoning.

(Continued on back.)
Math Alive! Course III / 241
Lesson 9 Reasoning and Radicals
Follow-up Student Activity (cont.)

5␣ ␣ If the lengths a, b, and c, form a right triangle, will 2a, 2b, and
2c? a ⁄ 3, b⁄ 3, and c ⁄ 3? ka, kb, and kc, for k a positive integer? Explain.

6␣ ␣ Given a right rectangular prism with dimensions l, w, and h.

What are the lengths of the diagonals of the prism. Justify your an-
swer.

7␣ ␣ Given a cube with side length s. What are the lengths of its di-
agonals? Justify.

8␣ ␣ Draw each of the following quadrilaterals on 1-cm grid paper.

Without using a calculator or a ruler to measure, determine and
label the actual side lengths, diagonal lengths, and the area of each
quadrilateral. Add comments as needed to communicate your meth-
ods and reasoning. Let 1 cm = 1 linear unit.

a) Squares with areas 1, 5, and 7 square units.

b) A rectangle with dimensions 1 by 2.

c) A square with diagonal length 6 linear units.

d) Two different nonsquare rectangles with diagonal lengths 6

linear units.

e) A square with side length 8 linear units and a nonsquare rect-

angle with diagonal length 8 linear units.

f) A rectangle with diagonal length 12 linear units.

9␣ ␣ Suppose that:

Nonsquare Rectangle R has sides of length a and b.

Square S has the same area as Rectangle R.
Square T has the same perimeter as Rectangle R.

Find the length of the sides of Square S and Square T. Show your
reasoning.

242 / Math Alive! Course III

Reasoning and Radicals Lesson 9
Connector Master A

c
a

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 9 Reasoning and Radicals
Connector Master B

a2 a c
Step A Draw squares with edge lengths a and b
b
on the legs of the right triangle on Connector Mas-
ter A. Use a note card as a straightedge and guide b2

for drawing right angles.

a
Step B Trace the squares from Step A to form 2
adjacent squares with right edges collinear.
b

Q
Step C Label points P and Q as shown at the right. a
Locate a point T on edge PQ so that PT = a. Notice b

that TQ = b, since…
b T
a
P

Q
II
Step D Draw the dotted lines shown to form the
regions labeled I, II, and III. Notice that regions II
and III are congruent. Notice also that the angle I T
formed at the intersection of the dotted lines is a c
III
right angle since… P

c
Step E Cut out regions I, II, and III. Then reas-
semble the regions to obtain a square.
T

Step F Tape the square formed in Step E on the

hypotenuse of the triangle on Connector Master A.
Notice that…
Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Reasoning and Radicals Lesson 9
Connector Master C

Use a note card as a straightedge and as a guide for drawing

square corners.

a)␣ ␣ From a geometric perspective, √n is the length of the edge of a

square whose area is n. On 1-cm grid paper and using a 1-cm
square as 1 area unit, form all the actual lengths √n, for every in-
teger n such that 1 ≤ n ≤ 12. Tape your results, in order, on an-
other sheet of paper, showing the square associated with each
length. Label actual lengths.

b)␣ ␣ On plain (no grid) paper, draw any 2 noncongruent squares so

they are adjacent and their right edges are collinear. Then, dissect
and rearrange these 2 adjacent squares to form a 3rd square
whose area is equal to the sum of the areas of the 2 squares.

i) How many different 3rd squares are possible for a pair of

adjacent squares?
ii) What if the 2 adjacent squares are congruent?

c)␣ ␣ Challenge. On plain paper, draw a large square. Dissect and re-
arrange this large square to form 2 noncongruent adjacent
squares whose total area equals the area of the large square.

i) How many different pairs of adjacent squares can be

formed so the sum of their areas equals the area of the
large square?
ii) What if the 2 adjacent squares must be congruent?
iii) What if the area of the large square and the area of 1 of the
2 adjacent squares are given?

d)␣ ␣ List your conjectures, questions, and generalizations.

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 9 Reasoning and Radicals

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Reasoning and Radicals Lesson 9

Connector Student Activity 9.1

NAME DATE

1␣␣Without using any measuring tools, without using the 1 area unit
Pythagorean Theorem, and without using area formulas, find the
area and perimeter of Polygon A shown at the right. Mark the A
diagram to show your methods. Give actual measures rather
than decimal approximations.

2␣␣Use the Pythagorean Theorem where necessary to find all B

actual side lengths of Polygon B. Label each length on the dia-
gram and show all of your calculations.

3␣␣Use area formulas to compute the area of Polygon C. Label C

the diagram to show your calculations and formulas.

4␣␣Complete a)-c) below for Polygon D. Show your methods. D

a) Determine its actual area.

b) Determine its actual perimeter.

c) Determine the actual and approximate lengths of its 3

altitudes.

5␣␣Show the methods that you use to find the area and perim- E
eter of Polygon E.

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 9 Reasoning and Radicals

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Reasoning and Radicals Lesson 9
Focus Master A

Step A Step B Step C Step D Step E

c
a a2
b
b2

c2

c
a
b

One visual proof of the Pythagorean Theorem is based on the dia-

grams shown above. Write statements that describe each step of
this “proof.” If needed, use the statements below as “thought
starters.”

Step A Draw 2 congruent right triangles, one triangle at the top of

a sheet of paper, and the other at the bottom of the sheet. On
each triangle, label the length of the short leg a, the long leg b,
and the hypotenuse c.

Step B Draw a square on each leg of the top triangle, and draw
a…

Step C Enclose the top figure and the bottom figure each in the
smallest square possible. Notice that the areas of the enclosing
squares are equal because…

Step D Draw a diagonal of the rectangle in the lower left corner of

the top figure. Notice the 8 triangles (4 in the top figure and 4 in
the bottom) are congruent because…

Step E If the 8 triangles are cut away, then… because…

In summary, if a right triangle has legs of length a and b and

hypotenuse of length c, then…
© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 9 Reasoning and Radicals
Focus Master B

a) Reason visually to determine which, if any, of the following

statements are true about all triangles with side lengths a, b, and
c:

a+b=c
a+b<c
a+b>c

b) Use a straightedge to draw 4 noncongruent acute triangles.

i) Use a protractor and ruler to measure all side lengths and

angles. Label your drawings to show lengths to the nearest
tenth of a centimeter and angles to the nearest degree.

ii) Draw squares on each side of each triangle and record the
areas of the squares.

iii) Using information from i)-ii) as evidence, reason inductively

to complete Conjecture 1 below. Then give deductive argu-
ments to show why your conjecture must always be true.

Conjecture 1 If a triangle is acute with side lengths a, b, and c,

where c is the longest side length, then a2 + b2 …

c) Complete Conjecture 2 below and give inductive and deduc-

tive arguments to support your conjecture:

Conjecture 2 If a triangle is obtuse with side lengths a, b, and c,

where c is the longest length, then a 2 + b2 …

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Reasoning and Radicals Lesson 9
Focus Master C

a) Paintings in ancient Egyptian tombs from the 15th

century B.C. show Egyptian geometers—called “rope
stretchers,” or surveyors—using long ropes with
equally spaced knots. Historians believe these ropes
were used to aid in the construction of right angles and
right triangles. How do you think the rope stretchers did
this?

b) What are all the different right triangles with integral

side lengths that can be formed from all or part of a 35-
knot rope?

c) Three positive integers that work in the Pythagorean

Theorem are called a Pythagorean triple. A Pythagorean
triple is called a primitive if the 3 integers have no com-
mon factors other than 1—that is, a triple is a primitive if
the 3 integers are relatively prime. Enlarging a right tri-
angle by a scale factor that is a whole number creates a
new Pythagorean triple that is called a multiple of the
original triple.

What are all the Pythagorean triples such that each

number in the triple is less than 35? Which of these are
primitives? Which are multiples of primitives?
© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 9 Reasoning and Radicals
Focus Master D

1. Given 2 points A and B with coordinates (3,7) and (9,25):

30
B (9,25)
25

20

15

10
5 A (3,7)

2 4 6 8 10 12 14

i) Find the distance between A and B.

ii) Write the coordinates of the midpoint of AB.

2. Given 2 points M and N with coordinates (x1,y1) and (x2,y2),

respectively:

N (x2,y2)

M (x1,y1)

i) Write a formula for the distance between the 2 points.

ii) Write a formula for the coordinates of the midpoint of MN.
iii) Do you think your results for i) and ii) work for any 2 points
on the coordinate system? Explain your reasoning.

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Reasoning and Radicals Lesson 9
Focus Master E

_________ linear units

Area = _________ square units

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 9 Reasoning and Radicals

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Reasoning and Radicals Lesson 9

Focus Student Activity 9.2

NAME DATE

Fill in the blanks below. Be prepared to provide sound mathematical

arguments to support your answers. Write all radical expressions in
simplified form. For each problem, use only the given variables
without adding other variables. A = area, P = perimeter, h = altitude,
and s = side length.

1 a) ? b) ?
8 8 5 5

? ? ? ?
8 5

h = ______ h = ______
A = ______ A = ______
P = ______ P = ______

c) d)
? ?

7 7 s s

? ? ? ?
7 s

h = ______ h = ______
A = ______ A = ______
P = ______ P = ______

2 a) b)
? ?
? ?
5 17

? ?
5 17

A = ______ A = ______
P = ______ P = ______

(Continued on back.)

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 9 Reasoning and Radicals
Focus Student Activity 9.2 (cont.)

c) ?
d) ?
? ?
3 s

? ?
3 s

A = ______ A = ______
P = ______ P = ______

3 a) b)
30° 30°
? 18
? ?

60° 60°
5 ?

A = ______ A = ______
P = ______ P = ______

c) d)
60° ?
? s
5
60° 30°
30°
?
?

A = ______ A = ______
P = ______ P = ______

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Reasoning and Radicals Lesson 9

Focus Student Activity 9.3

NAME DATE

1␣␣Without measuring, find the value of each missing angle or

length. Drawings are not necessarily to scale.

6 2
10 w°
a 45° c
4 x° v°
z° y° d
6
20
b

g
s°
8
t° q°
e 25 2 f h
3
__ 5
3 r°
2
60°
u°
i
3
__
2

2␣␣Draw diagrams to help you find the following values. Briefly

explain and/or mark your diagrams to show your reasoning. Give
actual measures rather than approximations.

a) The length of the diagonal of a square with area 225 cm2.

b) The area of a regular hexagon with side length 12 inches.

c) The length of the diagonals of each face of a rectangular prism

with dimensions 5 inches by 7 inches by 9 inches.

d) The length of the diagonals of the prism from Problem c). (Note:
such diagonals extend corner to corner through the center of the
prism.)

e) The area of an equilateral triangle with sides of length 17 feet.

f) The perimeter of an equilateral triangle whose area is 12 3

square centimeters.

(Continued on back.)

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 9 Reasoning and Radicals
Focus Student Activity 9.3 (cont.)

3␣␣For each of the following, give an example to show evidence that

the statement is true for positive values of x and y. Then demon-
strate visually why each statement is true.

a) x × y = xy b) x + y ≠ x+y c)
x
= x
y
y

4␣␣Invent a formula for the area, A, of a regular hexagon with side

length s. Be sure that A and s are the only variables in your formula.

5␣␣Simplify each of the following radical expressions.

4
a) 24 d) 5
g) 32 × 5

b) 32
9
e) 20 + 60 h) 12 − 36
1
c) 3
f) 45 + 75

6␣␣Sketch each of the following polygons on another sheet. Show

the reasoning you use to find the area and perimeter of each (in
some cases the area or perimeter is given). Drawings are not to scale.

9
a) c) 45° e)* 60° g)
3
6 6
9
8 60°
9
perimeter = 4 6

b) d) f) h)

6 5 Area = 7
7
45°
60° 60° 9 2
perimeter = 9 + 2

*Note: > and >> markings on sides indicate pairs of parallel sides.

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Reasoning and Radicals Lesson 9

Follow-up Student Activity 9.4

NAME DATE

1␣␣One way to form the length 5 is to form a 1 by 2 rectangle and

draw its diagonal. One way to form the length 20 is to double the
length 5 . The points 5 , – 5 , 20 , and – 20 can be located on
a number line by copying the length of a diagonal of a 1 by 2 rect-
angle. Determine how to locate points on the number line for the
positive and negative square roots of all whole numbers less than
50, by constructing diagonals of the minimum number of rectangles.
Make a chart to show the dimensions of the rectangles required, the
length of the diagonals of each rectangle, and the points that can be
located using each diagonal.

2␣␣Tangrams, one of the oldest and most popular of the ancient

Chinese puzzles, are made by constructing a geometric figure like
the one below and then cutting it into the seven pieces shown.

In the square ABCD: A B

• Point E is the intersection of the diagonals. F
• F and G are midpoints of AE and EC, respectively.
• H and I are midpoints of AD and DC, respectively. E
• J is the midpoint of HI. H
G
If AB is 1 linear unit, find the side lengths and area of each differ- J
ent tangram piece. Show the calculations that you use to deter- D C
mine each measure. I

3␣␣Suppose that AB from Problem 2 is 5 linear units. Now find the

side lengths and area of each different tangram piece. Show your
reasoning.

4␣␣Given the coordinates of any 3 points, without plotting the

points on grid paper, how can you tell whether they form a right
triangle? an obtuse triangle? an acute triangle? Show and explain
your reasoning.

(Continued on back.)

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 9 Reasoning and Radicals
Follow-up Student Activity (cont.)

5␣␣If the lengths a, b, and c, form a right triangle, will 2a, 2b, and
2c? a ⁄ 3, b⁄ 3, and c ⁄ 3? ka, kb, and kc, for k a positive integer? Explain.

6␣␣Given a right rectangular prism with dimensions l, w, and h.

What are the lengths of the diagonals of the prism. Justify your an-
swer.

7␣␣Given a cube with side length s. What are the lengths of its di-
agonals? Justify.

8␣␣Draw each of the following quadrilaterals on 1-cm grid paper.

Without using a calculator or a ruler to measure, determine and
label the actual side lengths, diagonal lengths, and the area of each
quadrilateral. Add comments as needed to communicate your meth-
ods and reasoning. Let 1 cm = 1 linear unit.

a) Squares with areas 1, 5, and 7 square units.

b) A rectangle with dimensions 1 by 2.

c) A square with diagonal length 6 linear units.

d) Two different nonsquare rectangles with diagonal lengths 6

linear units.

e) A square with side length 8 linear units and a nonsquare rect-

angle with diagonal length 8 linear units.

f) A rectangle with diagonal length 12 linear units.

9␣␣Suppose that:

Nonsquare Rectangle R has sides of length a and b.

Square S has the same area as Rectangle R.
Square T has the same perimeter as Rectangle R.

Find the length of the sides of Square S and Square T. Show your
reasoning.

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Constructions and Mappings
Constructions & Mappings Lesson 10 Lesson 10

.
.
.
.
THE BIG IDEA .. CONNECTOR
.
. OVERVIEW MATERIALS FOR TEACHER ACTIVITY
Student-invented con- .
.
. Students paperfold to sat- ✔ Connector Master A, 1 ✔ Butcher paper, 1 large
structions provide a .
. isfy given conditions involv- transparency. sheet per class.
.
rich context for devel- . ing various types of angles ✔ Hamburger “patty paper”
.
and lines. They list observa-
oping inductive and de- .. (or 1 ⁄ 4 -sheets of white
. tions and form conjectures copy or tracing paper),
.
ductive reasoning . about geometric relation- several sheets per stu-
.
ships.
skills. When the images .. dent.
.
.
of mappings, loci of .
.
.
points, and other con- .
. FOCUS
structions are obtained ..
. OVERVIEW MATERIALS FOR TEACHER ACTIVITY
.
with straightedge and .
. Students invent methods of ✔ Focus Student Activities ✔ Straightedge, 1 per stu-
compass, triangle con- .. using a straightedge and 10.1-10.4, 1 copy of each dent.
.
gruence properties and .. compass to construct tri- per student and 1 trans- ✔ Compass, 1 per student.
. angles, angle and segment parency of each.
. ✔ Demonstration compass,
other important geo- . bisectors, perpendicular ✔ Focus Masters A, C, and
. 1 per teacher.
metric properties arise. .. and parallel lines, transla- E, 1 transparency of
. tions, rotations, and reflec- ✔ Butcher paper and mark-
. each.
. tions. They form conjec- ing pens for each pair of
. ✔ Focus Masters B and D, students.
. tures about triangle
. 1 copy of each per pair of
. congruence, and develop ✔ Protractor (see Blackline
. students and 1 transpar-
. deductive arguments to Masters) and ruler (op-
. ency of each.
. support their constructions tional), 1 of each per stu-
.
. and conjectures. They solve dent.
.
. locus problems and investi-
.
. gate various geometric rela-
.
. tionships for polygons and
.
. circles.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
. FOLLOW-UP
.
.
. OVERVIEW MATERIALS FOR STUDENT ACTIVITY
.
.
. Students carry out compass ✔ Student Activity 10.5,
.
. and straightedge construc- 1 copy per student.
.
. tions, and write deductive ✔ Compass, 1 per student.
.
. arguments to explain sev-
. ✔ Straightedge, 1 per stu-
. eral geometric relationships.
. dent.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

Math Alive! Course III / 243

Lesson 10 Constructions and Mappings

LESSON IDEAS
. .
. QUOTE dents conjecture, debate, . are understood, and stu-
. .
. At this level, geometry and build arguments to . dents are prepared to use
. .
. should focus on investi- support their ideas they, in . these ideas to develop in-
. .
. gating and using geomet- effect, develop informal . formal arguments.
. .
. ric ideas and relationships “proofs.” . NCTM Standards
.
. rather than on memorizing
. .
. definitions and formulas. . QUOTE FOLLOW-UP
. .
NCTM Standards . Students discover rela- These problems are in-
.
. tionships and develop tended to prompt experi-
.
LOOKING AHEAD . spatial sense by construct- mentation and conjectures.
.
Throughout this course and . ing, drawing, measuring, It is helpful to allow peri-
.
all Math Alive! courses, stu- . visualizing, comparing, odic opportunities for stu-
.
dents reason both induc- . transforming, and classify- dents to confer with one
.
tively (i.e., they observe pat- . ing geometric figures. Dis- another—to request clues
.
terns and make conjectures . cussing ideas, conjectur- (not answers) and to share
.
that are based on the pat- . ing, and testing hypoth- places they are stuck. Based
.
terns) and deductively (i.e., . eses precede the develop- on your students’ comfort
.
they build arguments that a . ment of more formal with the lesson, you may
.
conjecture must be true as . summary statements. In wish to identify (or let the
.
a direct consequence of . the process definitions be- students identify) some
.
other information that is . come meaningful, rela- problems as optional chal-
.
known to be true). As stu- . tionships among figures lenges.

SELECTED ANSWERS

1. a) One possibility: construct a square whose sides have 3. Since point D′ is the image of D, DD′ is a chord of the
a length of 1 linear unit. The diagonal of the square is √2 circle that rotates D to D′. So, the perpendicular bisector
units. Then copy the diagonal length to construct an of DD′ passes through the center of rotation. Similarly,
equilateral triangle having side lengths of √2. the perpendicular bisector of BB′ passes through the
center of rotation. These 2 perpendicular bisectors inter-
c) Not possible because the triangle has two 45° angles sect in the center of rotation.
and so it would be isosceles.
D′
A B
e) Not possible because the diagonals of a rectangle
have the same length.
D C O
g) One possibility: construct an equilateral triangle with B′
side lengths of 2 units. Then construct the perpendicular
bisector of 2 sides of the triangle and their intersection 5. The locus of points is an ellipse. A few points of the lo-
will be the center of the circle. Construct the circle cus are shown in the following figure. The construction
whose radius is the segment from the center of the of circles were used to locate points whose distance
circle to a vertex of the triangle. from line M is twice the distance from point P.

i) One possibility: form a hexagon by constructing 6

adjacent non-overlapping equilateral triangles which all
P M
share a common vertex and whose side lengths are 2√3
(i.e., the length of the diagonal of a 1 × √2 rectangle).
The altitude of each triangle is 3 units. Construct a circle
whose radius is 3 and whose center is the common ver-
tex of the triangles.

244 / Math Alive! Course III

Constructions and Mappings Lesson 10

Connector Teacher Activity

OVERVIEW & PURPOSE MATERIALS
Students paperfold to satisfy given conditions involving ✔ Connector Master A, 1 transparency.
various types of angles and lines. They list observations and ✔ Hamburger “patty paper” (or 1 ⁄ 4 -sheets of white copy
form conjectures about geometric relationships. or tracing paper), several sheets per student.
✔ Butcher paper, 1 large sheet per class.

ACTIONS COMMENTS

1␣ ␣ Arrange the students in groups and distribute several 1␣ ␣ Students were introduced to these types of angles in
sheets of patty paper to each student. Write the follow- Math Alive! Courses I and II. Keep emphasis on under-
ing list of angle types on the overhead and ask the standing rather than memorizing. If students are keep-
students to paperfold to obtain one or more examples of ing journal glossaries, you might remind them to in-
each type. Discuss their methods, observations, and clude the terminology from this lesson as it comes up.
conjectures. Encourage students to give informal argu-
ments to support their conjectures. As needed, clarify Some students may demonstrate more than one angle
other terminology that comes up, such as: collinear, type on the same sheet. Following are examples of folds
linear pair, opposite rays, straight angle, etc. and observations students have made; there are other
possibilities. Lines and angles are formed by making
Types of Angles: sharp creases in the paper.

a) Acute Making 1 fold across a sheet, as illustrated below, pro-

duces 4 angles. ∠1 and ∠3 are acute angles because their
b) Obtuse measures are less than 90°; this can be verified by com-
paring the angles to a corner of the paper. ∠2 and ∠4
c) Congruent are obtuse angles because their measures are greater than
90° and less than 180°. ∠1 and ∠2 are adjacent angles, as
d) Adjacent are ∠3 and ∠4, since they have in common both a ver-
tex and a side. ∠1 and ∠2 are supplementary because the
e) Vertical sum of their measures is 180° (this is true since they
combine to form a straight angle). ∠3 and ∠4 are supple-
f) Right mentary for the same reason. ∠1 and ∠2 are also called a
linear pair of angles because they are adjacent angles
g) Supplementary whose noncommon sides are opposite rays (i.e., the
noncommon sides are 2 different collinear rays that have
h) Complementary the same endpoint, or origin). Similarly, ∠3 and ∠4 are a
linear pair.
i) Straight C
D E
3 4

2 1
A B
K
Given a fold such as the one shown above, students may
correctly conjecture that ∠1 and ∠3 are congruent (i.e.,
they have the same measure) and that ∠2 and ∠4 are
congruent. To support this conjecture, they may super-

(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 245

Lesson 10 Constructions and Mappings
Connector Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS
C 1 (continued.)
D E
3 4 impose a tracing of ∠1 with ∠3, for example. Or, they
may demonstrate that a 180° rotation about the mid-
point of CK causes the tracing of ∠1 to coincide with ∠3
and the tracing of ∠2 to coincide with ∠4. This is true if
the opposite edges of the paper are parallel (see Com-
ment 2).
2 1
A B
K
Vertical angles are formed by two intersecting lines.
Vertical angles have a common vertex (see point P at the
7 left) and their sides are opposite rays. In the example
6 shown at the left, ∠5 and ∠7 are vertical angles, as are
8 ∠6 and ∠8.
5
P Students may correctly conjecture that vertical angles
are congruent, and verify this by folding ∠5 onto ∠7,
and ∠6 onto ∠8, arguing that the new folds are lines of
symmetry (see Lessons 1 and 2 of this course). Or, they
may support their conjecture that vertical angles are
congruent by rotating a tracing of the 4 angles 180°
about point P to show that each angle maps onto its
vertical angle. This is so because each line has 180°
rotational symmetry about P.

One way to form a right angle is: crease to form a line;

fold 2
then fold the line onto itself, forming 4 congruent
angles, each with measure 360° ÷ 4 = 90°. See ∠9, ∠10,
9 ∠11, and ∠12 at the left. To form adjacent complemen-
10 tary angles (i.e., 2 angles whose measures total 90°),
12 11
fold 1 crease to form a line that passes through the vertex and
between the sides of a right angle.

Note: Students may mistakenly assume that 2 angles

must be adjacent in order to be supplementary or
complementary. For 2 angles to be supplementary, the
sum of their measures must be 180°, regardless their
location. For example, since ∠1 + ∠2 = 180°, and since
∠1 and ∠3 are congruent and ∠2 and ∠4 are congruent,
then ∠1 + ∠4 = 180° and ∠2 + ∠3 = 180°. So, ∠1 and ∠4
are supplementary, as are ∠2 and ∠3. Similarly, 2 comple-
mentary angles may be adjacent or nonadjacent angles.

2␣ ␣ Post a large poster entitled “We conjecture… We 2␣ ␣ The intent here is to encourage questions and conjec-
wonder…” on the classroom wall. Tell the students that tures and the use of reasoning to support conjectures. It
throughout the remainder of the lesson you want them is expected that students arguments are informal and
to post or suggest statements for the poster. Suggest that intuitive. As the lesson progresses, students will develop
whenever the class reaches a high level of confidence tools for building stronger deductive arguments.
that a conjecture is true, a star will be drawn next to the
conjecture. Throughout this lesson, you might provide students
easy access to a supply of butcher paper strips and mark-
ing pens, so they can record conjectures or questions
before posting them.
246 / Math Alive! Course III
Constructions and Mappings Lesson 10
Connector Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

If you teach several classes, it is helpful to provide a

poster for each class. During each class cover other
classes’ posters (or fold the bottom half of each poster to
cover the top half) until the end of the class period.
Then have the students compare their observations to
those made by other classes.

3␣ ␣ Place a transparency of Connector Master A on the 3␣ Since 2 lines that intersect to form right angles are
overhead, revealing a) only. Ask the students to each perpendicular, the students can use the method of form-
paperfold to form lines that satisfy the given conditions, ing right angles from Action 1 to form perpendicular
to develop arguments that show why their methods lines. That is, fold the paper to form a crease that is a
work, and to make observations and conjectures about line; then select a point on this line and fold the line
the results. Record their observations, questions, and onto itself about the point. The crease of the latter fold
conjectures on the class “We conjecture… We won- is a line perpendicular to the original line at the selected
der…” poster for continued discussion throughout the point.
lesson.

Constructions and Mappings Lesson 10

Connector Master A

Paperfold to satisfy each of the following conditions. Do not use

a protractor or ruler.

a) Form 2 lines which are perpendicular to each other and not

parallel to the edges of the paper.

4 ␣ Repeat Action 3 for b)-h) on Connector Master A. 4 ␣ As discussed in Lesson 9 of this course, an “if-then”
Distribute additional patty paper as needed. Encourage statement is called a conditional statement. The “if…”
students to make conjectures, whenever possible, in portion of the statement is called the hypothesis and
“if… then…” form. Use students’ methods, observations, represents the information that is given or assumed to
and conjectures as a context for clarifying relationships be true. The “then…” portion is called the conclusion.
related to perpendicular and parallel lines and for clari-
fying terminology such as transversal, corresponding Following are some possible paperfolding strategies for
angles, alternate interior angles, alternate exterior angles, b)-h), together with possible student conjectures.
angle bisector, perpendicular bisector, and isosceles triangle.
b) Fold and crease the paper to form a line. Pick a point
on the line and fold the line onto itself about that point.
Crease this new fold to form a line perpendicular to the
original line. Pick another point on the original line and
repeat the process, forming a 2nd line that is perpen-
dicular to the original line.

Students may correctly conjecture that if 2 lines are

perpendicular to a 3rd line, then they are parallel to each
other, because the 2 lines will never intersect. They may
also conjecture that all perpendicular segments between
2 parallel lines are equal in length.

(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 247

Lesson 10 Constructions and Mappings
Connector Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

4 (continued.)
Constructions and Mappings Lesson 10
Connector Master A
c) Fold the paper so that the 2 parallel edges coincide.
This produces a crease which is parallel to 2 edges of the
paper. Next fold the paper to obtain a 2nd crease which
Paperfold to satisfy each of the following conditions. Do not use
a protractor or ruler. is parallel to the 1st crease. Unfold the paper and then
fold to obtain a 3rd crease which intersects the 2 parallel
a) Form 2 lines which are perpendicular to each other and not creases. Because the 3rd crease is a line that intersects 2
parallel to the edges of the paper. other lines, it is called a transversal of those lines.
b) Form 3 lines so that 2 of the lines are perpendicular to the 3rd
line. transversal
c) Form 2 parallel lines which are intersected by a 3rd line that is
not perpendicular to the parallel lines. 1 2
3 4
d) Form a line segment and locate its midpoint. Then form a line
perpendicular to the segment and passing through the midpoint
of the segment. 5 6
7 8
e) Create an acute angle; then form a line that bisects the angle.

f) Form a line m and mark a point P not on the line. Then form a
new line which is perpendicular to line m and passes through Students may notice that, at the intersections of a trans-
point P. versal with 2 parallel lines, there are 4 pairs of vertical
g) Form a line r and mark a point Q not on line r. Then form line s angles, e.g., ∠1 ≅ ∠4, ∠2 ≅ ∠3, ∠5 ≅ ∠8, and ∠6 ≅ ∠7 in
which passes through Q and is parallel to line r. the diagram above. By using the midpoint of the seg-
h) Form an isosceles triangle. ment of the transversal between the 2 parallel lines as
the center of a 180° rotation, students may correctly
conjecture that ∠1 ≅ ∠8, ∠2 ≅ ∠7, ∠3 ≅ ∠6, and ∠4 and
∠5. Further, they may reason that, since ∠1 ≅ ∠8, and
∠8 ≅ ∠5, then ∠1 ≅ ∠5. This illustrates the transitive
property for congruence, i.e., if a ≅ b and b ≅ c, then a ≅ c.
Similarly, it is possible to show that ∠2 ≅ ∠6 ≅ ∠3 ≅ ∠7
and ∠4 ≅ ∠8 ≅ ∠5 ≅ ∠1. Or, students may use a transla-
tion of one line onto the other, using the segment of the
transversal between the lines as translation vector, to
demonstrate that one line is a translation image of the
other, and hence, the lines are parallel.

In general, if a transversal intersects parallel lines, then

it forms several pairs of congruent angles: the vertical
angles (see example above); corresponding angles, alternate
exterior angles, and alternate interior angles. Correspond-
ing angles are angles in corresponding positions relative
to the transversal (e.g., see ∠1 and ∠5, ∠2 and ∠6, ∠3
and ∠7, and ∠4 and ∠8). Alternate exterior angles are
angles on the exterior of the parallel lines and on alter-
nate sides of the transversal (e.g., see ∠1 and ∠8, ∠2 and
∠7). Alternate interior angles are angles on the interior of
the parallel lines and on alternate sides of the transversal
perpendicular bisector of AB (e.g., see ∠3 and ∠6, ∠5 and ∠4).

d) Crease the paper to form a line segment. Mark the

fold 2 endpoints. Fold the line segment onto itself so that the
two endpoints coincide. This 2nd crease forms a line
A B that passes through the midpoint of the segment and is
M
perpendicular to the segment at that point. This line is
fold 1 called the perpendicular bisector of the segment.

248 / Math Alive! Course III

Constructions and Mappings Lesson 10
Connector Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

P Some students may observe that each point on the

perpendicular bisector of a segment is the same distance
Q from one endpoint of the segment as from the other
endpoint. Some may support this observation by point-
A B ing out that the perpendicular bisector of AB, for ex-
M
ample, is a line of reflection across which point A maps
onto point B (see Lessons 1 and 2 of this course). Hence,
R
in the illustration at the left, since reflections preserve
length, AP ≅ PB, AQ ≅ QB, and AR ≅ RB.
fold 1
angle bisector e) First fold to create an acute angle. This may be done
with 1 crease as in Comment 1, or by 2 creases as shown
at the left. Fold the 2 sides of the angle onto each other
and crease to form a line that bisects the angle (see fold
fold 3 3 in the diagram). This line is called the angle bisector.
fold 2 Notice it is also a line of reflection that maps the sides of
the angle onto each other.
reflex angle
Notice also that the crease bisects both the acute angle
and the reflex angle. Note: a reflex angle is an angle
whose measure is greater than 180° and less than 360°.
In this case, the measure of the reflex angle is the differ-
ence between 360° and the measure of the acute angle.

P f) Fold to form a line m. Mark a point P not on m. Fold

the line m onto itself so that the crease contains the
2 1 point P. This forms 4 congruent angles, and since the
angles total 360°, each angle measures 360°⁄ 4 = 90°. Hence,
m 3 4
fold 1 each is a right angle. Notice there are also 4 different
pairs of adjacent angles; each pair is a linear pair and
fold 2 supplementary.

g) Paperfold as for f) to obtain the line perpendicular to

line r and passing through point Q not on r. Then fold
fold 3 this line onto itself about point Q. The result is line s,
which passes through Q and is perpendicular to the line
s Q formed by fold 2 and parallel to line r.
fold 1
This may prompt the conjecture that, if 2 lines are
r perpendicular to the same line, then they are parallel to
fold 2 each other.

h) Fold 1: paperfold and crease to form a line. Mark

points A and B on the line. Fold 2: fold AB onto itself so
that A coincides with B. Crease to form the perpendicu-
P lar bisector of AB. Keeping fold 2 in place, mark a point
P on the perpendicular bisector. Fold 3: keeping fold 2 in
fold 3 fold 3 place, fold and crease to form segments AP and BP.
Unfold to reveal ∆APB which is isosceles since at least 2
of its sides are congruent.
A B
fold 2 fold 1 (Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 249

Lesson 10 Constructions and Mappings
Connector Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

4 (continued.)
Students may pose several conjectures about isosceles
triangles. For example:

If a triangle is isosceles, then the base angles are congruent.

If a triangle is isosceles, then the altitude divides the triangle

into 2 smaller congruent triangles.

If an isosceles triangle is a right triangle, then the altitude

divides it into 2 smaller isosceles right triangles.

If a triangle is isosceles, then the altitude is a line of reflec-

tion of the triangle.

250 / Math Alive! Course III

Constructions and Mappings Lesson 10

Focus Teacher Activity

OVERVIEW & PURPOSE MATERIALS
Students invent methods of using a straightedge and compass ✔ Focus Student Activities 10.1-10.4, 1 copy of each per
to construct triangles, angle and segment bisectors, perpen- student and 1 transparency of each.
dicular and parallel lines, translations, rotations, and reflec- ✔ Focus Masters A, C, and E, 1 transparency of each.
tions. They form conjectures about triangle congruence, and
✔ Focus Masters B and D, 1 copy of each per pair of
develop deductive arguments to support their constructions
students and 1 transparency of each.
and conjectures. They solve locus problems and investigate
various geometric relationships for polygons and circles. ✔ Straightedge, 1 per student.
✔ Compass, 1 per student.
✔ Demonstration compass, 1 per teacher.
✔ Butcher paper and marking pens for each pair of
students.
✔ Protractor and ruler (optional), 1 of each per student.

ACTIONS COMMENTS

1␣ ␣ Arrange the students in pairs. Discuss the differences 1␣ ␣ Typically, a sketch is a freehand illustration; sketching
between sketches, drawings, and geometric constructions. may or may not include the use of any geometric tools.
Distribute a straightedge and compass to each student. A drawing is generally more accurate; often it involves
Ask the students to investigate and determine several the use of a protractor to measure angles and a ruler to
geometric figures that can be constructed using only a measure lengths. A geometric construction is a geometric
straightedge and/or compass. Discuss the students’ figure that can be created using only a straightedge and
results, clarifying the names of constructed figures as compass. Marks (e.g., arcs, circles, points, etc.) made
needed. during the construction process are usually not erased.
No measuring tools are allowed in geometric construc-
tions (if a ruler is used as a straightedge, or a compass
has markers to measure radii, the marks on the ruler and
compass must not be used for measuring).

Some students may at first resist the limitations of using

only a straightedge and compass for constructions. If so,
you might suggest that working under such restrictions
will lead to many discoveries, conjectures, and generali-
zations involving geometric shapes and their properties.
In fact, over the centuries many important mathemati-
cal discoveries have happened in this context. The
ancient Greeks were the first to explore geometric con-
structions. Over the ages, mathematicians have been
intrigued and challenged by inventing geometric con-
structions; a goal of this lesson is for students to experi-
ence similar intrigue and challenge.

A demonstration-sized compass and straightedge may be

useful at the board. Or, some standard compasses work
well with an overhead pen at the overhead. Below are
examples of figures that students may construct.

line segment triangle quadrilateral circle sector segment arc

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Lesson 10 Constructions and Mappings
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

2␣ ␣ Place a copy of Focus Master A on the overhead, 2␣ ␣ It may be helpful to remind students not to erase or
revealing only Construction 1. Ask each pair of students remove their construction marks.
to carry out the construction. Ask for illustrations and
explanations at the overhead. c) You might have the pairs exchange their completed
instructions and provide feedback to each other. Here is
Constructions and Mappings Lesson 10
a sample set of student instructions:
Focus Master A

Step 1. Using a straightedge, construct a line segment of any

length and mark the endpoints A and B.
Construction 1

a) Use a straightedge to construct a line segment AB. Step 2. Open the compass so the compass point is at A and
the pencil tip is at B. Pick a point not on AB and label it C.
b) Investigate ways to use a straightedge and compass Keeping the compass open the distance from A to B, place the
only to construct a congruent copy of the line segment compass point at C and swing an arc with the pencil tip.
AB formed in a).

c) Devise a set of clear and concise, step-by-step

Step 3. Pick any point on the arc from Step 2 and label it D.
instructions for constructing a copy of a line segment. Use the straightedge to connect C to D. This forms CD which
is congruent to AB.

Construction 2 Note: If AB is longer than the opening of the compass,

a) Use a straightedge to draw an angle with vertex X.
then AB can be divided into sections and the sections
copied one at a time, endpoint to endpoint along a
b) Investigate ways to use a straightedge and compass straight line.
to construct ∠V congruent to ∠X formed in a).

c) Devise a clear set of instructions for constructing a

copy of an angle.

3␣ ␣ Reveal Construction 2 on Focus Master A and repeat 3␣ ␣ Again, you might have pairs exchange completed
Action 2 for this construction. instructions and provide feedback to each other. Follow-
ing is one possible set of instructions for constructing
∠V congruent to a given ∠X.

Given:
X

Step 1. Pick a point on the paper and label it V. Using a

straightedge, construct the beginning of a ray with endpoint V.

Step 2. Place the compass point at X, the vertex of the given

angle. Swing an arc that passes through both sides of ∠X.
Label the points A and C where the arc intersects the sides
of ∠X.
C

X
A

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Constructions and Mappings Lesson 10
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

Step 3. Without changing the opening of the compass from

Step 2, place the compass point at point V and swing an arc
that crosses the ray formed in Step 1. Label point U, the
intersection of the arc and ray.

V
U

Step 4. Adjust the opening of the compass so that, when the

compass point is on A, the pencil tip is on C. Without chang-
ing the compass opening, place the compass point at U and
swing an arc that crosses the arc formed in Step 3. Label the
intersection of the arcs W.

C
W
X V
A U

Step 5. Use a straightedge to construct ray VW. ∠UVW ≅

∠AXC.

W
V
U

4␣ ␣ Ask the pairs to draw a line segment and then invent 4␣ ␣ It is important to allow plenty of time for experimen-
a method of constructing a line that is the perpendicular tation and conferring among the pairs. Some students
bisector of the segment. Have them write a set of step-by- may find it helpful to reflect on their paperfolding
step instructions for their constructions. Discuss the strategies from the Connector and to base their con-
students’ methods and reasoning. Encourage them to structions on observations and generalizations related to
add conjectures and questions to the “We conjecture… those strategies. For example, the following construction
We wonder…” poster created during the Connector is based on the observation that any point on the per-
activity. pendicular bisector of a segment is equidistant from the
endpoints of the segment (see Connector Comment 4d):

Step 1. Draw a line segment and label its endpoints A and B.

Step 2. Open the compass a distance greater than 1 ⁄ 2 AB.

Step 3. Without changing the compass opening, place the

compass point at point A and swing an arc that extends
above and below AB.

A B

(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 253

Lesson 10 Constructions and Mappings
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

C 4 (continued.)
Step 4. Without changing the compass opening, place the
compass point at B and swing an arc that intersects the arc
A B
formed in Step 3 in 2 points. Label the points of intersection
D C and D.

Step 5. Draw CD, the perpendicular bisector of AB at point M,

C M the midpoint of AB.

A B Note that in Action 14 students develop deductive

D arguments to show why this construction works.

5␣ ␣ Ask the pairs to invent a method of constructing a 5␣ ␣ Again, reflecting on their paperfolding strategies
pair of parallel lines and to write a set of step-by-step during the Connector may be helpful. If some pairs
instructions for their construction. Discuss their meth- finish while others are still working, you might encour-
ods and reasoning. age the early finishers to see if they can devise more
than one method of constructing parallel lines.

Many students may construct a line, and then based on

the construction from Action 4, construct the perpen-
dicular bisector of 2 different segments on the line,
noting that 2 lines perpendicular to a 3rd line are paral-
lel to each other (see Connector Comment 4).

Another way to construct parallel lines is to draw a line

and label 2 points A and B on the line; then construct
congruent corresponding (or alternate interior or alter-
nate exterior) angles at points A and B. If this idea isn’t
suggested, notice it is explored in Action 6.

6␣ If, in Action 5, students didn’t bring up the method 6␣ ␣ c) To construct a congruent corresponding angle at B,
of forming parallel lines by constructing congruent students must construct an angle identical to one of the
corresponding angles on a transversal, ask them to do angles formed at point A (i.e., one of the angles formed
the following: by the intersection of lines l and m)—identical in mea-
sure and identical in position relative to the lines. That
a) Draw a line l and label 2 points A and B on line l. is, both angles need to be on the same side of line l and
both angles need to open in the same direction. The
method of copying an angle described in Comment 3
A B l can be used here.

Students may notice that by constructing congruent

corresponding angles with transversal l, parallel lines are
formed. Hence, both the statement—if lines are parallel,
then they form congruent corresponding angles with a
transversal—and its converse—if 2 lines form congruent
corresponding angles with a transversal, then the lines
are parallel—are true. These 2 statements can be re-

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Constructions and Mappings Lesson 10
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

b) Draw line m passing through A. Notice 4 angles are placed by the statement, 2 lines are parallel if and only if
formed at A. they form congruent corresponding angles with a trans-
versal. In general, when the statement “if a, then b” and
m its converse “if b, then a” are both true, then one can say
“a is true if and only if b is true.” The statement “a if and
only if b” is called a biconditional statement. Not every
A B l “if-then” statement can be written in “if and only if”
format, because it is not always the case that if a state-
ment is true, its converse is also true.

c) Using 1 of the 4 angles formed at A, construct a con- Students may also notice that by constructing congruent
gruent corresponding angle at B. corresponding angles, congruent alternate interior and
alternate exterior angles are automatically formed. You
might have students determine whether “if and only if”
m n statements can be written regarding alternate interior
and alternate exterior angles forming parallel lines (they
l can).
A B
Some students may conjecture that if 2 lines are cut by a
transversal and a pair of corresponding angles (or alter-
d) Discuss the students’ observations and the use of if nate interior angles or alternate exterior angles) are not
and only if when a statement and its converse are true. congruent, then the lines are not parallel. This is true, as
is the converse.

l
12
4 3 m

5 6
8 7 n

In this lesson, many ideas are accepted as true based on

informal arguments (e.g., using a 180° rotation to verify
that, when parallel lines are cut by a transversal, alter-
nate interior angles are congruent); whereas the same
ideas may be postulated in a more formal approach.

Students’ arguments and reasoning throughout this les-

son will not necessarily be as detailed or well developed
as ideas suggested in the Comments column. Informa-
tion is provided here for teacher background, to bring
up as deemed appropriate, based on students’ comfort
and needs. Many students may find it easier to argue
orally from diagrams than to prepare written arguments.
The intent here is to engage students in the process of
thinking deductively about geometric relationships.
Over time, with extensive opportunities to discuss their
thinking and hear each other’s ideas, students will gain
confidence and written arguments will gain clarity.

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Lesson 10 Constructions and Mappings
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

7␣ ␣ Ask each student to use a straightedge to construct a 7␣ ␣ Students may use a variety of strategies. If some de-
triangle and to label the vertices of the triangle A, B, and vise strategies quickly, you might encourage continued
C. Next, ask them to exchange triangles with their investigation by posing questions such as: Is there more
partners, to devise a method of constructing (i.e., with a than one sequence of steps possible? Is there a minimal
straightedge and compass only) a triangle congruent to set of steps? Is there more than one minimal set?
their partner’s triangle, and to label the vertices of this
new triangle D, E, and F. Discuss their strategies and Students may illustrate that their triangles are congruent
observations. by placing one on top of the other to show that they
coincide. Students may make conjectures about con-
structing congruent triangles and relationships in gen-
eral among congruent triangles. Rather than affirming
or contradicting their conjectures now, suggest that
students test, and refine their ideas during subsequent
actions.

Notice that in Actions 9 and 10 the students generalize

strategies for forming congruent triangles. See those
comments for discussion ideas and conjectures that may
come up here.

8␣ ␣ If it didn’t come up in Action 7, ask the students for 8␣ ␣ If students superimpose congruent triangles, the
ideas regarding ways to record which parts, i.e., which corresponding parts of the triangles coincide. Students
sides, angles, and vertices, of the two triangles ABC and may invent a number of ways to denote corresponding
DEF are congruent. Use this as a context for discussing parts. For example, for the congruent triangles shown
standard notation regarding congruent triangles. below, the corresponding vertices might be recorded as
A,D; B,E; C,F. Note that the lettering of the correspon-
dences for students’ triangles may be different, based on
the order of their labeling.

C F

A B D E

Double arrows are frequently used to indicate corre-

sponding parts:

Corresponding vertices: A↔D, B↔E, C↔F

Corresponding sides: AB↔DE, BC↔EF, CA↔FD
Corresponding angles: ∠CAB↔∠FDE, ∠ABC↔∠DEF,
∠BCA↔∠EFD

The ≅ symbol denotes congruence of triangles, e.g.,

∆ABC ≅ ∆DEF, where the letters are placed in the order
of their corresponding vertices. Similarly, the ≅ symbol
denotes congruent sides and angles. For example, for the
congruent triangles shown above, AB ≅ DE and ∠ABC ≅
∠DEF.

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Constructions and Mappings Lesson 10
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

9␣ ␣ Provide each pair of students a sheet of butcher paper, 9␣ ␣ It may be helpful to remind the students that angle A
marking pens, and a copy of Focus Master B. Ask the must be constructed at point A of segments AB and AC,
pairs to carry out the instructions on Master B. When angle B at point B, and angle C at point C.
completed, have the pairs post and compare their re-
sults. Discuss. If there is consensus about conjectures The intent here is to identify minimal combinations of
and generalizations, record them on the class poster measurements that determine a unique triangle. Stu-
created during Action 2 of the Connector activity. dents’ investigations may be random at first; after a
while, if needed, you might provide encouragement for
approaching the problem systematically.
Constructions and Mappings Lesson 10
Focus Master B
A minimal set of measurements is adequate and not
redundant—i.e., the set is adequate if all triangles that
The 6 pieces of information shown on the next page can be formed using those measurements are congruent
make up the “maximal” set of information that you to ∆ABC, and the set is not redundant if no measure-
need to construct triangle ABC. What is a “minimal” ments are unnecessary to determine the triangle.
set of information that you need to construct tri-
angle ABC. How can you be sure you have all the
information that you need? How can you be sure Following are several observations that may be offered
that you don’t have more information than you by students. Note that, if these generalizations do not
need? Is there more than one minimal set of infor- arise here, rather than bringing them up for discussion
mation? now, you might wait until later in the lesson, since there
will be several opportunities in subsequent actions.
Investigate. Test your ideas and build arguments to
support your conclusions.
We started to copy all 6 pieces of information, but discovered
Make a poster of your conclusions. Show examples that, by the time we copied all 3 side lengths, we had “fixed”
to support your ideas. List important observations, the triangle. So, the set of 3 side lengths is a minimal set of
conjectures, and generalizations that you develop information.
during the investigation.

Copying sides AB and BC and ∠B is enough to “fix” ∆ABC,

Lesson 10 Constructions and Mappings
Focus Master B (cont.)
and no other triangles are possible with these measurements.
The same is true for sides AB and AC and ∠A, or sides AC
and BC and ∠C. We notice that if we copy any 2 sides and
the angle between the sides, then the only triangle we can
construct is ∆ABC.

A B A By copying ∠A and ∠B and side AB, we are able to form

∆ABC. Similarly, ∠B and ∠C and side BC or ∠A and ∠C
and side AC also determine ∆ABC. So, any 2 angles and the
side between the angles make a minimal set of information
needed to form ∆ABC.

There are an infinite number of triangles whose angles are all

B
congruent to angles A, B, and C. These triangles are all
A C
enlargements or reductions of each other, but they are not
necessarily congruent to each other. These triangles are all
similar triangles. It isn’t enough to copy the 3 angles; at least
one side is needed.

An infinite number of triangles can be formed using only 2

side lengths and no other information about the triangle.
B C C

(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 257

Lesson 10 Constructions and Mappings
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

9 (continued.)
In the following diagram, we have shown that there are 2
triangles possible by copying sides AB and BC and angle A.
So knowing 2 sides and an angle not between the 2 sides is
not enough to determine a unique triangle.
C

A B A B
If you pick any 2 angles and a side of the triangle that is not
included by the angles, there is only 1 triangle that can be
formed. Note: there would be 2 triangles possible if the
side and 2 angles were not labeled to identify the posi-
tion of the side relative to the angles.

Since the sum of the measures of the angles in a triangle is

180°, we can see that knowing 2 angles of a triangle “fixes”
the 3rd angle.

10␣ ␣ Place a transparency of Focus Master C on the 10␣ ␣ If students get “stuck,” you might give each student
overhead and ask the pairs to carry out the instructions. a protractor and ruler and suggest they draw (out of
sight of their partner) 3 triangles (∆RST, ∆UVW, and
Discuss their results and reasoning. Use this as a context ∆XYZ) so that at least 2 of the triangles are congruent,
for introducing the side-side-side (SSS), side-angle-side recording the side lengths and angle measures for the 3
(SAS), and angle-side-angle (ASA) congruence properties. triangles. Suggest that each student determine minimal
sets of measurements they need to request from their
partner in order to determine which of their partner’s 3
Constructions and Mappings Lesson 10 triangles are congruent.
Focus Master C

In Action 9, students determined that exactly 1 triangle

According to the definition of congruence: could be constructed with the 3 side lengths. This is true
for any 3 lengths, assuming they form a triangle. Hence,
If there is a correspondence between the verti- if 3 sides of 1 triangle are congruent to 3 sides of another
ces of 2 triangles such that all corresponding
triangle, the 2 triangles must be congruent. Thus, if the
segments are congruent and all corresponding
angles are congruent, then the triangles are 3 side lengths of 2 triangles are known, it is possible to
congruent. determine whether they are congruent without knowing
any angle measurements.
The above statement gives the maximal set of
conditions needed to establish that 2 triangles
The statement, if 3 sides of 1 triangle are congruent to 3
are congruent. For any 2 triangles ABC and DEF,
what are all the possible minimal sets of condi-
sides of another triangle, then the 2 triangles are congruent,
tions for determining whether ∆ABC is congruent is often referred to as the side-side-side congruence prop-
to ∆DEF? Give convincing evidence to support erty. It is typically abbreviated by SSS to indicate that 3
your conclusions. pairs of congruent sides are sufficient to show that 2
triangles are congruent.

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Constructions and Mappings Lesson 10
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

As determined in Action 9, knowing 2 sides and the

angle included by the 2 sides is also sufficient to con-
struct a unique triangle. Hence, the side-angle-side congru-
ence property is true: If 2 sides and the included angle of 1
triangle are congruent to 2 sides and the included angle of
another triangle, the 2 triangles are congruent. This congru-
ence property is abbreviated as SAS.

A 3rd congruence property is the angle-side-angle congru-

ence property: if 2 angles and the included side of 1 triangle
are congruent to 2 angles and the included side of another
triangle, the 2 triangles are congruent. This congruence
property is often abbreviated ASA.

If students don’t raise the possibility of SSA (i.e., 2 sides

and an angle not included by the sides of 1 triangle are
congruent to the corresponding parts of a 2nd triangle),
you might do so. As illustrated in Comment 9, given 2
sides and an angle not included by the sides, there is
more than 1 triangle possible. Hence, SSA is not a con-
gruence property.

Notice that, if one knows the measures of 2 angles of a

triangle, then the measure of the 3rd angle is 180° mi-
nus the sum of the 2 given angles. Hence, knowing the
measures of 2 angles and a side of a triangle is equiva-
lent to knowing 3 angles and a side. Thus, if one knows
2 angles and a side of 1 triangle are congruent to the
corresponding 2 angles and side of another triangle,
then the triangles are congruent, for the reasons given
in the discussion of the ASA congruence property. Some
students may wish to refer to this as the AAS congruence
property. Note that AAS holds as long as there is a corre-
spondence so that, for both triangles, the given side is in
the same position relative to the angles. If such a corre-
spondence is not certain the triangles may or may not
be congruent.

Note: Since there are an infinite number of triangles

with any 3 given angle measures, AAA is not a congru-
ence property. It does establish similarity, however.

Students may suggest congruence properties such as

SASS. Note, however, if 3 sides and an angle of one
triangle are congruent to 3 sides and an angle of another
triangle, then the triangles are congruent by the SSS
property. That is, there is more information than is
needed to determine congruence, i.e., some information
is redundant.

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Lesson 10 Constructions and Mappings
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

11␣ ␣ Give each student a copy of Focus Student Activity 11␣ ␣ The matching hash marks on the sides and angles
10.1 and ask them to carry out the instructions for the of each pair of triangles denote congruent parts.
first 2 pairs of triangles. Discuss. Then repeat for the
remaining pairs of triangles. The following statements are based on the given infor-
mation:
Constructions and Mappings Lesson 10
Pair 1: Not possible to tell. They look congruent, but
Focus Student Activity 10.1 knowing 2 sides of 2 triangles is not sufficient to deter-
NAME DATE
mine congruence.
Using the information that is given (i.e., as indicated by the angle
and hash marks) or that you can logically conclude from the given
information, determine which of the following pairs of triangles are Pair 2: ∆PJU ≅ ∆UMP by SSS. Notice that side PU is con-
congruent. Note: the drawings may not be drawn to scale, so do not
base your conclusions on measurements you make or on what ap-
tained in both triangles. Therefore, all 3 pairs of corre-
pears to be true. For each of the following 12 pairs of triangles:
sponding sides, PJ and UM, JU and MP, and UP and PU
• If the 2 triangles are congruent tell which congruence property
(SSS, SAS, or ASA) is the basis of your reasoning, and write a correct
are congruent.
congruence statement (e.g., ∆ABC ≅ ∆MNO).

• If the 2 triangles are not congruent, explain why. Pair 3: ∆HXO ≅ ∆ATB by SAS
1 2 3 H A

S D
J U
Pair 4: ∆EPL ≅ ∆EPA by SSS
O

Pair 5: ∆JAS ≅ ∆KAC by SAS

U M G P M T

X O B

4 E 5 6 Pair 6: ∆LDE ≅ ∆STI by SAS

S
J C I
Pair 7: ∆INU ≅ ∆SFT by SAS
L
A

S T
L A K E
P D
Pair 8: Not necessarily congruent, not enough
7 8
R
A information
I T S
U
U

N U F
T
Pair 9: ∆KRA ≅ ∆CDI by ASA, since 3rd angles are
N
congruent
(Continued on back.)

Pair 10: ∆SAL ≅ ∆PAM by ASA

Lesson 10 Constructions and Mappings

Focus Student Activity 10.1 (cont.)
Pair 11: Not necessarily congruent, not enough
information
9 10 L M
D
K A Pair 12: Not necessarily congruent, not enough
I
information
R
A C S P

11 12
L L O
I

R G
N F W
R E
E

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Constructions and Mappings Lesson 10
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

12␣ ␣ Give each pair of students a copy of Focus Master 12␣ ␣ This could be started in class and completed as
D. Referring to the conditions given in a), ask the pairs homework. Be sure to provide sufficient time for investi-
whether knowing that a triangle is scalene and knowing gations. In addition to a compass, straightedge, protrac-
its area are sufficient to determine a unique triangle, an tor, and ruler, students may find dot paper, tracing
infinite set of noncongruent triangles, a fixed number paper, grid paper, and geoboards (or geoboard paper)
(greater than 1) of noncongruent triangles, or no tri- useful for investigating ideas and recording examples to
angle. Invite volunteers to explain their reasoning. support their conclusions. They may also find coffee
Encourage students to post their conjectures and gener- stirrers or pieces of uncooked spaghetti useful for repre-
alizations on the class poster started during the Connec- senting fixed lengths.
tor activity. Repeat for one or more of b)-r).
To encourage conjectures and generalizations, you
might provide each pair of students a supply of butcher
Lesson 10 Constructions and Mappings paper strips and a marking pen, reminding them to post
Focus Master D
their ideas on the class poster which was begun during
the Connector. Following are examples of arguments
Which, if any, of the following conditions determine a unique triangle?
an infinite collection of noncongruent triangles? a fixed number (greater
students may use.
than 1) of noncongruent triangles? no triangles? Show or explain your
reasoning. Give examples to support your conclusions. Write conjec-
tures and generalizations in “if x, then y” form. a) For any given area, there are an infinite number of
noncongruent scalene triangles with that area. In previ-
a) the area of a scalene triangle
ous Math Alive! courses, students noted that moving a
b) the perimeter of an equilateral triangle
c) one side and the area of a scalene triangle
vertex of a triangle along a line through that vertex and
d) the perimeter and the noncongruent side of an isosceles triangle parallel to the opposite side generates an infinite set of
e) one leg and the area of a right triangle triangles with the same area. For example, the following
f) 2 sides of an isosceles (nonequilateral) triangle diagram shows 4 triangles with area 3 square units:
g) the area of an equilateral triangle
h) 2 sides of a right triangle
i) the perimeter of a right triangle
j) 2 sides of a triangle and the altitude to the vertex between the 2 3 3 3 3
sides.
k) Challenge: 2 sides and an angle of a scalene triangle.
l) 2 angles and a side of a scalene triangle
An “if x, then y” statement could be: If only the area of a
m) Challenge: the area and an acute angle of a right triangle
scalene triangle is given, then an infinite number of
n) angles 110°, 47°, 28°
o) side lengths 4, 8, 10 noncongruent triangles with that area can be formed.
p) side lengths 3, 9, 14
q) angles 57°, 63°, 60° b) If a triangle is equilateral then all 3 sides are the same
r) the area of an isosceles triangle that is not equilateral length. Hence, if the perimeter is p, the 3 side lengths
are each p ⁄ 3 . There is exactly 1 triangle with 3 given side
lengths. Therefore, if the perimeter of an equilateral
triangle is given, then exactly 1 triangle can be formed.

You might encourage the students to extend conjectures

to create new congruence statements. For example,
based on the argument above: if 2 triangles are equilat-
eral and their perimeters are equal, then the triangles are
congruent.

c) infinite number of noncongruent triangles

d) a unique triangle
e) a unique triangle
f) an infinite number of noncongruent triangles
g) a unique triangle

(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 261

 Lesson 10 Constructions and Mappings
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

12 (continued.)
h) A unique triangle if the 2 sides have the same length.
Otherwise, 2 noncongruent triangles, 1 of which has the
2 given sides as legs and 1 which has the larger of the
given sides as hypotenuse.
i) Infinite number of noncongruent triangles. One way
to “see” this is to imagine a string of a given length,
knotted to form a loop; stretch the string tautly around
3 pins positioned to form the vertices of a right triangle
whose perimeter is the given string length; the pins can
be repositioned to form an infinite number of noncon-
gruent right triangles with perimeters equal to the given
␣ string length. Here are 3 examples:

j) a unique triangle
k) 4 noncongruent triangles
l) 3 noncongruent triangles
m) a unique triangle
n) no triangle is possible
o) a unique triangle
p) no triangle is possible
q) infinite number of noncongruent triangles
r) infinite number of noncongruent triangles

13 ␣ Draw the following diagram on the overhead and 13␣ ␣ It may be helpful to begin by asking students to
ask the pairs of students to tell all the mathematical identify what information is “given” in the drawing,
information they can about the figure by reasoning since they can build arguments based only on informa-
deductively from the given information. Invite volun- tion that is provided (i.e., according to markings on the
teers to illustrate their results and reasoning at the diagram) or information that can be deduced directly
overhead. ␣ ␣ B from the given information. Students may feel a little
uncertain at first regarding what they can assume from a
1 2 drawing and what information they can assume they
already know. In general, they can assume: that seg-
ments that appear to be collinear are; that angles that
appear to form a linear pair do so; that a point that
8 3
A 7 4
C appears to lie on a line does; and that angles and seg-
O ments marked as congruent are so.

You might assure students that you will let them know
6 5 if they are jumping to conclusions which they must first
build arguments to support. And, once they have proven
D a relationship, they can use that relationship without
reproving it—unless, of course, you ask specifically for
justification.

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Constructions and Mappings Lesson 10
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

For example, one can assume from the given drawing

that ABCD is a quadrilateral and that the 4 sides are
congruent. Hence, one can conclude that ABCD is a
rhombus. Note: It is not possible to tell from the given
information whether the rhombus is a square.

Students may also notice that ∆ABC, ∆ADC, ∆ABD, and

∆CBD are all isosceles triangles because, if a triangle has
at least 2 congruent sides, then it is isosceles.

If students have difficulty getting started, you could

invite volunteers to make “I notice…” statements and
have the class investigate arguments to support or refute
the statements. Or, you could provide a thought starter
such as, “I notice several isosceles triangles,” or “I notice
that ∆ABC ≅ ∆ADC,” or “I notice that ABCD is a rhom-
bus.” Then ask the students to investigate to determine
how you can be sure.

Be sure to allow plenty of time and encouragement for

“digging” out lots of information. If, after discussing
some information, students need more “mulling time,”
you might post a list of their observations, proceed with
Action 14, and then return periodically to this action for
discussion. Even though it may be a little overwhelming
at first, discovering how much information is revealed
by a drawing provides motivation for searching in subse-
quent investigations.

Following are some conclusions that can be supported

by reasoning deductively from the given information.

∆ABC ≅ ∆ADC by SSS, since it is given that AB ≅ AD and

BC ≅ DC, and since AC ≅ AC (AC is a side of both tri-
B B angles). Note: the fact that a number is equal to itself is
called the reflexive property for equality. Segments are
congruent if their lengths are equal; hence, because of
the reflexive property for equality any segment is con-
gruent to itself.
8 3
A C A C
7 4 Once it is established that ∆ABC ≅ ∆ADC, one can con-
clude that ∠ABC ≅ ∠ADC, ∠8 ≅ ∠7, and ∠3 ≅ ∠4 (see
Figure 2 at the left). This is possible to deduce because
corresponding angles of congruent triangles are congru-
ent. It may be helpful to students to share with them
how you word justifications. However, it is important to
D D
keep emphasis on reasoning and informal arguments—it
Figure 1 Figure 2 is not intended that students create formal proofs here.
→
∆ABC ≅ ∆ADC by SSS so Corresponding angles
of the congruent
triangles are congruent (Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 263

Lesson 10 Constructions and Mappings
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS
COMMENTS COMMENTS
B B 13 (continued.)
Notice also that, since AB ≅ BC ≅ AD ≅ CD and since BD
1 2
1 2 ≅ BD, then ∆ABD ≅ ∆CBD by SSS (see Figure 3 at the left).

Therefore, one can conclude that ∠1 ≅ ∠2, ∠BAD ≅

∠BCD, and ∠6 ≅ ∠5 because they are corresponding
A C A C
angles of congruent triangles (see Figure 4 at the left).

The above information also can be used to prove that

6 5 6 5 ∆ABO ≅ ∆CBO and ∆CDO ≅ ∆ADO (see Figure 5 at the
left), because of the SAS congruence property. Therefore,
∠3 ≅ ∠8, ∠4 ≅ ∠7, and AO ≅ OC, (see Figure 6) because
D D
corresponding parts of congruent triangles are congru-
Figure 3 Figure 4
→ ent.
∆ABD ≅ ∆CBD by SSS so Corresponding angles
of the congruent
Since angles whose measures are equal are congruent,
triangles are congruent
then the transitive property for equality (i.e., if a = b and b
B B = c, then a = c; see Lesson 7) can also be applied to
congruence of angles. So, since ∠8 ≅ ∠3 and ∠3 ≅ ∠4,
1 2 then ∠8 ≅ ∠4. Further, since ∠8 ≅ ∠7, then ∠7 ≅ ∠8 ≅
∠3 ≅ ∠4. Hence, ∆ABO ≅ ∆CBO ≅ ∆CDO ≅ ∆ADO by SAS
(see Figure 7). Therefore, ∠1 ≅ ∠2 ≅ ∠5 ≅ ∠6, BO ≅ OD,
8 3 and ∠9 ≅ ∠10 ≅ ∠11 ≅ ∠12 (see Figure 8). Further, since
A C A C ∠9, ∠10, ∠11, and ∠12 together total 360°, then each
O 7 O 4
has measure 360°⁄ 4 = 90°. Therefore, they are all right
angles.
6 5
Note that in the above example we used the fact that
∠8 ≅ ∠7, then ∠7 ≅ ∠8. This is a result of the symmetric
D D property of equality, i.e., a = b, then b = a.
Figure 5 Figure 6
∆ABO ≅ ∆CBO and
→
so Corresponding angles and Students may also correctly conclude that BC || AD since
∆ADO ≅ ∆CDO by SAS sides of the congruent ∠7 ≅ ∠3 (i.e., since transversal AC forms congruent alter-
triangles are congruent nate interior angles with BC and AD. Similarly, AB || CD
since ∠8 ≅ ∠4. Note: The symbol || stands for “is parallel
B B to.”
1 2
There are several properties that are proven by the above
arguments, for example: the diagonals of a rhombus are
9 10
perpendicular bisectors of each other; the altitude of an
8 3 isosceles triangle divides the triangle into 2 smaller
A C A C
7 O 4 congruent triangles; if a triangle is isosceles, the angles
12 11
opposite the congruent sides are congruent; the opposite
sides of a rhombus are parallel; if 2 triangles are congru-
6 5 ent to a 3rd triangle, they are congruent to each other,
etc.
D D
Figure 7 Figure 8
→
∆ABO ≅ ∆CBO ≅ ∆CDO so Corresponding angles and
≅ ∆ADO by SAS (see sides of the congruent
Figures 2 and 6) to show triangles are congruent
∠8 ≅ ∠3 ≅ ∠4 ≅ ∠7

264 / Math Alive! Course III

Constructions and Mappings Lesson 10
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

14␣ ␣ Place a transparency of Focus Student Activity 10.2 14␣ ␣ Students may have invented some of these con-
on the overhead revealing Problem 1 only. Ask the pairs structions in previous actions. They may use those same
of students to carry out the instructions for Problem 1. methods here, or they may refine them. Students may
Discuss. Then give each student a copy of Focus Student find it easier to build arguments orally than to write
Activity 10.2 and ask the students to complete problems them. However, you might ask them to write some
2-7. Discuss. arguments, as doing so helps to clarify their thinking
and helps them see missing pieces in their arguments.
Constructions and Mappings Lesson 10
1) Construct a line segment AB. Then with the compass
open a distance equal to the length of AB, construct an
Focus Student Activity 10.2 arc with A as center and an arc with B as center. Label
NAME DATE
the intersection of the arcs point C. Then ∆ABC is equi-
On separate sheets of paper, carry out each of the following con- lateral.
structions using only a straightedge and compass. Next to each con-
struction, list the steps of your construction, and write an explana-
tion that tells how you can be certain (without measuring) that your
C
constructed figure meets the given conditions.

1␣ ␣ Construct an equilateral triangle ∆ABC.

2␣ ␣ Construct an isosceles triangle ∆ABC which is not an equilateral

triangle.
A B
3␣ ␣ Construct the line that is the perpendicular bisector of a line seg-
ment AB. HINT: you must explain how you know the line is perpen-
dicular to AB and you must explain how you know that the line
Justification: Since the opening of the compass was set
divides AB into 2 congruent segments. according to the length of AB, and since AC and BC
were constructed without changing the compass open-
4␣ ␣ Construct a line that is the angle bisector of an angle A.
ing, then AB ≅ AC ≅ BC. So, ∆ABC is an equilateral
5␣ ␣ Construct a line perpendicular to a given line through a point P triangle.
on the line.

6␣ ␣ Construct a line perpendicular to a given line through a point Q 2) Construct AB. Then open the compass to span a
not on the line.
length greater that 1 ⁄ 2AB and different from the length
7␣ Construct a line parallel to a given line through a point not on AB. Using this length and with A and B as centers,
the given line.
construct intersecting arcs at point C. Hence, ∆ABC is an
isosceles triangle which is not equilateral.
C

A B

Justification: AC and BC were constructed to be equal in

length but different from the length of AB. Therefore,
exactly 2 sides of the triangle are congruent, so the
C C triangle is isosceles, but not equilateral.

3) Construct AB. Open the compass to span a length

greater than 1 ⁄ 2 AB. Using this length and with A and B as
A M B A M B centers, construct 4 arcs intersecting in points C and D
(see diagram at the left). Draw CD, the perpendicular
bisector of AB at point M.
D D

Construction Justification (Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 265

Lesson 10 Constructions and Mappings
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

14 (continued.)
Note: Writing justifications for this may be particularly
challenging for some students. While it is important to
keep emphasis on logical oral reasoning, encourage stu-
dents to write their arguments since doing so can help
organize and clarify their thinking. Avoid giving rules
for formatting written arguments. However, some stu-
dents may appreciate periodically seeing how you write
an argument, and seeing abbreviations you use (e.g., ⊥
for “is perpendicular to,” ∴ for “therefore,” ⇒ for “im-
plies,” and cpctc for “corresponding parts of congruent
triangles are congruent”). Students may use arguments
similar to those in Comment 13. Other arguments fol-
low.

C Justification: AC ≅ BC ≅ AD ≅ BD because the compass

opening was not changed when each was constructed.
CD is a side of ∆ACD and ∆BCD, and CD ≅ CD, so ∆ACD
≅ ∆BCD by SSS. So, ∠ACD ≅ ∠BCD because they are
A M B corresponding parts of congruent triangles. Notice CM ≅
CM. Therefore, ∆ACM ≅ ∆BCM by SAS. So, AM ≅ MB
because they are corresponding sides of congruent
D triangles. Hence, M must be the midpoint of AB.

Also, ∠CMA ≅ ∠CMB because they are corresponding

angles of congruent triangles. Notice that ∠CMA and
∠CMB form a linear pair, and so the sum of their mea-
sures is 180°. Since both angles are equal and they are
supplementary then ∠CMA = ∠CMB = 180°⁄ 2 = 90°. There-
fore, ∠CMA and ∠CMB are right angles. So, CD is per-
pendicular to AB. Since CD is perpendicular to AB and
passes through M the midpoint of AM, then CD is the
perpendicular bisector of AB.

4) Construct ∠B. Using B as center, and without chang-

ing the compass opening, construct 2 arcs that intersect
D
D the sides of the angle at points D and E. Open the com-
K K pass a distance greater than 1 ⁄ 2 the distance between D
and E. Then, using this compass opening and using D
B E B E
and E as centers, construct arcs intersecting in point K.
Construction Justification BK is the bisector of ∠DBE.

Justification: ∆BDK ≅ ∆BEK by SSS. So, by corresponding

parts, ∠DBK ≅ EBK which shows that BK is the bisector
of ∠DBE.

Note: Students may be interested in knowing that for

over 2000 years, beginning with the ancient Greeks,
mathematicians tried to trisect an angle (i.e., divide an
angle into 3 congruent angles) by using only a straight-
edge and compass. Finally, in 1832 the 20 year-old
Evariste Galois (pronounced gal-wah) developed alge-

266 / Math Alive! Course III

Constructions and Mappings Lesson 10
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

braic theories which eventually lead to proving that this

construction is not possible. Students may enjoy reading
about the life of Galois and about the history of the tri-
section problem. They may also be interested in investi-
gating the trisection problem.

5) Draw a line s. Pick a point on s and label that point P.

C C Using P as center and without changing the compass
opening, construct arcs which intersect line s at points A
and B. Then using points A and B as centers and without
changing the compass opening, construct arcs which
A P B s A P B m
intersect at point C. Draw CP which is perpendicular to
line s.
Construction Justification
Justification: Since AP and BP were constructed so AP ≅
BP, since AC and BC were constructed so AC ≅ BC, and
since PC ≅ PC, then ∆APC ≅ ∆BPC by SSS (see diagram at
the left). So, ∠CPA ≅ ∠CPB because they are correspond-
ing angles of congruent triangles. Since ∠CPA and ∠CPB
are a linear pair, they are supplementary. And since
∠CPA and ∠CPB are supplementary and congruent, they
Q are right angles. Therefore, CP is perpendicular to line m.
Q
6) Draw line n. Mark a point Q not on n. Using Q as
center and without changing the compass opening,
construct arcs that intersect line n at points A and B.
A B n A K B n Then using A and B as centers and without changing the
compass opening, construct arcs which intersect at
C C point C. Draw QC which is perpendicular to line n.

Construction Justification Justification: ∆AQC ≅ ∆BQC by SSS. So, ∠AQC ≅ ∠BQC

because they are corresponding parts of congruent
triangles. If the intersection of QC and line n is K, then
KQ ≅ KQ and ∆AQK ≅ ∆BQK by SAS. Thus ∠QKA ≅ ∠QKB
because they are corresponding parts of congruent
triangles. As stated in previous arguments, angles that
are supplementary and congruent are right angles.
Therefore, QC is perpendicular to line n.

7) Draw a line m and mark a point P not on m. Use

t construction 6) above to construct a line t through P so
P l that line t is perpendicular to line m. Then use construc-
tion 5) above to construct line l through P which is
m
perpendicular to line t. Lines l and m are parallel.

Justification: Lines l and m are cut by transversal t which

is perpendicular to both. So, the alternate interior angles
formed by l, m, and t are equal (all are right angles). If 2
lines are cut by a transversal and alternate interior
angles are congruent, then the lines are parallel. There-
fore, line l is parallel to line m.

Math Alive! Course III / 267

Lesson 10 Constructions and Mappings
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

15␣ ␣ Give each student a copy of Focus Student Activity 15␣ ␣ Students investigated the properties of transforma-
10.3 and ask them to complete Problem 1a). Invite tions in Lessons 1 and 2 of this course.
volunteers to demonstrate their methods on a transpar-
ency of the activity or using enlarged figures on the 1a) To obtain a reflection of ∆ABC about line m, locate
chalkboard. Discuss. Repeat for 1b) and 1c). the images of each of the points A, B, and C. To con-
struct C′, the image of C, for example, construct the
perpendicular from C to line m. Then locate C′ on the
Constructions and Mappings Lesson 10
perpendicular so that C and C′ are equidistant from line
Focus Student Activity 10.3 m and on opposite sides of m. Repeat this type of con-
struction to locate A′ and B′, the images of A and B. Use
NAME DATE

a straightedge to draw the segments connecting A′, B′,

1␣ ␣ Use your straightedge and compass to construct the following
transformations. Label the image of each point A as A′, the image of and C′.
B as B′, etc. Don’t remove your construction marks. Record your
observations and conjectures. C m
a) Reflect ∆ABC across line m. C m

B
B C′

A
A B′
A′
b) Rotate quadrilateral DEFG about point E ∆ABC ≅ ∆A′B′C′
R, using ∠POP′ as the angle of rotation.
D F

G P′
1b) To obtain the rotation image of quadrilateral DEFG
about point R, construct ∠DRX ≅ ∠POP′. Then locate D′
R P O on RX by using a compass to mark RD ≅ RD′. Repeat this
process to locate the images of E, F, and G. Use a
straightedge to draw the segments connecting D′, E′, F′,
c) Translate quadrilateral HIJN, using trans-
lation vector KK′.
I
and G′.
H
E
N
J K′ D F
K
P′
G
D′
(Continued on back.)

X
R E′ P O
F′
G′
Quad DEFG ≅ Quad D′E′F′G′

1c) To obtain the translation image of quadrilateral HIJN

using translation vector KK′, construct a line through J
parallel to KK′ and locate the image of J so that the
distance from J to J′ is equal to the distance from K to K′.
Repeat this process to locate the images of H, I, and N.

I′

I H′
N′
H J′
N
K′
J
K
Quad HIJN ≅ Quad H′I′J′N′

268 / Math Alive! Course III

Constructions and Mappings Lesson 10
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

16␣ ␣ Repeat Action 15 for Problems 2-4 on Focus Stu- 16␣ ␣ 2a) Each intersection point of the line of reflection
dent Activity 10.3. and the figure will coincide with its image for the reflec-
tion. If the line of reflection does not intersect the
figure, it will not intersect the image for the reflection.
Lesson 10 Constructions and Mappings
Focus Student Activity 10.3 (cont.)
2b) The perpendicular bisector of the line segment
2␣ ␣ Use your straightedge and compass for the following. Don’t erase whose end points are a point on the figure and its image
construction marks.

a) Draw a polygon with 4 or more sides. Construct the reflection of

is the line of reflection.
the polygon across the following lines. Then make observations and
conjectures.
i) a line that intersects the shape at more than 1 point; 2c) A line segment which connects a point on the figure
ii) a line that does not intersect the shape;
to its image may be used for the translation vector.
iii) a line that touches the shape at exactly 1 point.
b) Suppose you are given 2 shapes and 1 of the shapes is a reflection
image of the other, but the line of reflection isn’t given. Explain a
method of constructing the line of reflection.
2d) If the center of a rotation is outside a figure, it is also
c) Suppose you are given 2 shapes and 1 is a translation image of outside the rotation image of the figure. If the center of
the other, but the translation vector isn’t given. Explain how to
construct the translation vector. rotation is inside a figure, it is also inside the rotation
d) Draw a polygon with 4 or more sides. Elsewhere on the paper, image. If the center of rotation is on the perimeter of a
draw an angle B. Construct the rotation of the polygon through ∠B
and about each of the following points. Then make conjectures and figure, it is also on the perimeter of the image.
observations.
i) a point P outside the shape;
ii) a point Q inside the shape; 3) As illustrated below, MNPQR ≅ STUVW by a rotation
iii) a point R on the perimeter of the shape. (i.e., a rotation preserves size and shape, see Lesson 2).
3␣ ␣ Challenge. For the pair of congruent
To locate the center of rotation, some students may use
figures at the right, label the vertices and tracings and repeated approximations. Others may
write a congruence statement to show
the corresponding vertices. Determine discover that the center of the rotation is the intersec-
the type of mapping (translation, reflec-
tion, or rotation) which maps one figure tion of the perpendicular bisectors of the segment con-
onto the other. Then locate the line of
reflection, translation vector, or center of necting each point with its image [see also the discus-
rotation.
sion for 4) below]. Hence, the following procedure can
4␣ ␣ Challenge. Investigate general relation- be used to locate the center of rotation: first construct
ships between the location of the center of
a rotation and the location of points and the perpendicular bisector of any segment connecting a
their rotation images.
point and its image. Repeat this process for a second
point and its image. The intersection of the perpendicu-
lar bisectors is the center of rotation that maps MNPQR
to STUVW. The rotation could be clockwise or counter-
clockwise (in this case, the clockwise angle of rotation is
a reflex angle, and the counterclockwise angle of rota-
tion is an obtuse angle).

N
Q

P O
M
R W

V U

T S

4) Here is an example of one group’s observations: We

notice that a point, its image, and the center of rotation form

(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 269

Lesson 10 Constructions and Mappings
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

the vertices of an isosceles triangle (e.g., see ∆COC′, ∆BOB′

and ∆AOA′ below). The noncongruent side of such a triangle
is the segment connecting a point to its image. The perpen-
dicular bisector of this segment passes through the center of
rotation (i.e., the vertex opposite the noncongruent side).
Therefore, to locate the center of a rotation, locate the inter-
section of the perpendicular bisectors of 2 or more segments
connecting points and their images.

B′
B′
B B B A′

A C C′ C C
A A
C′ C′

O O O

17␣ ␣ Mark 2 points A and B on a blank transparency on 17␣ ␣ A point that is equidistant from A and B can be
the overhead. Ask the students to do the same on a located by using the same compass opening and con-
sheet of paper. Then ask them to sketch or construct a structing intersecting arcs centered at A and B. Other
set of points which are the same distance from A as from points can be located by changing the compass opening
B, and to describe the set of all points which are equidis- and repeating this process. All points that are equidis-
tant from A and B. Ask for volunteers to demonstrate tant from A and B lie on the perpendicular bisector of
their methods and conclusions. Introduce the term locus AB. Hence, the locus of points equidistant from any 2
to describe a figure consisting of all the points, and only points A and B is the perpendicular bisector of AB.
those points, that satisfy a given condition.

A B

18␣ ␣ Place a transparency of Focus Master E on the 18␣ ␣ A method of determining a locus is to locate several
overhead, revealing Problem a) only. Ask the pairs of points that satisfy the given conditions. Use a familiar or
students to sketch or construct and describe the given common mathematical term (e.g., triangle, perpendicu-
locus of points. Invite volunteers to demonstrate their lar bisector, circle, etc.) to describe the figure created by
conclusions and reasoning. Discuss. Repeat for locus all the points that satisfy the conditions. Include specific
Problems b)-l), or selected problems. information in the description to identify both the shape
and position of the locus (i.e., where possible identify
lengths, center points, radii, intersection points, etc.)

270 / Math Alive! Course III

Constructions and Mappings Lesson 10
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

In the process of exploring these locus problems, stu-

Constructions and Mappings Lesson 10
Focus Master E
dents may make a number of conjectures and generali-
zations. You might remind them to write these state-
ments in “if-then” form, when possible, and to post
Sketch or construct, and describe, the locus of points in a plane
which are: them on the class “We conjecture… We wonder…”
poster started during the Connector.
a) equidistant from 2 intersecting lines.

b) equidistant from 2 parallel lines. Following are brief descriptions of the locus of points for
c) equidistant from 2 concentric circles. conditions a)-m). Note that j), k), and l) may be chal-
d) equidistant from a given point A.
lenging for some students. The dotted lines and curves
in the diagrams represent each locus.
e) the midpoints of congruent chords of a circle with center A.

f) vertices of a right triangle with hypotenuse AB. a) Perpendicular lines bisecting the 2 vertical angles
g) equidistant from the sides of a given angle B. formed by the given intersecting lines:
h) the midpoints of chords of a circle with center P such that all
the chords have the same end point R on the circle.

i) equidistant from a line and a point Q not on the line.

j) such that the distance from a point A is 2 times the distance

from a 2nd point B.

k) such that the sum of the distances to 2 fixed points A and B is

the same number. b) A line midway between the 2 parallel lines:
l) such that the difference of the distances from 2 fixed points C
and D is the same number.

m) the centers of circles that are tangent to 2 intersecting lines.

c) Concentric circles have the same center but different

radii. The locus of points equidistant from 2 concentric
circles is the circle concentric to the given circles and
with radius equal to half the sum of the radii of the
given circles, as shown at the left.

d) A circle whose center is A and whose radius is the

given distance. Notice the instructions ask for a locus of
points in a plane. In space, this locus would be a sphere
with center A and radius the given distance.

A e) A circle with center A and radius equal to the distance

from A to the midpoints of the chords, as shown at the
left.

f) A circle with diameter AB, excluding points A and B.

Note: An angle whose vertex is on a circle and whose
sides intersect the circle is called an inscribed angle. A
right angle that is inscribed in a circle intercepts a semi-
A B circle, as illustrated at the left. In Math Alive! Course IV,

(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 271

Lesson 10 Constructions and Mappings
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

18 (continued.)
students investigate relationships between the measure
of other inscribed angles and their intercepted arcs.

g) The bisector of angle B.

h) A circle whose center is the midpoint of PR and

P whose diameter is PR (see diagram at the left).
R

i) Students may need to be reminded that the distance

between a point and a line is the length of the perpen-
dicular segment from the point to the line.
.5cm
Q 1 This locus is a curve called a parabola, as shown at the
1.5cm

left. Note that point Q is called the focus and line M is

called the directrix of the parabola. Students will investi-
m
gate graphs of parabolas in Lessons 11, 12, and 14.

j) A circle with center P and with point B inside the

circle and point A outside the circle, where BP is 1 ⁄ 3 AB
A B P and the radius of the circle is 2 ⁄ 3 AB.
1.5 cm

cm
3.5 k) An ellipse as shown at the left. Points A and B are
called the foci of the ellipse. The sum of the distances
A B from A and B to each point on this ellipse is 5 cm.

l) A hyperbola. Points C and D are called the foci of the

hyperbola. For the hyperbola shown at the left, the differ-
1.4 cm

cm ence between the distances from each point on the

3.4
hyperbola to C and D is 2 cm.

C D

m) Two perpendicular lines, (excluding the point of

intersection), which bisect the angles formed by the
intersecting lines.

272 / Math Alive! Course III

Constructions and Mappings Lesson 10
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

19␣ ␣ Give each student a copy of Focus Student Activity 19␣ ␣ There are a number of ways to carry out these
10.4, and explain your expectations for completion of investigations. You might have groups select a subset to
selected investigations. When the groups are finished, investigate; you might have individuals choose from the
have them review one another’s findings. topics for investigation; or, you might select specific
investigations for everyone to examine. These could be
investigated and discussed one at a time, or several
Constructions and Mappings Lesson 10
could be investigated before discussing. Base the number
Focus Student Activity 10.4 and types of investigations on your students needs and
interest. Most of the ideas raised in these investigations
NAME DATE

will be investigated in more depth in Math Alive! Course

Find out all that you can about each idea below that you investigate.
Whenever possible state your conjectures in “if… then…” format. Support IV.
your conjectures with evidence. Tell when your evidence is based on in-
ductive reasoning from examples that suggest your conclusions seem to be
true, and tell when your evidence is based on deductive reasoning that
shows why your conclusions are correct. Following are a few of many relationships that students
Investigate…
may discover.
a) The exterior angles of a triangle; a quadrilateral; a pentagon; a polygon
with n sides. Note: Extending 1 side of a polygon forms 1 exterior angle;
extending each side of a polygon to form 1 exterior angle at each vertex
a) For a triangle, the measure of an exterior angle equals
forms a set of exterior angles. the sum of the measures of the 2 remote interior angles.
The sum of the measures of a set of exterior angles of a
remote
interior
polygon is 360°.
angles

exterior
angle b) Two pairs of opposite congruent angles; or 1 pair of
adjacent opposite congruent angles and 1 pair of opposite con-
interior set of exterior angles
angle gruent sides.
b) Minimal conditions to prove a quadrilateral is a parallelogram. Note: by
definition a parallelogram is a quadrilateral with exactly 2 pairs of parallel
sides.
c) The area of a kite, a quadrilateral with 2 pairs of con-
c) The diagonals of kites, rhombuses, rectangles, squares, parallelograms,
gruent adjacent sides, as well as the areas of squares and
trapezoids (isosceles and nonisosceles). rhombuses, which are special types of kites, is 1 ⁄ 2 times
d) Minimal conditions for congruence of 2 kites; 2 rhombuses; 2 rect- the product of the length of the diagonals. This relation-
angles; 2 squares; 2 parallelograms; 2 trapezoids (isosceles and
nonisosceles); and 2 quadrilaterals. ship does not hold for rectangles, parallelograms, trap-
ezoids or other quadrilaterals that are not kites, squares,
(Continued on back.) or rhombuses. The 2 diagonals of a kite and a rhombus
are perpendicular. The diagonals of a kite, rectangle, and
isosceles trapezoid are congruent.
Lesson 10 Constructions and Mappings
Focus Student Activity 10.4 (cont.)
d) Congruence of 2 kites: 2 adjacent sides and the in-
e) Relationships between inscribed angles and the arcs and chords cluded angle of 1 kite congruent to 2 adjacent sides and
they intercept on a circle. Note: The measure of an arc in degrees is
equal to the measure of the central angle that intercepts the arc.
the included angle of another kite.
f) Perpendicular bisectors of chords of circles.

g) Triangles that are inscribed in a circle (i.e., the circle circum-

Congruence of 2 rhombuses: 1 side and 1 angle of 1
scribes the triangle); and triangles that circumscribe a circle (i.e., the rhombus congruent to 1 side and 1 angle of another.
sides of the triangle are tangent to the circle).

h) One midsegment of a triangle and the set of all midsegments of a

triangle; a midsegment of a rectangle and the set of all midsegments Congruence of 2 rectangles: 2 adjacent sides of 1 rect-
of a rectangle; of a rhombus; of a parallelogram; and of a trapezoid.
Note: A midsegment of a triangle is a segment that connects mid- angle congruent to 2 adjacent sides of another rectangle.
points of 2 sides of the triangle; a midsegment of a quadrilateral
connects opposite midpoints.

i) Connecting midpoints of consecutive sides of quadrilaterals. Congruence of 2 squares: 1 side of 1 square congruent to
j) Minimal conditions to prove a quadrilateral is a rectangle. Note: 1 side of another square.
by definition a rectangle is a quadrilateral with 4 right angles.

Congruence of 2 parallelograms: same conditions as for

2 congruent kites.

(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 273

Lesson 10 Constructions and Mappings
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

19 (continued.)
Congruence of 2 isosceles trapezoids: same conditions as
for 2 congruent kites.

Congruence of 2 nonisosceles trapezoids: 2 bases and 1

side and an included angle of a base and the side con-
gruent to 2 bases and 1 side and an included angle of a
base and the side of another trapezoid.

Congruence of 2 quadrilaterals: 3 consecutive sides and

the 2 included angles congruent to 3 consecutive sides
and the 2 included angles of another quadrilateral.

e) Two congruent chords of a circle intercept congruent

arcs; inscribed angles that intercept arcs of equal length
in a circle have the same measure; inscribed angles
whose sides intersect the ends of a diameter are right
angles; the measure of an inscribed angle is half the
measure of the central angle that intercepts the same
arc.

f) The perpendicular bisectors of the chords of a circle

pass through the center of the circle; the perpendicular
bisector of a chord of a circle bisects the arc intercepted
by the chord.

g) Triangles inscribed in a circle: The sum of the mea-

sures of the arcs intercepted by the 3 angles of the tri-
angle is 360°; the perpendicular bisectors of any 2 of the
sides of the triangle will intersect at the center of the
circle; the measure of each angle of the triangle is 1 ⁄ 2 the
measure of its intercepted arc.

Triangles that circumscribe a circle: Each side of the

triangle is tangent to the circle; the bisectors of the 3
angles of the triangle intersect at the center of the circle.

h) Triangle: Each midsegment of a triangle is parallel to

the 3rd side of the triangle and half its length; each
midsegment creates a smaller triangle which is similar to
the original triangle by a scale factor of 2; the 3 mid-
segments partition the triangle into 4 smaller similar
triangles which are each similar to the original triangle
by a scale factor of 2; the 3 midsegments partition the
triangle into 4 smaller triangles which each have an area
that is 1 ⁄ 4 the area of the original triangle.

Rectangle: Each midsegment partitions the rectangle into

2 smaller congruent rectangles each having an area
which is equal to 1 ⁄ 2 the area of the original rectangle;
the 2 midsegments are perpendicular; the 2 midseg-

274 / Math Alive! Course III

Constructions and Mappings Lesson 10
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

ments partition the rectangle into 4 smaller rectangles

which are each similar to the original rectangle by a
scale factor of 2; each midsegment for 2 given sides of
the rectangle is parallel to the remaining 2 sides of the
rectangle.

Rhombus: Each midsegment of 2 given sides of the

rhombus is parallel to the remaining 2 sides of the
rhombus; each midsegment partitions the rhombus into
2 parallelograms each having an area which is equal to
1 ⁄ 2 the area of the original rhombus; the 2 midsegments

partition the rhombus into 4 smaller rhombuses which

are each similar to the original rhombus by a scale factor
of 2.

Parallelogram: Each of the preceding statements for the

midsegments of a rhombus will produce a statement for
the midsegments of a parallelogram by replacing “rhom-
bus” by “parallelogram.”

Trapezoid: The midsegment connecting the midpoints

of the nonparallel sides of a trapezoid is parallel to the 2
bases and its length is 1⁄ 2 the sum of the lengths of the 2
bases; the midsegment connecting the midpoints of the
parallel sides partitions the trapezoid into 2 trapezoids
each having an area which is 1 ⁄ 2 the area of the original
trapezoid.

i) Connecting the midpoints of consecutive sides of a

quadrilateral produces a parallelogram whose area is 1⁄ 2
the area of the original quadrilateral.

j) Two pairs of opposite parallel sides and 1 right angle;

2 pairs of opposite sides equal and 1 right angle; 3 right
angles.

Math Alive! Course III / 275

Lesson 10 Constructions and Mappings

TEACHER NOTES:

276 / Math Alive! Course III

Constructions and Mappings Lesson 10

Follow-up Student Activity 10.5

NAME DATE

Complete the following on separate paper; write each problem next

to your work.

1␣ ␣ Given the length at the right is 1 linear unit. Use a straightedge

and compass only to construct each of the following, if possible. 1 linear unit
Show all of your construction marks and briefly describe your step-
by-step procedures. Then write a brief explanation why your
method works. If the construction is not possible, explain why.

a) An equilateral triangle with perimeter 3 2 units, and an enlarge-

ment of the triangle by a factor of 3.

b) A kite with diagonals 5 units and 2 5 units.

c) A scalene right triangle with one side 2 units and one angle 45°.

d) A circle with area 6π square units.

e) A rectangle with diagonals of length 5 units and 4.5 units.

f) 3 noncongruent rectangles with diagonals of length 3 units.

g) An equilateral triangle with perimeter 6 and inscribed in a circle.

h) An isosceles right triangle with hypotenuse 5 and inscribed in a

semicircle.

i) A regular hexagon whose perimeter is 12 3 units and with an

inscribed circle with radius 3 units.

2␣ ␣ Record, in “if… then…” format, 2 or more conjectures or gener-

alizations that are based on your work for Problem 1. Give argu-
ments to support each conjecture.

(Continued on back.)
Math Alive! Course III / 277
Lesson 10 Constructions and Mappings
Follow-up Student Activity (cont.)

3␣ ␣ A′B′C′D′ is the rotation image of ABCD. Trace these figures, con-

struct the center of rotation, and briefly explain your steps.
D′

A B

C′ A′

D C

B′

4␣ ␣ A′B′C′D′ above is also the image of ABCD after 2 consecutive

reflections across 2 different lines. Investigate and locate 2 such
lines of reflection. Explain.

5␣ ␣ On a separate sheet of paper, draw line M and label point P not

on M. Plot a few points whose distance from line M is twice the
distance from point P. Form a conjecture about this locus of points.

6␣ ␣ For any 3 or more of the following statements, use a diagram and

deductive arguments that are based on the diagram and properties
that you know to argue why each of those statements is true.

a) The diagonals of a rhombus are perpendicular.

b) The area of a rhombus is 1⁄ 2 the product of its diagonals.

c) The altitude of an isosceles (nonequilateral) triangle bisects the

vertex angle (i.e., the angle opposite the noncongruent side).

d) If a quadrilateral is a parallelogram, then a diagonal of the quad-

rilateral forms 2 congruent triangles.

e) If the diagonals of a quadrilateral bisect each other, then the

quadrilateral must be a parallelogram.

f) The sum of the measures of the exterior angles of a polygon is

360°.

7␣ ␣ Find several possible angle measures that can be constructed by

straightedge and compass only. Explain your methods.

278 / Math Alive! Course III

Constructions and Mappings Lesson 10
Connector Master A

Paperfold to satisfy each of the following conditions. Do not use

a protractor or ruler.

a) Form 2 lines which are perpendicular to each other and not

parallel to the edges of the paper.

b) Form 3 lines so that 2 of the lines are perpendicular to the 3rd

line.

c) Form 2 parallel lines which are intersected by a 3rd line that is

not perpendicular to the parallel lines.

d) Form a line segment and locate its midpoint. Then form a line
perpendicular to the segment and passing through the midpoint
of the segment.

e) Create an acute angle; then form a line that bisects the angle.

f) Form a line m and mark a point P not on the line. Then form a
new line which is perpendicular to line m and passes through
point P.

g) Form a line r and mark a point Q not on line r. Then form line s
which passes through Q and is parallel to line r.

h) Form an isosceles triangle.

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 10 Constructions and Mappings

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Constructions and Mappings Lesson 10
Focus Master A

Construction 1

a) Use a straightedge to construct a line segment AB.

b) Investigate ways to use a straightedge and compass

only to construct a congruent copy of the line segment
AB formed in a).

c) Devise a set of clear and concise, step-by-step

instructions for constructing a copy of a line segment.

Construction 2

a) Use a straightedge to draw an angle with vertex X.

b) Investigate ways to use a straightedge and compass

to construct ∠V congruent to ∠X formed in a).

c) Devise a clear set of instructions for constructing a

copy of an angle.

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Constructions and Mappings Lesson 10
Focus Master B

The 6 pieces of information shown on the next page

make up the “maximal” set of information that you
need to construct triangle ABC. What is a “minimal”
set of information that you need to construct tri-
angle ABC. How can you be sure you have all the
information that you need? How can you be sure
that you don’t have more information than you
need? Is there more than one minimal set of infor-
mation?

Investigate. Test your ideas and build arguments to

support your conclusions.

Make a poster of your conclusions. Show examples

to support your ideas. List important observations,
conjectures, and generalizations that you develop
during the investigation.

(Continued on back.)
© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 10 Constructions and Mappings
Focus Master B (cont.)

A B A

A C B

B C C

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Constructions and Mappings Lesson 10
Focus Master C

According to the definition of congruence:

If there is a correspondence between the verti-

ces of 2 triangles such that all corresponding
segments are congruent and all corresponding
angles are congruent, then the triangles are
congruent.

The above statement gives the maximal set of

conditions needed to establish that 2 triangles
are congruent. For any 2 triangles ABC and DEF,
what are all the possible minimal sets of condi-
tions for determining whether ∆ABC is congruent
to ∆DEF? Give convincing evidence to support
your conclusions.

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 10 Constructions and Mappings
Focus Master D

Which, if any, of the following conditions determine a unique triangle?

an infinite collection of noncongruent triangles? a fixed number (greater
than 1) of noncongruent triangles? no triangles? Show or explain your
reasoning. Give examples to support your conclusions. Write conjec-
tures and generalizations in “if x, then y” form.

a) the area of a scalene triangle

b) the perimeter of an equilateral triangle
c) one side and the area of a scalene triangle
d) the perimeter and the noncongruent side of an isosceles triangle
e) one leg and the area of a right triangle
f) 2 sides of an isosceles (nonequilateral) triangle
g) the area of an equilateral triangle
h) 2 sides of a right triangle
i) the perimeter of a right triangle
j) 2 sides of a triangle and the altitude to the vertex between the 2
sides.
k) Challenge: 2 sides and an angle of a scalene triangle.
l) 2 angles and a side of a scalene triangle
m) Challenge: the area and an acute angle of a right triangle
n) angles 110°, 47°, 28°
o) side lengths 4, 8, 10
p) side lengths 3, 9, 14
q) angles 57°, 63°, 60°
r) the area of an isosceles triangle that is not equilateral

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Constructions and Mappings Lesson 10
Focus Master E

Sketch or construct, and describe, the locus of points in a plane

which are:

a) equidistant from 2 intersecting lines.

b) equidistant from 2 parallel lines.

c) equidistant from 2 concentric circles.

d) equidistant from a given point A.

e) the midpoints of congruent chords of a circle with center A.

f) vertices of a right triangle with hypotenuse AB.

g) equidistant from the sides of a given angle B.

h) the midpoints of chords of a circle with center P such that all

the chords have the same end point R on the circle.

i) equidistant from a line and a point Q not on the line.

j) such that the distance from a point A is 2 times the distance

from a 2nd point B.

k) such that the sum of the distances to 2 fixed points A and B is

the same number.

l) such that the difference of the distances from 2 fixed points C

and D is the same number.

m) the centers of circles that are tangent to 2 intersecting lines.

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Constructions and Mappings Lesson 10

Focus Student Activity 10.1

NAME DATE

Using the information that is given (i.e., as indicated by the angle

and hash marks) or that you can logically conclude from the given
information, determine which of the following pairs of triangles are
congruent. Note: the drawings may not be drawn to scale, so do not
base your conclusions on measurements you make or on what ap-
pears to be true. For each of the following 12 pairs of triangles:

• If the 2 triangles are congruent tell which congruence property

(SSS, SAS, or ASA) is the basis of your reasoning, and write a correct
congruence statement (e.g., ∆ABC ≅ ∆MNO).

• If the 2 triangles are not congruent, explain why.

1 2 3 H A
J U
S D
O

U M G P M T

X O B

4 E 5 6

S
J C L I
A

S T
L A K E
P D

7 8 A
R
I T S
U
U

N U F
T N

(Continued on back.)

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 10 Constructions and Mappings
Focus Student Activity 10.1 (cont.)

9 10 L M
K D
A
I

R
A S P
C

11 12
L L O
I
G
R
N F W
R E
E

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Constructions and Mappings Lesson 10

Focus Student Activity 10.2

NAME DATE

On separate sheets of paper, carry out each of the following con-

structions using only a straightedge and compass. Next to each con-
struction, list the steps of your construction, and write an explana-
tion that tells how you can be certain (without measuring) that your
constructed figure meets the given conditions.

1␣ ␣ Construct an equilateral triangle ∆ABC.

2␣ ␣ Construct an isosceles triangle ∆ABC which is not an equilateral

triangle.

3␣ ␣ Construct the line that is the perpendicular bisector of a line seg-

ment AB. HINT: you must explain how you know the line is perpen-
dicular to AB and you must explain how you know that the line
divides AB into 2 congruent segments.

4␣ ␣ Construct a line that is the angle bisector of an angle A.

5␣ ␣ Construct a line perpendicular to a given line through a point P

on the line.

6␣ ␣ Construct a line perpendicular to a given line through a point Q

not on the line.

7␣ Construct a line parallel to a given line through a point not on

the given line.

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 10 Constructions and Mappings

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Constructions and Mappings Lesson 10

Focus Student Activity 10.3

NAME DATE

1␣ ␣ Use your straightedge and compass to construct the following

transformations. Label the image of each point A as A′, the image of
B as B′, etc. Don’t remove your construction marks. Record your
observations and conjectures.

a) Reflect ∆ABC across line m. C m

b) Rotate quadrilateral DEFG about point E

R, using ∠POP′ as the angle of rotation.
D F

G P′

R P O

c) Translate quadrilateral HIJN, using trans- I

lation vector KK′.

H
N
J K′

(Continued on back.)

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 10 Constructions and Mappings
Focus Student Activity 10.3 (cont.)

2␣ ␣ Use your straightedge and compass for the following. Don’t erase
construction marks.

a) Draw a polygon with 4 or more sides. Construct the reflection of

the polygon across the following lines. Then make observations and
conjectures.
i) a line that intersects the shape at more than 1 point;
ii) a line that does not intersect the shape;
iii) a line that touches the shape at exactly 1 point.
b) Suppose you are given 2 shapes and 1 of the shapes is a reflection
image of the other, but the line of reflection isn’t given. Explain a
method of constructing the line of reflection.

c) Suppose you are given 2 shapes and 1 is a translation image of

the other, but the translation vector isn’t given. Explain how to
construct the translation vector.

d) Draw a polygon with 4 or more sides. Elsewhere on the paper,

draw an angle B. Construct the rotation of the polygon through ∠B
and about each of the following points. Then make conjectures and
observations.
i) a point P outside the shape;
ii) a point Q inside the shape;
iii) a point R on the perimeter of the shape.

3␣ ␣ Challenge. For the pair of congruent

figures at the right, label the vertices and
write a congruence statement to show
the corresponding vertices. Determine
the type of mapping (translation, reflec-
tion, or rotation) which maps one figure
onto the other. Then locate the line of
reflection, translation vector, or center of
rotation.

4␣ ␣ Challenge. Investigate general relation-

ships between the location of the center of
a rotation and the location of points and
their rotation images.

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Constructions and Mappings Lesson 10

Focus Student Activity 10.4

NAME DATE

Find out all that you can about each idea below that you investigate.
Whenever possible state your conjectures in “if… then…” format. Support
your conjectures with evidence. Tell when your evidence is based on in-
ductive reasoning from examples that suggest your conclusions seem to be
true, and tell when your evidence is based on deductive reasoning that
shows why your conclusions are correct.

Investigate…

a) The exterior angles of a triangle; a quadrilateral; a pentagon; a polygon

with n sides. Note: Extending 1 side of a polygon forms 1 exterior angle;
extending each side of a polygon to form 1 exterior angle at each vertex
forms a set of exterior angles.

remote
interior
angles

exterior
angle

adjacent
interior set of exterior angles
angle

b) Minimal conditions to prove a quadrilateral is a parallelogram. Note: by

definition a parallelogram is a quadrilateral with exactly 2 pairs of parallel
sides.

c) The diagonals of kites, rhombuses, rectangles, squares, parallelograms,

trapezoids (isosceles and nonisosceles).

d) Minimal conditions for congruence of 2 kites; 2 rhombuses; 2 rect-

angles; 2 squares; 2 parallelograms; 2 trapezoids (isosceles and
nonisosceles); and 2 quadrilaterals.

(Continued on back.)

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 10 Constructions and Mappings
Focus Student Activity 10.4 (cont.)

e) Relationships between inscribed angles and the arcs and chords

they intercept on a circle. Note: The measure of an arc in degrees is
equal to the measure of the central angle that intercepts the arc.

f) Perpendicular bisectors of chords of circles.

g) Triangles that are inscribed in a circle (i.e., the circle circum-

scribes the triangle); and triangles that circumscribe a circle (i.e., the
sides of the triangle are tangent to the circle).

h) One midsegment of a triangle and the set of all midsegments of a

triangle; a midsegment of a rectangle and the set of all midsegments
of a rectangle; of a rhombus; of a parallelogram; and of a trapezoid.
Note: A midsegment of a triangle is a segment that connects mid-
points of 2 sides of the triangle; a midsegment of a quadrilateral
connects opposite midpoints.

i) Connecting midpoints of consecutive sides of quadrilaterals.

j) Minimal conditions to prove a quadrilateral is a rectangle. Note:

by definition a rectangle is a quadrilateral with 4 right angles.

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Constructions and Mappings Lesson 10

Follow-up Student Activity 10.5

NAME DATE

Complete the following on separate paper; write each problem next

to your work.

1␣ ␣ Given the length at the right is 1 linear unit. Use a straightedge

and compass only to construct each of the following, if possible. 1 linear unit
Show all of your construction marks and briefly describe your step-
by-step procedures. Then write a brief explanation why your
method works. If the construction is not possible, explain why.

a) An equilateral triangle with perimeter 3 2 units, and an enlarge-

ment of the triangle by a factor of 3.

b) A kite with diagonals 5 units and 2 5 units.

c) A scalene right triangle with one side 2 units and one angle 45°.

d) A circle with area 6π square units.

e) A rectangle with diagonals of length 5 units and 4.5 units.

f) 3 noncongruent rectangles with diagonals of length 3 units.

g) An equilateral triangle with perimeter 6 and inscribed in a circle.

h) An isosceles right triangle with hypotenuse 5 and inscribed in a

semicircle.

i) A regular hexagon whose perimeter is 12 3 units and with an

inscribed circle with radius 3 units.

2␣ ␣ Record, in “if… then…” format, 2 or more conjectures or gener-

alizations that are based on your work for Problem 1. Give argu-
ments to support each conjecture.

(Continued on back.)

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 10 Constructions and Mappings
Follow-up Student Activity (cont.)

3␣ ␣ A′B′C′D′ is the rotation image of ABCD. Trace these figures, con-

struct the center of rotation, and briefly explain your steps.
D′

A B

C′ A′

D C

B′

4␣ ␣ A′B′C′D′ above is also the image of ABCD after 2 consecutive

reflections across 2 different lines. Investigate and locate 2 such
lines of reflection. Explain.

5␣ ␣ On a separate sheet of paper, draw line M and label point P not

on M. Plot a few points whose distance from line M is twice the
distance from point P. Form a conjecture about this locus of points.

6␣ ␣ For any 3 or more of the following statements, use a diagram and

deductive arguments that are based on the diagram and properties
that you know to argue why each of those statements is true.

a) The diagonals of a rhombus are perpendicular.

b) The area of a rhombus is 1⁄ 2 the product of its diagonals.

c) The altitude of an isosceles (nonequilateral) triangle bisects the

vertex angle (i.e., the angle opposite the noncongruent side).

d) If a quadrilateral is a parallelogram, then a diagonal of the quad-

rilateral forms 2 congruent triangles.

e) If the diagonals of a quadrilateral bisect each other, then the

quadrilateral must be a parallelogram.

f) The sum of the measures of the exterior angles of a polygon is

360°.

7␣ ␣ Find several possible angle measures that can be constructed by

straightedge and compass only. Explain your methods.

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Introduction to Quadratics
Introduction to Quadratics Lesson 11 Lesson 11

.
.
.
.
THE BIG IDEA .. CONNECTOR
.
. OVERVIEW MATERIALS FOR TEACHER ACTIVITY
Using Algebra Pieces to .
.
Students relate graphs of ✔ Algebra Pieces (including ✔ Connector Student Ac-
determine the values of ..
. points that lie along a linear frames), 1 set per stu- tivities 11.1 and 11.2,
n for which the nth ar- .. path to sequences of count- dent. 1 copy of each per stu-
.
ing piece arrangements and dent and 1 transparency
rangements of two se- .. ✔ Connector Master A,
. formulas for the n th ar- 1 transparency. of each.
quences have the same .. rangement of such se- ✔ Algebra Pieces for the
.
. quences. overhead.
value leads to the in- .
.
.
vention of strategies .
.
.
for solving linear and .
. FOCUS
.
quadratic equations .
. OVERVIEW MATERIALS FOR TEACHER ACTIVITY
.
and systems of equa- .
. Students examine relation- ✔ Algebra Pieces (including ✔ Focus Student Activity
.
tions. Coordinate . ships between Algebra frames), 1 set per stu- 11.7, 1 copy per group
.
graphs of the values of .. Piece, graphical, and sym- dent. and 1 transparency.
. bolic representations of the ✔ Focus Masters A-C and ✔ Coordinate grid paper
.
the arrangements es- . n th arrangements of ex-
. E-G, 1 transparency of (see Blackline Masters),
. tended sequences of count- each. 2 sheets per group and
tablish a relationship .
. ing piece arrangements. 1 transparency.
. ✔ Focus Master D, 1 copy
between algebra and . They use Algebra Pieces
. per group and 1 trans- ✔ Algebra Pieces for the
geometry and illustrate .. and graphs to represent
parency. overhead.
. and solve linear and qua-
solutions to systems of .. dratic equations. ✔ Focus Student Activities ✔ 1 ⁄ 4 " grid paper, 4 sheets
. 11.3-11.6, 1 copy of each per group and 1 trans-
.
linear and quadratic .
. per student and 1 trans- parency.
. parency of each.
equations. .
.
.
.
.
.
. FOLLOW-UP
.
.
. OVERVIEW MATERIALS FOR STUDENT ACTIVITY
.
. Students create sequences ✔ Student Activity 11.8,
.
. that satisfy specific condi- 1 copy per student.
.
. tions. They write formulas
. ✔ Coordinate grid paper
. for, graph, and solve linear
. (see Blackline Masters),
. and quadratic equations.
. 8 sheets per student.
. They complete the square
.
. to solve quadratic equa-
.
. tions.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

Math Alive! Course III / 279

Lesson 11 Introduction to Quadratics

LESSON IDEAS
. .
FOLLOW-UP LOOKING AHEAD . QUOTE . world contexts, they can
. .
It may be helpful to remind In this lesson, students use . Formal equation-solving . validate their own formal
. .
the students that the graphs Algebra Pieces to explore . methods can be devel- . thinking and develop a
. .
for this assignment are sets the method of completing . oped from, and supported . basis for extending these
. .
of discrete points. While the the square to solve qua- . by, informal methods. . algebraic ideas.
. .
graphs follow the paths of dratic equations. In Math . These informal methods, . NCTM Standards
.
lines and curves, the points Alive! Course IV, students . which may include actions
.
are not connected since the will generalize these meth- . on concrete materials that
.
only values for n in an ex- ods to develop the qua- . are paralleled by symbolic
.
tended sequence are the dratic formula. . actions, can lead to more
.
integers. Continuous func- . formal procedures. If stu-
.
tions whose domains are . dents develop formal pro-
.
the real numbers are ex- . cedures from informal
.
plored in Lessons 12 and 14. . methods grounded in real-

SELECTED ANSWERS

1. g) One possibility:
2. b) One possibility is Sequence A, n + 2;
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 Sequence B, –n + 16.

c) 20

14 18
The value of the nth
(–4,13) 13 (4,13)
arrangement of the 12 16

sequence shown above 11

10 14
is n2 – 3. Sequence A
9
8 12

nth arrangement: 7
(–3,6) 6 (3,6) 10
5 (7,9)
4 8
3
2 6
(–2,1) 1 (2,1) Sequence B
4
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5
–1
(–1,–2) (1,–2) 2
–3 (0,–3)
1 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

4. a) One square was added to both collections 4. c) 1 ⁄ 2 (2n2 – 10n) = 1 ⁄ 2 (48), so n2 – 5n = 24

6 __14 squares were added to both collections
o o o o o o o o oo

o o o o o o o o oo

±6
(n + 1) oo o o o o o o o o

(n – 2 __12 )
±5 __2
1

(n + 1) ±6
oo o o o o o o o o

Since (n + 1)2 = 36, n must equal 5 or –7. (n – 2 __12 ) ±5 __12

Since (n – 21⁄ 2 )2 = (±51 ⁄ 2 )2, n– 21 ⁄ 2 = ±51 ⁄ 2 and so n = 8 or –3.

280 / Math Alive! Course III

Introduction to Quadratics Lesson 11

Connector Teacher Activity

OVERVIEW & PURPOSE MATERIALS
Students relate graphs of points that lie along a linear path to ✔ Algebra Pieces (including frames), 1 set per student.
sequences of counting piece arrangements and formulas for ✔ Connector Master A, 1 transparency.
the nth arrangement of such sequences.
✔ Connector Student Activities 11.1 and 11.2, 1 copy of
each per student and 1 transparency of each.
✔ Algebra Pieces for the overhead.

ACTIONS COMMENTS

1␣␣Arrange the students in groups and give Algebra 1␣␣Various extended sequences of arrangements (see
Pieces to each student. Write the following chart on the Lesson 5 of this course) are possible. Shown below are
overhead. Have the groups form the –2nd through 2nd two possibilities with formulas. Be sure the students
and the nth arrangements of an extended sequence of indicate the arrangement numbers for their sequences.
counting piece arrangements which fits the data on the
chart (note: n indicates the arrangement number and
v(n) is the value of arrangement n). Ask the students to
write a formula for v(n). Discuss.

n … –2 –1 0 1 2 …

v(n) … –3 –1 1 3 5 … n

Arrangement #: –2 –1 0 1 2

... ... ...

Value, v (n ) : (–2) + (–1) (–1) + 0 0+1 1+2 2+3 n + (n + 1)

Arrangement #: –2 –1 0 1 2 n
... ... ...
Value, v (n ) : 2(–2) + 1 2(–1) + 1 2(0) + 1 2(1) + 1 2(2) + 1 2(n ) + 1

2␣␣Give each student a copy of Connector Student 2␣␣Shown on the next page is one extended sequence
Activity 11.1 (see next page). Have the students form the that fits the data.
–3rd through 3rd and the nth arrangements of an ex-
tended sequence of counting piece arrangements which
fits the data displayed in graphical form on Student
Activity 11.1. Ask them to determine v(–4), v(–3), v(3)
and v(4) for the sequence and, if possible, add this
information to their graph.
(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 281

Lesson 11 Introduction to Quadratics
Connector Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

2 (continued.)

–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3

... ...
Value, v (n ) : –10 –7 –4 –1 2 5 8

For this sequence, v(–3) = –10, v(3) = 8 and v(4) = 11.

Introduction to Quadratics Lesson 11
Coordinate points for these 3 cases have been added and
Connector Student Activity 11.1 circled on the copy of Connector Student Activity 11.1
shown on the left. The ordered pair (–4,–13) lies off the
NAME DATE
graph.
v (n )

11 It may be instructive here to review the use of terms

10 such as horizontal axis, vertical axis, and origin. (Note: the
9
8
origin is the coordinate (0,0) which is the point of
7 intersection of the horizontal and vertical axes.)
6
5
4
3
2
1
n
–4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4
–1
–2
–3
–4
–5
–6
–7
–8
–9
–10
–11

v(n) = _______________________

3␣␣Ask the students to: 3␣␣a) The arrangements shown in Comment 2 suggest
the formula v(n) = 3n – 1. The students may have other
a) record (in the space provided on Connector Student equivalent formulas.
Activity 11.1) a formula for v(n) for the sequence they
constructed in Action 2; c) Students’ observations will vary. If students make
conjectures about relationships they think might be true
b) label the coordinates of each point on the graph; for graphs of other sequences, rather than trying to
confirm the conjectures now, you might suggest stu-
c) record 4 or 5 observations about the graph. dents test and refine them during the coming actions.
Following are examples of observations that students
Discuss. Encourage observations about relationships have made about the graph.
between the numbers in the students’ formulas for v(n)
and their graphs.

282 / Math Alive! Course III

Introduction to Quadratics Lesson 11
Connector Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

The points of the graph lie along the path of a straight line.

The points are equally spaced.

Moving left to right, to get from one point to the next, go 1

unit to the right and 3 units up.

The increase in height from point to point is always the

same.

There are only points on the graph where n is an integer.

Plotting points for v(n) = 3n – 1 is just like plotting points for

v(n) = 3n after shifting the coordinate axes down 1 unit.

In the formula, v(n) = 3n – 1, 3 is the coefficient of n and

is the amount the value, v(n), increases as n increases by
1. The constant term, –1, is the value of the 0th arrange-
ment. It indicates where the graph intersects the vertical
axis. Note that when the points on a graph lie along a
straight line, the graph is called linear.

Some students may draw a line connecting the points of

the graph, implying there are arrangements for non-
integral values of n. The students may even suggest ways
of constructing such arrangements (see Lesson 12);
however, for this extended sequence, there are only
points on the graph for integral values of n.

The intent throughout this lesson is to promote intui-

tions about relationships between graphs, formulas, and
the sequences of arrangements the graphs and formulas
represent. Terminology such as slope and x- or y-inter-
cept are introduced in Lesson 12, after extended se-
quences of arrangements are augmented so their graphs
are continuous.

4␣␣Place a transparency of Connector Master A on the 4␣␣Arrangements numbered –3 through 3 are shown on
overhead, revealing the top half only (see next page). the bottom half of Connector Master A. Recall that a
Tell the students the arrangement shown is the nth –n-frame contains red tile if n is positive and black tile if
arrangement of an extended sequence of counting piece n is negative. It contains no tile if n is 0.
arrangements. Ask the students to form the –3rd to 3rd
arrangements of this sequence.

(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 283

Lesson 11 Introduction to Quadratics
Connector Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

Introduction to Quadratics Lesson 11

4 (continued.)
Connector Master A

–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3

… …

5␣␣Distribute a copy of Connector Student Activity 11.2 5␣␣The formula for v(n) can be written in various forms.
to each student. For the sequence of Action 4, ask the One possibility is v(n) = 4 – n. Another is v(n) = 4 + (–n).
students to record a formula for v(n), construct its graph
(see completed activity below), and record their observa- In general, a function is a rule that relates 2 sets by assign-
tions about the graph. Discuss the students’ ideas about ing each element in the 1st set (called the domain) to
the meaning of a function, whether v(n) = 4 – n is a exactly one element in the 2nd set (called the range).
function, and the domain and range of v(n). Hence, the relationship v(n) = 4 + (–n) is a function that
relates the variable n to v(n) so that, for any arrangement
number, n, there is exactly one value of the arrange-
Lesson 11 Introduction to Quadratics
ment, v(n). The set of all values for n—in this case, the
Connector Student Activity 11.2 integers—is the domain of the function v(n) = 4 + (–n).
NAME DATE
The set of all possible values for v(n)—in this case, also
v (n ) the integers—is the range of the function. Note: The
domain and range of the function v(n) = 4 + (–n) can be
12 all real numbers, but in this example only the integers
11
10
are used for the arrangement (domain) numbers. In
9 Math Alive! Course II, students worked with functions
8 whose domains are the positive integers. In Lessons 12
7
6
and 14 of this course, students explore functions whose
5 domains and ranges include all real numbers.
4
3
2
1
n
–8 –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
–1
–2
–3
–4

4–n
v(n) = __________________________

Observations about the graph:

284 / Math Alive! Course III

Introduction to Quadratics Lesson 11

Focus Teacher Activity

OVERVIEW & PURPOSE MATERIALS
Students examine relationships between Algebra Piece, ✔ Algebra Pieces (including frames), 1 set per student.
graphical, and symbolic representations of the nth arrange- ✔ Focus Masters A-C and E-G, 1 transparency of each.
ments of extended sequences of counting piece arrangements.
✔ Focus Master D, 1 copy per group and 1 transparency.
They use Algebra Pieces and graphs to represent and solve
linear and quadratic equations. ✔ Focus Student Activities 11.3-11.6, 1 copy of each per
student and 1 transparency of each.
✔ Focus Student Activity 11.7, 1 copy per group and
1 transparency.
✔ Coordinate grid paper (see Blackline Masters), 2 sheets
per group and 1 transparency.
✔ Algebra Pieces for the overhead.
✔ 1 ⁄ 4 " grid paper, 4 sheets per group and 1 transparency.

ACTIONS COMMENTS

1␣␣Arrange the students in groups and distribute Algebra 1␣␣Shown below is one possible set of arrangements.
Pieces to each student. Ask the groups to form the –3rd
through 3rd and nth arrangements of an extended
sequence of counting piece arrangements for which
v(n) = n2 + 2n + 1.

–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3

One possible nth arrangement is shown below. Notice

the use of the two frames to represent 2n. These frames
are needed because they may represent a black n-strip or
a red n-strip, depending on the value of n.

2␣␣Tell the students there exists a sequence of square 2␣␣Some students may have formed square arrange-
arrangements which fits the criterion of Action 1. Ask ments in Action 1. If so, you may call the other stu-
the groups to show how their arrangements from Action dents’ attention to these arrangements.
1 can be formed into a sequence of squares, using edge
pieces to show the values of the edges of the squares. Below is a set of square arrangements with edge pieces.
Discuss.

(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 285

Lesson 11 Introduction to Quadratics
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

2 (continued.)

–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3

Other edges are possible. For

example, here is another possibil-
ity for the –3rd arrangement:

The nth arrangement formed in Action 1 can be rear-

ranged to form a square with 2 possibilities for edges, as
shown below. Notice that the figures show that (n + 1)2
and (–n – 1)2 are equivalent expressions for v(n).

n+1 –n – 1

o
v (n ) = (n + 1)2 v (n ) = (–n – 1)2

If edge frames were not discussed during Lesson 5, you

will need to do so now. Edge frames are edge pieces
whose color, like that of frames, differs for positive and
negative n. Edge frames are obtained by cutting frames
into thirds as shown below.

Edge frames
o

Has value n for n Has value –n for n

positive, negative, or 0. positive, negative, or 0.

The use of edge frames is illustrated on the next page.

Recall that adjacent edges of black arrays have the same
color and adjacent edges of red arrays have opposite
color. Also, an array with a black edge has the same
color as its other edge while an array with a red edge has
color which is opposite the color of its other edge.

286 / Math Alive! Course III

Introduction to Quadratics Lesson 11
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS
o o

n –n –n n

o o

o
n n –n –n

oooo oooo

oooo oooo
oooo oooo

oooo oooo
2 2 –2 –2

o
n –n –n n
Note: the area of a square is always positive (or zero),
while the value of a square can be positive, negative, or
zero. Similarly, the lengths of the edges of a square are
always identical and positive (or zero), while the values
of the edges may be zero, both positive, both negative,
or one positive and one negative.

3␣␣Ask the students to determine which arrangements in 3␣␣A square has value 400 provided its edges all have
the extended sequence of Actions 1 and 2 have a value value 20 or –20. Hence, the nth arrangement, viewed as
of 400. Discuss the students’ methods. Ask them to a square whose edge has value n + 1, has value 400 pro-
identify the equation that has been solved. vided n + 1 has value 20 or –20. Since n + 1 is 20 when n
is 19 and n + 1 is –20 when n is –21, the 19th and –21st
arrangements have value 400. Thus, the equation (n + 1)2
= 400 has been solved. The solutions are 19 and –21.
Note: (–n – 1)2 = 400 also has solutions 19 and –21.

4␣␣Place a transparency of Focus Master A on the over- 4␣␣The nth arrangement contains a black n2-mat and 4
head. Ask the students to form the nth arrangement of –n-frames:
this sequence and to write an expression for v(n).
oooo oooo
oooo oooo
Focus Master A
Introduction to Quadratics

oooo oooo

oooo oooo
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3
v (n ) = n2 – 4n
… …

Math Alive! Course III / 287

Lesson 11 Introduction to Quadratics
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

5␣␣Ask the students to determine for what n the ex- 5␣␣Adding 4 black tile to an nth arrangement results in a
tended sequence in Action 4 has v(n) = 525. Discuss square array whose edges have value n – 2 or –n + 2, as
their strategies. If it isn’t suggested by students, intro- shown below.
duce the method of solving the quadratic equation n2 – 4n

oooo oooo

oooo oooo
oooo oooo

oooo oooo
= 525 by completing the square.

oooo oooo o oooo oooo

oooo oooo o oooo oooo

o
v(n) + 4 = (n – 2)2 v(n) = (–n + 2)2

A square whose value is 525 + 4, or 529, has an edge

4 whose value is 23 or –23 (a calculator with a square root
key is helpful here). If n – 2 is 23, then n is 25, and if
525 n – 2 is –23, then n is –21. Hence, the 25th and –21st
arrangements have value 525. Similarly, if the edge has
value –n + 2, then –n + 2 = 23 or –23; hence, n = –21 or
25.
n–2
23 or –23 Historically, the above method of solving a quadratic
equation is called completing the square. A quadratic
equation is an equation that can be written in the form
ax2 + bx + c, where a, b, and c are constants and a ≠ 0.
The word quadratic is derived from the Latin word,
quadratus, meaning square. Sometimes it is necessary to
rearrange and/or cut apart pieces to complete the square.
This is illustrated in Comments 6 and 7. Students gener-
alize this method in Math Alive! Course IV.

6␣␣Ask the students to form the nth arrangement of an 6␣␣One way of representing the two nth arrangements is
extended sequence for which v(n) = n2 + 4 and then shown below:
have them do the same for an extended sequence for
which v(n) = 2n2 + 6n – 3. Have the students use their
Algebra Pieces to determine for which n the nth arrange-
ments of these two extended sequences have the same
value. Ask the students to identify the equation that has
been solved and to verify their solutions.

n2 + 4

2n 2 + 6n – 3

288 / Math Alive! Course III

Introduction to Quadratics Lesson 11
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

These two arrangements have the same value if, after an

n2-mat has been removed from each of them, the re-
maining portions have the same value, i.e., if n2 + 6n – 3
has value 4 or, equivalently, n2 + 6n has value 7.

The method of completing the square is illustrated at

the left. Adding 9 black tile to n2 + 6n produces a square
array whose edge has value n + 3.

Thus, n2 + 6n has value 7 if the square array has value

16, i.e., if its edge has value 4 or –4. If n + 3 is 4, then n
n2 + 6 n + 9 is 1; if n + 3 is –4, then n is –7. Hence, the 1st arrange-
ments of the 2 sequences have the same value, as do the
–7th arrangements.

7␣␣Write quadratic equation a) below on the overhead 7␣␣Students’ methods of solving these equations may
and ask the students to discuss their ideas about how the vary.
equation relates to sequences of counting piece arrange-
ments. Then ask them to find all solutions of the equa- a) The expression n2 – 6n may be viewed as the value of
tion. Repeat for one or more of b)-g). Discuss the stu- the nth arrangement of one sequence, and 40 as the
dents’ generalizations or conjectures about the methods value of the nth arrangement of another sequence.
they use. Hence, to solve the equation n2 – 6n = 40 is to find the
value of n for which the nth arrangements of the two
a) n2 – 6n = 40 sequences have the same value.

b) 2n2 + 38 = 4n2 – 12 If 9 black tile are added to a collection for n2 – 6n, the
resulting collection can be formed into a square array
c) (n – 1)(n + 3) = 165 with edge n – 3 (see below). If n2 – 6n has value 40, the
square array has value 49 and its edge has value 7 or –7.
d) 4n2 + 4n = 2600 If n – 3 is 7, then n is 10; if n – 3 is –7, then n is –4. So
the equation has two solutions: 10 and –4. Note: the
e) n2 – 5n + 6 = 0 square could also have edge –n + 3 = 7 or –7, in which
case, the solutions are still 10 and –4.
f) n2 + n = 6
oooo oooo oooo
oooo oooo oooo

g) n2 + 3n – 10 = 0

oooo oooo oooo

n–3=
7 or –7

oooo oooo oooo

(n2 – 6n) + 9 = 40 + 9 = 49

(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 289

Lesson 11 Introduction to Quadratics
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

7 (continued.)
b) Comparing sketches for 2n2 + 38 and 4n2 – 12, note
they have the same value if 2n2 – 12 is 38. This is the
case if n2 is 25, that is, if n = 5 or n = –5.
38

n2 n2 38 n2 n2 n2 n2
–12

165
c) Shown at the left is a representation of (n – 1)(n + 3).
oooo
oooo

Note the values of the edges differ by 4 and their prod-

uct is 165. Since 11 and 15 differ by 4 and 11 × 15 = 165,
and since –11 and –15 differ by 4 and –11 × –15 = 165,
11 or –15 the array will have value 165 if the edges have values 11
and 15 or –11 and –15. The edges have values 11 and 15
if n is 12; they have values –11 and –15 if n is –14. (Find-
ing the pair 11 and 15 is facilitated by noting that one of
the pair should be smaller and one larger than √165 ≈ 13.)
15 or –11

169 Alternatively, adding 4 black tile to the array shown in

n 1 the preceding paragraph and removing collections whose
values are 0 leaves a collection of pieces that can be
n+1 n2 n arranged in a square array that has value 169 and edge
n + 1. Hence n + 1 is 13 or –13, in which case n = 12 or n
= –14. Note: the edge could also be –(n + 1) = 13 or –13.
n+1

2600 1
d) If 1 black tile is added to a collection for 4n2 + 4n, a
square array with edge 2n + 1 (or –2n – 1) can be formed,
as shown at the left. If the value of the original collec-
tion is 2600, the value of the square array is 2601. Using
a calculator, one finds √2601 = 51. Hence 2n + 1 is 51 or
–51. Thus n = 25 or n = –26.

51 or –51 Using another approach, dividing a collection for

4n2 + 4n by 4 results in the collection n2 + n with value
650. From this collection, a rectangle with value 650 and
edges n by (n + 1) can be formed. Since 25 × 26 = 650
and –25 × –26 = 650, n = 25 or –26.

290 / Math Alive! Course III

Introduction to Quadratics Lesson 11
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

oooo oooo
oooo oooo
e) A collection for n2 – 5n + 6 can be formed into a
rectangular array with edges n – 2 and n – 3. The array
oooo oooo oooo has value 0 if an edge has value 0. This is the case if
n = 2 or n = 3.

oooo oooo oooo

1
__
0 4
oooo oooo oo
oooo oooo oo

Alternatively, by cutting a –n-frame and 2 black tile in

halves and adding 1⁄ 4 of a black tile to a collection for
n2 – 5n + 6, the resulting collection can be formed into a
square with edge n – 21 ⁄ 2 . If the original collection has
oo
oooo oooo
1
__ 1
__
2 or – 2 value 0, the square array has value 1 ⁄ 4 and its edge has
value 1 ⁄ 2 or –1 ⁄ 2 . Now, n – 21 ⁄ 2 = 1⁄ 2 when n = 3 and
n – 21 ⁄ 2 = –1 ⁄ 2 when n = 2.

oo
oooo oooo

6
6 f) Beginning with a collection for n2 + n, if one cuts the
1
__
n⁄ 2
4 n–frame in halves and adds 1 ⁄ 4 of a black tile, a square
n + __12 array with edge n + 1 ⁄ 2 (or –n – 1 ⁄ 2 ) can be formed. This
n
n2 n or n2 __
2 square array has value 61 ⁄ 4 and its edge has value 21 ⁄ 2 or
–n – __12 –21 ⁄ 2 . If n + 1 ⁄ 2 = 21 ⁄ 2 , then n = 2; if n + 1 ⁄ 2 = – 21 ⁄ 2 , then
n = –3.
n2 + n n 2 + n + 1 ⁄ 4 = (n + 1 ⁄ 2 )2 or (–n – 1 ⁄ 2 )2
g) n = 2 or n = –5

Here are other equations you might have students solve:

(n – 4)(n + 2) = 0; n2 + 4n – 5 = 0; n2 + 6n = –8; n2 = 7n – 6;
2n2 – 2n = 112. If you create others, be sure they have
integer solutions (in Lessons 12-14 students explore
sequences with nonintegral arrangement numbers).

8 ␣Place a transparency of Focus Master B (see next 8␣␣Arrangements numbered –3 through 3 are shown on
page) on the overhead, revealing the top half only. Tell the bottom half of Focus Master B.
the students that the arrangement shown is the nth
arrangement of an extended sequence of counting piece Here are three possibilities for v(n): v(n) = n2 – 2n –3;
arrangements. Ask them to form the –3rd through 3rd v(n) = (n + 1)(n – 3); and v(n) = (–n – 1)(–n + 3).
arrangements (with edges) of this sequence. Then dis-
tribute a copy of Focus Student Activity 11.3 to each
student and have the students write a formula for v(n),
construct its graph (see completed graph on the next
page), and record their observations about the graph.
(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 291

Lesson 11 Introduction to Quadratics
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

Lesson 11 Introduction to Quadratics

8 (continued.)
Focus Master B Edge pieces help to illustrate the latter two formulas:

oooo oooo oooo

oooo oooo oooo

v (n ) = (n + 1)(n – 3)

o oooo oooo oooo

–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3

… … o oooo oooo oooo

o
v (n ) = (–n – 1)(–n + 3)

The coordinate points associated with these arrange-

ments are shown on the completed graph below.

Introduction to Quadratics Lesson 11

As students make observations, they may use descriptors
Focus Student Activity 11.3 such as turning point, minimum or smallest value,
increasing or rising, decreasing or falling, u-shaped or
NAME DATE
cup-shaped, etc. Encourage this. You may wish to model
v (n )
ways of using algebraic notation to record their observa-
32 tions (e.g., for n ≥ 1, v(n) ≥ –4). Here are examples of
30 observations students have made about the graph:
28
26
24 The points of the graph do not lie along the path of a straight
22 line; they lie along the path of a U-shaped curve.
20
18
16 The graph is symmetric about the vertical line that passes
14 through n = 1. That is, if the graph is folded along the verti-
12
10
cal line that goes through n = 1, the points to the right of the
8
fold coincide with those to the left of the fold.
6
4
The point (1,–4) is a turning point where the graph stops
2
n falling and starts to rise (looking from left to right).
–8 –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
–2
–4
The smallest value for v(n) is –4. It occurs when n = 1.

n 2 – 2n – 3
v(n) = _______________________
When n is greater than 1, as n increases so does v(n). When
Observations about the graph:
n is less than 1, as n decreases v(n) increases.

v(n) = n2 – 2n –3 is a function with domain the integers and

range the integers greater than or equal to –4.

292 / Math Alive! Course III

Introduction to Quadratics Lesson 11
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

9␣␣Place a copy of Focus Master C on the overhead, and 9␣␣Here are 2 possible formulas for the given nth ar-
tell the students that Arrangements I and II are the nth rangements:
arrangements of two different extended sequences. Ask
them to write formulas for v1(n), the value of the nth v1(n) = 6n – 2
arrangement of the first sequence and v2(n), the value of v2(n) = n2 + 7n – 8
the nth arrangement of the second sequence.
Other formulas are possible. For example, v2(n) =
Introduction to Quadratics Lesson 11
(n + 8)(n – 1); edge pieces may help the students see this
Focus Master C formula.

II

10␣␣Give each student a copy of Focus Student Activity 10␣␣The completed graphs are shown on a copy of
11.4 and ask them to do the following in reference to Focus Student Activity 11.4 on the next page.
Sequences I and II from Focus Master C.
Following are some observations that students have
a) record their formulas for v1(n) and v2(n); made about the graphs. If students don’t bring these up,
you might prompt discussion by posing questions such
b) graph v1(n) and v2(n) on the coordinate grid, indicat- as: What points, if any, do the 2 graphs have in com-
ing the points on the graph of v1(n) with an x and those mon? What do the common points on the graphs tell
on the graph of v2(n) with an o (see completed graph on about the 2 sequences of counting piece arrangements?
the next page); When is v1(n) > v2(n)? How do the shapes of the graphs
compare? How could you change the equation of v1 so
c) examine the graphs and record observations about that it doesn’t intersect v2? Are v1 and v2 functions?
relationships between the graphs. How do the domains and ranges of v1 and v2 compare?,
etc.
Discuss, using their observations to motivate discussion
of inequality notation. Two points, (2,10) and (–3,–20), are on both graphs. This
tells us that the 2nd arrangements of the 2 sequences have
the same value and the –3rd arrangements also have the
same value. It also tells us the equation 6n – 2 = n2 + 7n – 8
has 2 solutions, n = 2 and n = –3. Note: you might have

(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 293

Lesson 11 Introduction to Quadratics
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

Lesson 11 Introduction to Quadratics

10 (continued.)
the students form the 2nd arrangement of each se-
Focus Student Activity 11.4 quence and verify that they have the same value. Like-
NAME DATE
wise for the –3rd arrangements.
v (n )

When n is between –3 and 2, the values of the arrangements

36
x in Sequence I are greater than the values of the arrangements
32
28 x
in Sequence II. Using inequality notation: if –3 < n < 2,
24 then v1(n) > v2(n).
x
20
16 x

12
When n is less than –3 and when n is greater than 2, the
8
x
value of Sequence II is greater than the value of Sequence I.
4 x
Using inequality notation, if n < –3 or n > 2, then
n
–11 –10 –9 –8 –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 x 1 2 3 4 5 6 v2(n) > v1(n).
–4
x –8

x
–12 The graph of v1(n) follows the path of a straight line, and the
–16
x
graph of v2(n) follows the path of a U-shaped curve.
–20
–24
x
–28 The graph of Sequence I always rises as values of n increase
from left to right. Looking at the graph of Sequence II from
6n – 2
x v 1 (n) = _______________________ n 2 + 7n – 8
o v 2(n) = _______________________ left to right, the graph falls as n increases, until n = –4; v(–4)
Observations about the graph: = v(–3); then after n = – 3, as n increases the graph rises.

Once Sequence II starts to rise, it rises faster than Sequence I.

Sequence II has line symmetry about a vertical line that

passes midway between n = –3 and n = –4.

If the U-shaped curve that the graph of Sequence II follows is

traced, we think the turning point is (–31 ⁄ 2 , –201 ⁄ 4 ). Since the
curve is symmetric, we think the turning point is half way
between n = – 3 and n = – 4, or at n = – 31⁄ 2 . We found the
y-coordinate by finding (31 ⁄ 2 )2 + 7(–31 ⁄ 2 ) – 8 = – 201⁄ 4 .

Note: an equation such as v 1(n) whose graph lies on a

straight line is called linear; and an equation such as
v2 (n) whose graph lies on a parabola (i.e., a U-shaped
curve) is called quadratic.

11␣␣Ask the students to use Algebra Pieces to build the 11␣␣The students now have two different ways to solve
nth arrangements of both extended sequences, v1(n) and an equation like 6n – 2 = n2 + 7n – 8: using Algebra
v2(n), given in Action 9. Then have them solve the Pieces and using a graph they construct by hand. You
equation 6n – 2 = n2 + 7n – 8 using the pieces. Ask for might ask the students to discuss their ideas about the
volunteers to share their solutions. advantages and disadvantages of each method. (Note: in
Lesson 14 students use the graphing calculator to deter-
mine solutions of equations and they develop symbolic
strategies that represent actions with Algebra pieces.)

294 / Math Alive! Course III

Introduction to Quadratics Lesson 11
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

Following is one method of using Algebra Pieces to solve

the equation 6n – 2 = n2 + 7n – 8:

n 2 + 7n – 8 6n – 2
Step 1: Model the equation.

n2 + n – 6
Step 2: Remove 6 n-strips and
2 red counting pieces from
each arrangement to obtain
the equivalent equation: =0
n2 + n – 6 = 0.

n2 + n – 6
Step 3: Complete a rectangle oooo oooo

by rearranging the pieces and

adding 2 –n-frames and 2 n-
frames (i.e., adding 0 to the
net value of the original
collection). This rectangle has n+3 oooo oooo =0
edges n – 2 and n + 3.

Step 4: Since (n – 2)(n + 3) =

0 when n – 2 = 0 or when
n + 3 = 0, then n = 2 and n = n–2
–3 are solutions to the equa-
tion 6n – 2 = n2 + 7n – 8.
Some students may invent ways of using algebra sym-
bols to record their Algebra Piece methods. For example,
the above procedures could be recorded as follows:

6n – 2 = n2 + 7n – 8
6n – 2 – (6n – 2) = n2 + 7n – 8 – (6n – 2)
0= n2 + n – 6
0= n2 + n – 6 + 2n + –2n
0= (n – 2)(n + 3)
so, n – 2 = 0 or n+3=0
n = 2 or n = –3

Math Alive! Course III / 295

Lesson 11 Introduction to Quadratics
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

12␣␣Give each group 2 sheets of coordinate grid paper 12␣␣This could also be completed by individuals as
(see Blackline Masters) and a copy of Focus Master D. Have homework and then discussed in class.
them carry out the instructions. When groups are fin-
ished, invite volunteers to share their questions, obser- A table of values for v1(n) and v2(n) is useful for generat-
vations, and conjectures. ing and organizing ordered pairs to plot. For example:

Lesson 11 Introduction to Quadratics Pair 1

Focus Master D
n v1(n) v2(n)

1. Formulas for the values of the n th arrangements of 3 pairs of

–3 11 –24
extended sequences are given below. For each pair of sequences, –2 8 –20
please do the following: . . .
. . .
a) Sketch the –3rd through 3rd arrangements and the nth ar- . . .
rangement of both sequences.

b) Make a table showing v1(n ) and v 2(n ) for n from –3 to 3. Then If students’ observations and conjectures are limited you
graph v1(n ) and v 2(n ) on the same coordinate axes.
might encourage them to plot additional points to get a
c) Make mathematical observations about similarities, differ-
ences, and relationships you notice in the graphs of v1(n ) and
better feel for the behavior of the graphs. Following are
v2(n ). some conjectures posed by students (if these ideas do
d) Use pictures or algebraic symbols to show your step-by-step not come up, you could bring some up; however, note
methods of using Algebra Pieces to determine when v1(n ) = v2(n ). they will be addressed in Lesson 12).
Pair 1
v1(n ) = –3n + 2 v2(n ) = 4n – 12
We think a graph that is linear rises from left to right if the
Pair 2 coefficient of n is positive and falls if the coefficient is nega-
v1(n ) = –7 v2(n ) = –n 2 – 2n + 8
tive.
Pair 3
v1(n ) = n 2 + 2 v2(n ) = –n 2 + 4
For an equation whose graph follows a linear path, we think
2. Review your completed graphs for Problem 1 above and then
the constant moves the graph up or down from the horizontal
record your general observations and conjectures about graphing axis (“the zero line”). We think the coefficient of the n-term
equations.
determines the “steepness” of the graph.

We think the graph of an equation with an n2-term and with

or without an n-term or constant is U-shaped.

We are pretty sure that if the coefficient of the n2-term is

negative the U opens down (the U would spill water). If the
coefficient of the n2-term is positive the U opens up (the U
would hold water).

When the nth arrangement of a sequence contains no n2-

mats and no n-frames, then the values of all arrangements
are identical. The graph follows a horizontal line that crosses
the y-axis at the constant value of the arrangements.
We think that a line and a U-shaped curve can only intersect
in 0, 1, or 2 points; 2 different lines can intersect in 0 or 1
point; 2 different U-shaped curves can intersect in 0, 1, or 2
points.

The domain of each of the functions that are given is the

integers but the ranges vary. When the value of the nth
arrangement is a constant, there is only one number in the

296 / Math Alive! Course III

Introduction to Quadratics Lesson 11
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

range (e.g., v1(n) from pair 2). The ranges of the given func-
tions are listed below:

Pair 1: v1 and v2, all integers

Pair 2: v1 , –7; v2, all integers ≤ 9
Pair 3: v1, all integers ≥ 2; v2, all integers ≤ 4.

13␣␣Place a transparency of Focus Master E on the over- 13␣␣From Sequence I, one sees that v1(n) = n + 3.
head. Ask the students to write formulas for v1(n), i.e., the
value of the nth arrangement of Sequence I, and v2(n), The students may readily see the pattern of Sequence II,
i.e., the value of the nth arrangement of Sequence II. but have difficulty writing a formula for v2(n). You
Discuss. Then give each student a copy of Focus Student might suggest that students write the formula in two
Activity 11.5; have them graph v1(n) and v2(n) and record parts, one part for nonnegative arrangement numbers
their observations (see completed graph on the next and one part for negative arrangement numbers:
page). Discuss.
2n – 3, for n nonnegative
v2(n) =
Introduction to Quadratics Lesson 11 2(–n) – 3, for n negative
Focus Master E

Notice that the case n = 0 is included in the nonnegative

…

requirement.
3

You may want to tell the students about the mathemati-

cal symbol |n|, read absolute value of n, which is defined
to be n, if n is nonnegative (e.g., |3| = 3) and –n if n is
negative (e.g., |–3| = –(–3) = 3). Using this symbol, one
2

has v2(n) = 2|n| – 3 for all n. Note that absolute value is

explored further in Lessons 12 and 14.
1

The graphs of v1(n) and v2(n) are shown on the next

page on a copy of Focus Student Activity 11.5. Some
0

observations that may come up include:

–1

The points of the graph of v1(n) lie on a straight line. The

points of the graph of v2(n) lie on a V-shaped graph whose
–2

vertex is the point (0,–3). Note that a V-shaped graph is

not a parabola.

The points (–2,1) and (6,9) lie on both graphs.

–3

v2(n) < v1(n) when –2 < n < 6.

II
I

The minimum value of v2(n) is –3 and it has no maximum

value since both “sides of the V” increase indefinitely.

v1(n) has neither a minimum nor a maximum value since it

extends indefinitely—there are no upper or lower limits on
the values of the arrangements.

(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 297

Lesson 11 Introduction to Quadratics
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

Introduction to Quadratics Lesson 11

13 (continued.)
Because v1 and v2 are extended sequences whose arrangement
Focus Student Activity 11.5 numbers are the integers, the domain of each function is the
NAME DATE
integers. The range of v1 is the integers and the range of v2 is
v (n ) the integers greater than or equal to –3.

11 x

10 x

9 x

8 x

7 x

6 x

5 x

4 x

3x
x 2
x 1
x n
–8 –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
x –1
x –2
x –3
x –4

x v 1 (n) = _______________________ o v 2(n) = _______________________

Observations about the graph:

14␣␣Give each student a copy of Focus Student Activity 14␣␣Notice that both of these sequences represent
11.6. Place a transparency of Focus Master F on the functions whose domains are the positive integers since
overhead, and repeat Action 13 for the two sequences the sequences are nonextended. The range of Sequence I
shown. Have the students sketch the graphs on Focus is the integers 0 and 3. The range of Sequence II is the
Student Activity 11.6 (see completed graph on the next positive and negative integers.
page).
Formulas for the nth arrangement of these 2 sequences
can be written in 2 parts, 1 part for n odd and 1 part for
n even.

3, n odd (n + 1) ⁄ 2 , n odd
v1(n) = v2(n) =
0, n even –n ⁄ 2 , n even

One way to see the above formula for v2(n) is to notice

that, if n is odd, 2 copies of the nth arrangement form a
rectangle whose value is n + 1 (an example for n = 5 is
shown below) and, if n is even, 2 copies of the nth
arrangement form a rectangle whose value is –n (an
example for n = 4 is shown below).

2 copies of 2 copies of
5th arrangement 4th arrangement

298 / Math Alive! Course III

Introduction to Quadratics Lesson 11
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

Lesson 11 Introduction to Quadratics Lesson 11 Introduction to Quadratics

Focus Master F
Focus Student Activity 11.6
NAME DATE
…

…
v (n )

7
5

6
5
4
3 x x x x x x x

2
1
x x x x x x x n
4

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
–1
–2
–3
–4
–5
–6
3

–7

x v 1 (n) = _______________________ o v 2(n) = _______________________

Observations about the graph:

2
1

II
I

15 ␣Place a transparency of Focus Master G on the 15␣␣Groups’ mathematical observations will vary.
overhead, revealing Situation 1a) only. Ask the groups to
use their Algebra Pieces to form a model of the situation 1a) Following are diagrams of two consecutive squares:
and to make several mathematical observations about
the situation. Discuss the reasoning behind their obser-
vations. Repeat for Situations 1b) and 2a)-d).

Introduction to Quadratics Lesson 11

Focus Master G

1. Situations a) and b) below refer to the following non-

extended sequence of arrangements. For each situation, make
an Algebra Piece model of the situation and then write several
mathematical observations based on your model. n n+1

… Notice the difference between the values of the two

1 2 3 4 squares is 2n + 1 = 79. Hence, n = 39 and the squares
a) Suppose the values of 2 consecutive arrangements differ have edges 39 and 40.
by 79 units.

(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 299

Lesson 11 Introduction to Quadratics
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

Introduction to Quadratics Lesson 11

15 (continued.)
Focus Master G 1b) The difference between the values of the 2 squares
shown below is 6n + 9. If 6n + 9 = 111, then 6n = 102,
1. Situations a) and b) below refer to the following non-
n = 17, and the squares have edges 17 and 20.
extended sequence of arrangements. For each situation, make
an Algebra Piece model of the situation and then write several
mathematical observations based on your model.

…
1 2 3 4
a) Suppose the values of 2 consecutive arrangements differ
by 79 units.

b) Suppose the difference between 2 arrangement numbers is

3 and the difference between the values of the 2 arrangements
is 111 units.

2. Suppose Mystery Sequence X is a nonextended sequence

of arrangements of black counting pieces. To form the nth ar-
rangement of Sequence X: form a rectangle that is n units n n+3
wide and twice as long as it is wide; surround the rectangle
with a 2-unit wide border (note: the outer perimeter of the bor-
der is a rectangle). Use Algebra Piece models as a basis for 2a) Here is the nth arrangement:
making mathematical observations about each of the follow-
ing:

a) The 1st, 2nd, and nth arrangements of Sequence X.

b) An arrangement whose border contains 160 units.

c) An arrangement that contains a total of 126 units.

d) Challenge. Two consecutive arrangements whose values

differ by 62 units.

n th arrangement

2b) The value of the border is 12n + 16 = 160 when n =

12. Hence, the 12th arrangement has value 448 and its
edges have values 16 and 28.

2c) If the value of an arrangement is 126, removing 4

units from each corner leaves 2 n2-mats and 12 n-strips
with total value 110. Half of this collection is n2 + 6n
with value 55. If 9 black units are added to a collection
for n2 + 6n, the resulting collection can be formed into a
square array with edge n + 3 (see diagram at the left). If
n2 + 6n has value 55, the square array has value 64 and
its edge has value 8. Hence, n + 3 = 8 so n = 5. The case
in which the edge has value –8 is not considered here
since this sequence is nonextended. Note: rather than
halving a collection of 2n2 + 12n, some students may
double the collection and complete the square on a
collection of 4 n2-mats and 24 n-strips with value 220.

300 / Math Alive! Course III

Introduction to Quadratics Lesson 11
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

2n2 + 12n + 16 = 126 Some students may use symbols to record their Algebra
2n2 + 12n + 16 – 16 = 126 – 16 Piece actions. For example, the above method could be
2n 2 + 12n = 110 represented as shown at the left.
(2n2 + 12n) ⁄ 2 = 110 ⁄ 2

n 2 + 6n = 55 2d) Consecutive arrangements are the nth and (n + 1)st

n 2 + 6n + 9 = 64 arrangements. To form the (n + 1)st arrangement each n-
(n + 3)2 = 64 strip must increase by 1 unit, and both dimensions of
n+3 = 8 each n2-mat must increase by 1, as shown at the left (the
n = 5 circled pieces indicate the difference between the nth
and (n + 1)st arrangements).

The difference between the nth and (n + 1)st arrange-

ments is 62 when 4n + 14 = 62, i.e., when n = 12. Thus,
the values of the 12th and 13th arrangements differ by
62.

You might ask students to write and compare equivalent

expressions for the values of the nth and (n + 1)st ar-
rangements. For example, the nth arrangement could be
viewed as (n + 4)(2n + 4) = 2n2 + 12n + 16 = 2(n + 4)(n + 2)
and the (n + 1)st arrangement could be viewed as
(n + 5)(2n + 6) = [(n + 1) + 4][2(n + 1) + 4] = 2n2 + 16n +
30 = 2(n + 1)2 + 12(n + 1) + 16.

(n + 1)st arrangement

16␣␣Discuss the students’ ideas about the meaning of 16␣␣The intent here is to prompt intuitions and conjec-
factors of a number. Relate this discussion to the meaning tures about factors of quadratic expressions. It is not
of factoring a quadratic. Give each group 4 sheets of 1 ⁄ 4 " expected that students memorize or be shown rote
grid paper, and a copy of Focus Student Activity 11.7 procedures for factoring. Rather, it is hoped that stu-
(see next page). Ask the groups to complete Problems dents look for generalizations and formulate questions
1i)-1v) for collections a) and b) listed on page 3 of the to investigate further in Lessons 12 and 14 of this course
activity. Discuss, clarifying as needed. Then repeat for and in Math Alive! Course IV.
c)-m).
In Math Alive! Courses I and II, students were introduced
to the meaning of the factors of an integer, n, as the
values of the edges of rectangles with value n. For ex-
ample, a rectangle with value 15 could have edges 3 × 5,
1 × 15, –3 × –5, and –1 × –15. Hence, the integral factors
of 15 are 3, 5, 1, 15, –3, –5, –1, and –15. (The whole
number factors of 15 are 3, 5, 1, and 15.) Similarly,
factoring a quadratic over the integers can be viewed as
finding the values of the edges of Algebra Piece rect-
angles that represent the expression, assuming the edges
include only whole Algebra Pieces. If such a rectangle
cannot be formed then the expression does not factor
over the integers.

(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 301

Lesson 11 Introduction to Quadratics
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

Introduction to Quadratics Lesson 11

16 (continued.)
1ii) In several cases, it is necessary to add zero (i.e., to
Focus Student Activity 11.7 add equal numbers of n-frames and –n-frames) to form a
NAME DATE
rectangle. Two possible pairs of factors for each of collec-
tions a)-j) follow. The students may find other possibili-
1␣␣See the chart on page 3. Suppose that each Algebra Piece collection
listed in a)-m) on the chart forms the nth arrangement of an extended ties for some of these. Notice that for every pair of
sequence of counting piece arrangements. For each of a)-m):
factors, (n + r) and (n + s), their opposites, –(n + r) and
i) Form the given collection of Algebra Pieces. In Column VII, write
the standard quadratic form of the equation that represents the col- –(n + s), are also factors.
lection. Note: standard quadratic form is v(n) = an2 + bn + c, where a,
b, and c are integers and a ≠ 0.

ii) If possible, form a rectangle without cutting any pieces and with- a) (n + 1)(n + 7) or (–n – 1)(–n – 7)
out changing the net value of the collection. In Column VIII, record
the factored form of the quadratic equation. If no rectangles are pos-
b) (n – 1)(n – 7) or (–n + 1)(–n + 7)
sible, write NP (not possible) in Column VIII. Hint: it’s okay to add
zeros.
c) (n)(n + 8) or (–n)(–n – 8)
iii) In Column IX of the chart, record the values of n for which
d) (n + 3)(n + 2) or (–n – 3)(–n – 2)
v(n) = 0. e) (–n – 3)(n + 2) or (n + 3)(–n – 2)
iv) Graph v(n). Be sure to plot enough points to show the shape of the f) (n + 6)(n + 1) or (–n – 6)(–n – 1)
graph. Label the coordinates of any zeroes of the graph.
g) (n – 6)(n + 1) or (–n + 6)(–n – 1)
v) Next to your graph and/or in the last column of the chart, record
your observations, conjectures, and questions about factoring and h) does not factor
graphing quadratic equations.
i) (2n – 6)(n + 3) or (–2n + 6)(–n – 3)
j) (n – 5)(n + 5) or (–n + 5)(–n – 5)

Introduction to Quadratics Lesson 11 Notice that collections k)-m) are given in factored form.
Focus Student Activity 11.7 (page 3)
Students must determine a collection of Algebra Pieces
that can be arranged to form a rectangle with edges
whose values are the factors.
and conjectures
observations
X

Collections k)-m) are:

k) –3n2 –15n –12
l) n2 – 9
v (n ) = 0

m) n2 + 2n – 15 = (n – 3)(n + 5)
n for
IX

)
or (3n + 3)(–n – 4)

or (–n – 3)(–n + 3)

iii) A rectangle has value zero when either of its edges

(–3n – 3)(n + 4)

)
(n + 3)(n – 3)
factored

)(
form/s

has value zero. Hence, collection a) for example, has

(n – 3)(
VIII

value zero when n + 1 = 0 or when n + 7 = 0, i.e., when n

or (

= –1 or n = –7. Notice the edges (–n – 1) and (–n – 7) also

quadratic form

have value zero when n = –1 or when n = –7, respec-

standard
VII

tively.
units

iv-v) The graph of any quadratic equation is a parabola.

red

18

25

15
VI

Note that graphing quadratic equations is explored in

black
mats frames frames units
V

more depth in Lessons 12 and 14 of this course.

–n
IV

0
III

The zeroes of a graph are the points where the graph

intersects the horizontal axis. Hence, the graph of the
– n2
II

sequence whose nth arrangement is formed from collec-

mats
n2

1
I

tion a), for example, crosses the horizontal axis at (–1,0)

m)
b)

d)

g)

h)
a)

e)
c)

k)
f)

i)

j)

l)

and (–7,0). The zeroes of the graph of an equation are

also called the roots of the equation.

302 / Math Alive! Course III

Introduction to Quadratics Lesson 11
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

17␣␣Have the groups complete Problem 2a) on Focus 17␣␣To prompt thinking while students work on Prob-
Student Activity 11.7. Discuss their results and observa- lem 3, you might circulate the room, posing questions
tions. Then have them finish Problem 2 and Problem 3. such as: Are there relationships among the pieces in a
Discuss. collection that could help you predict the edges of a
rectangle? What are several collections of pieces that do
Introduction to Quadratics Lesson 11
not form a rectangle and what do they have in com-
mon? In general, what can you conjecture about collec-
Focus Student Activity 11.7 tions that form rectangles and have no n-frames? What
NAME DATE
conditions do you think are necessary for a collection
that forms a rectangle but contains no red or black
1␣␣See the chart on page 3. Suppose that each Algebra Piece collection
listed in a)-m) on the chart forms the nth arrangement of an extended units? What generalizations can you make about collec-
sequence of counting piece arrangements. For each of a)-m):
tions that form squares?, etc.
i) Form the given collection of Algebra Pieces. In Column VII, write
the standard quadratic form of the equation that represents the col-
lection. Note: standard quadratic form is v(n) = an2 + bn + c, where a,
b, and c are integers and a ≠ 0. You might have the students post their observations,
ii) If possible, form a rectangle without cutting any pieces and with- conjectures, and questions on butcher paper for consid-
out changing the net value of the collection. In Column VIII, record
the factored form of the quadratic equation. If no rectangles are pos- eration during upcoming lessons.
sible, write NP (not possible) in Column VIII. Hint: it’s okay to add
zeros.

iii) In Column IX of the chart, record the values of n for which Lesson 11 Introduction to Quadratics
v(n) = 0. Focus Student Activity 11.7 (page 2)

iv) Graph v(n). Be sure to plot enough points to show the shape of the
graph. Label the coordinates of any zeroes of the graph.

v) Next to your graph and/or in the last column of the chart, record d) These collections each form a rectangle that is twice as long as it
your observations, conjectures, and questions about factoring and is wide.
graphing quadratic equations.
e) These collections each form a nonsquare rectangle with one edge
whose value is n.
2␣␣For each set of conditions a)-g) below, determine 3 different collec- f) These collections each form a nonsquare rectangle that contains
tions of Algebra Pieces which meet that set of conditions. For each
no n-frames or –n-frames.
collection, record the standard quadratic form and the factored form
of the quadratic equation that represents the collection.
g) These collections each form a nonsquare rectangle that contains
both n-frames and –n-frames.
a) Each of these collections forms a square and contains both
n-frames and –n-frames.

b) Each of these collections forms a square and contains no 3␣␣Record any new conjectures, questions, generalizations, and “I
–n-frames. wonder…” statements that you have about quadratic equations and
their factors.
c) Each of these collections forms a square and contains no n-frames.

(Continued on back.) 4␣␣Choose one idea that you recorded for Problem 1v) or for Prob-
lem 3 above. Investigate that idea further. Report your examples,
reasoning, and results.

18␣␣(Optional) Have the students complete Problem 4 18␣␣It is helpful to provide the students with a few
on Focus Student Activity 11.7, either by having indi- guidelines for such an investigation. For example, you
viduals select an idea to investigate, or by having the might let them know the amount of time that you expect
class determine the focus for an investigation. Discuss they devote to the investigation. Letting them know the
their results. criteria that you will use to assess the investigation is also
helpful (see the assessment chapter of Starting Points).

Math Alive! Course III / 303

Lesson 11 Introduction to Quadratics

TEACHER NOTES:

304 / Math Alive! Course III

Introduction to Quadratics Lesson 11

Follow-up Student Activity 11.8

NAME DATE

Do all work for this assignment on separate paper. Attach each prob-
lem to your work for the problem.

1␣␣For each of a)-i) below, create an extended sequence of counting

piece arrangements whose graph meets the given conditions. Then
on coordinate grid paper, do the following:

i) sketch the –3rd to 3rd and nth arrangements of the sequence;

ii) write a formula for the value of the nth arrangement;
iii) graph the sequence (plot enough points that the shape of the
graph is evident).

a) The graph of this sequence is linear (i.e., the points follow the
path of a line) and it rises from left to right.

b) The graph of this sequence is linear, falls from left to right, and
contains the point (0,2).

c) The points (1,5) and (2,8) lie on the graph of this sequence.

d) The graph of this sequence is U-shaped and the U “opens up.”

e) The graph of this sequence is U-shaped and the U “opens down.”

f) The graph of this sequence is a horizontal line.

g) The value of the 0th arrangement of this sequence is –3; the

graph of the sequence is U-shaped, and (0,–3) is the turning point of
the graph.

h) This sequence meets all of the criteria of g), but the graph of this
sequence is not identical to the graph of the sequence you created
for g).

i) The formula for values of negative numbered arrangements of

this sequence differs from the formula for nonnegative numbered
arrangements.

(Continued on back.)
Math Alive! Course III / 305
Lesson 11 Introduction to Quadratics
Follow-up Student Activity (cont.)

2␣␣Create 2 extended sequences whose graphs are both linear and

have in common only the point (7,9). On coordinate grid paper, do
the following:

a) sketch the –3rd through 3rd and nth arrangements of both se-
quences;

b) write formulas for the values of the nth arrangements of the se-
quences;

c) graph the sequences (on the same coordinate axes);

d) record pictures or algebra symbols that show your step-by-step

Algebra Piece procedures for determining the value of n for which
the nth arrangements of the sequences are equal.

3␣␣Repeat Problem 2 a)-d) for 2 sequences whose graphs are para-

bolic (U-shaped); the turning point of each graph is (0,5) and they
have no other points in common.

4␣␣Show how to use the method “completing the square” to deter-

mine the values of n for which each of the following quadratic
equations is true:

a) n 2 + 2n = 35

b) (n – 8)(n + 2) = 0

c) Challenge. 2n 2 – 10n = 48

5␣␣Use algebra symbols to record each step of your Algebra Piece

methods in Problem 4b).

6␣␣Using Algebra Pieces and using graphs are 2 methods of deter-

mining when the nth arrangements of 2 extended sequences of
arrangements have the same value. Discuss your ideas about the
advantages and disadvantages of each method.

306 / Math Alive! Course III

Introduction to Quadratics Lesson 11
Connector Master A

–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3

… …

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Introduction to Quadratics Lesson 11

Connector Student Activity 11.1

NAME DATE

v (n )

11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
n
–4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4
–1
–2
–3
–4
–5
–6
–7
–8
–9
–10
–11

v(n) = _______________________

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 11 Introduction to Quadratics

Connector Student Activity 11.2

NAME DATE

v (n )

12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
n
–8 –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
–1
–2
–3
–4

v(n) = __________________________

Observations about the graph:

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Introduction to Quadratics Lesson 11
Focus Master A

…
3
2
1
0
–1
–2
–3

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 11 Introduction to Quadratics
Focus Master B

–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3

… …

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Introduction to Quadratics Lesson 11
Focus Master C

II

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 11 Introduction to Quadratics
Focus Master D

1. Formulas for the values of the n th arrangements of 3 pairs of

extended sequences are given below. For each pair of sequences,
please do the following:

a) Sketch the –3rd through 3rd arrangements and the nth ar-
rangement of both sequences.

b) Make a table showing v1(n ) and v 2(n ) for n from –3 to 3. Then

graph v1(n ) and v 2(n ) on the same coordinate axes.

c) Make mathematical observations about similarities, differ-

ences, and relationships you notice in the graphs of v1(n ) and
v2(n ).

d) Use pictures or algebraic symbols to show your step-by-step

methods of using Algebra Pieces to determine when v1(n ) = v2(n ).

Pair 1
v1(n ) = –3n + 2 v2(n ) = 4n – 12

Pair 2
v1(n ) = –7 v2(n ) = –n 2 – 2n + 8

Pair 3
v1(n ) = n 2 + 2 v2(n ) = –n 2 + 4

2. Review your completed graphs for Problem 1 above and then

record your general observations and conjectures about graphing
equations.

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Introduction to Quadratics Lesson 11
Focus Master E

…
3
2
1
0
–1
–2
–3

…
II
I

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 11 Introduction to Quadratics
Focus Master F

…
5
4
3
2
1

II
I

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Introduction to Quadratics Lesson 11
Focus Master G

1. Situations a) and b) below refer to the following non-

extended sequence of arrangements. For each situation, make
an Algebra Piece model of the situation and then write several
mathematical observations based on your model.

…
1 2 3 4
a) Suppose the values of 2 consecutive arrangements differ
by 79 units.

b) Suppose the difference between 2 arrangement numbers is

3 and the difference between the values of the 2 arrangements
is 111 units.

2. Suppose Mystery Sequence X is a nonextended sequence

of arrangements of black counting pieces. To form the nth ar-
rangement of Sequence X: form a rectangle that is n units
wide and twice as long as it is wide; surround the rectangle
with a 2-unit wide border (note: the outer perimeter of the bor-
der is a rectangle). Use Algebra Piece models as a basis for
making mathematical observations about each of the follow-
ing:

a) The 1st, 2nd, and nth arrangements of Sequence X.

b) An arrangement whose border contains 160 units.

c) An arrangement that contains a total of 126 units.

d) Challenge. Two consecutive arrangements whose values

differ by 62 units.
© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Introduction to Quadratics Lesson 11

Focus Student Activity 11.3

NAME DATE

v (n )

32
30
28
26
24
22
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
n
–8 –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
–2
–4

v(n) = _______________________

Observations about the graph:

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 11 Introduction to Quadratics

Focus Student Activity 11.4

NAME DATE

v (n )

36
32
28
24
20
16
12
8
4
n
–11 –10 –9 –8 –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6
–4
–8
–12
–16
–20
–24
–28

x v 1 (n) = _______________________ o v 2(n) = _______________________

Observations about the graph:

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Introduction to Quadratics Lesson 11

Focus Student Activity 11.5

NAME DATE

v (n )

11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
n
–8 –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
–1
–2
–3
–4

x v 1 (n) = _______________________ o v 2(n) = _______________________

Observations about the graph:

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 11 Introduction to Quadratics

Focus Student Activity 11.6

NAME DATE

v (n )

7
6
5
4
3
2
1
n
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
–1
–2
–3
–4
–5
–6
–7

x v 1 (n) = _______________________ o v 2(n) = _______________________

Observations about the graph:

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Introduction to Quadratics Lesson 11

Focus Student Activity 11.7

NAME DATE

1␣ ␣ See the chart on page 3. Suppose that each Algebra Piece collection
listed in a)-m) on the chart forms the nth arrangement of an extended
sequence of counting piece arrangements. For each of a)-m):

i) Form the given collection of Algebra Pieces. In Column VII, write

the standard quadratic form of the equation that represents the col-
lection. Note: standard quadratic form is v(n) = an2 + bn + c, where a,
b, and c are integers and a ≠ 0.

ii) If possible, form a rectangle without cutting any pieces and with-
out changing the net value of the collection. In Column VIII, record
the factored form of the quadratic equation. If no rectangles are pos-
sible, write NP (not possible) in Column VIII. Hint: it’s okay to add
zeros.

iii) In Column IX of the chart, record the values of n for which

v(n) = 0.

iv) Graph v(n). Be sure to plot enough points to show the shape of the
graph. Label the coordinates of any zeroes of the graph.

v) Next to your graph and/or in the last column of the chart, record
your observations, conjectures, and questions about factoring and
graphing quadratic equations.

2␣ ␣ For each set of conditions a)-g) below, determine 3 different collec-

tions of Algebra Pieces which meet that set of conditions. For each
collection, record the standard quadratic form and the factored form
of the quadratic equation that represents the collection.

a) Each of these collections forms a square and contains both

n-frames and –n-frames.

b) Each of these collections forms a square and contains no

–n-frames.

c) Each of these collections forms a square and contains no n-frames.

(Continued on back.)

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 11 Introduction to Quadratics
Focus Student Activity 11.7 (page 2)

d) These collections each form a rectangle that is twice as long as it

is wide.

e) These collections each form a nonsquare rectangle with one edge

whose value is n.

f) These collections each form a nonsquare rectangle that contains

no n-frames or –n-frames.

g) These collections each form a nonsquare rectangle that contains

both n-frames and –n-frames.

3␣ ␣ Record any new conjectures, questions, generalizations, and “I

wonder…” statements that you have about quadratic equations and
their factors.

4␣ ␣ Choose one idea that you recorded for Problem 1v) or for Prob-
lem 3 above. Investigate that idea further. Report your examples,
reasoning, and results.

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
 I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X

n2 – n2 n –n black red standard factored n for observations

mats mats frames frames units units quadratic form form/s v (n ) = 0 and conjectures

a) 1 0 8 0 7 0

b) 1 0 0 8 7 0

© 1998, The Math Learning Center

Introduction to Quadratics

c) 1 0 8 0 0 0

d) 1 0 5 0 6 0
Focus Student Activity 11.7 (page 3)

e) 0 1 0 5 0 6

f) 1 0 7 0 6 0

g) 1 0 0 5 0 6

h) 1 0 5 0 0 8

i) 2 0 0 0 0 18

j) 1 0 0 0 0 25

(–3n – 3)(n + 4)
k) or (3n + 3)(–n – 4)
(n + 3)(n – 3)
l) or (–n – 3)(–n + 3)

(n – 3)( )
m) 1 15 or ( )( )
Lesson 11

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III

Lesson 11 Introduction to Quadratics

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Introduction to Quadratics Lesson 11

Follow-up Student Activity 11.8

NAME DATE

Do all work for this assignment on separate paper. Attach each prob-
lem to your work for the problem.

1␣ ␣ For each of a)-i) below, create an extended sequence of counting

piece arrangements whose graph meets the given conditions. Then
on coordinate grid paper, do the following:

i) sketch the –3rd to 3rd and nth arrangements of the sequence;

ii) write a formula for the value of the nth arrangement;
iii) graph the sequence (plot enough points that the shape of the
graph is evident).

a) The graph of this sequence is linear (i.e., the points follow the
path of a line) and it rises from left to right.

b) The graph of this sequence is linear, falls from left to right, and
contains the point (0,2).

c) The points (1,5) and (2,8) lie on the graph of this sequence.

d) The graph of this sequence is U-shaped and the U “opens up.”

e) The graph of this sequence is U-shaped and the U “opens down.”

f) The graph of this sequence is a horizontal line.

g) The value of the 0th arrangement of this sequence is –3; the

graph of the sequence is U-shaped, and (0,–3) is the turning point of
the graph.

h) This sequence meets all of the criteria of g), but the graph of this
sequence is not identical to the graph of the sequence you created
for g).

i) The formula for values of negative numbered arrangements of

this sequence differs from the formula for nonnegative numbered
arrangements.

(Continued on back.)

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 11 Introduction to Quadratics
Follow-up Student Activity (cont.)

2␣ ␣ Create 2 extended sequences whose graphs are both linear and

have in common only the point (7,9). On coordinate grid paper, do
the following:

a) sketch the –3rd through 3rd and nth arrangements of both se-
quences;

b) write formulas for the values of the nth arrangements of the se-
quences;

c) graph the sequences (on the same coordinate axes);

d) record pictures or algebra symbols that show your step-by-step

Algebra Piece procedures for determining the value of n for which
the nth arrangements of the sequences are equal.

3␣ ␣ Repeat Problem 2 a)-d) for 2 sequences whose graphs are para-

bolic (U-shaped); the turning point of each graph is (0,5) and they
have no other points in common.

4␣ ␣ Show how to use the method “completing the square” to deter-

mine the values of n for which each of the following quadratic
equations is true:

a) n 2 + 2n = 35

b) (n – 8)(n + 2) = 0

c) Challenge. 2n 2 – 10n = 48

5␣ ␣ Use algebra symbols to record each step of your Algebra Piece

methods in Problem 4b).

6␣ ␣ Using Algebra Pieces and using graphs are 2 methods of deter-

mining when the nth arrangements of 2 extended sequences of
arrangements have the same value. Discuss your ideas about the
advantages and disadvantages of each method.

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Continuous Graphs
Continuous Graphs Lesson 12 Lesson 12

.
.
.
.
THE BIG IDEA .. CONNECTOR
.
. OVERVIEW MATERIALS FOR TEACHER ACTIVITY
Sequences of counting .
.
. Given specific arrangement ✔ Connector Student Activ-
piece arrangements .
. numbers and the corre- ity 12.1, 1 copy per pair
provide a concrete and .. sponding values of the ar- of students and 1 trans-
.
rangements, students parency.
meaningful context for ..
. sketch several arrange- ✔ Coordinate grid paper
.
developing intuitions . ments in a sequence, deter- (see Blackline Masters),
.
. mine the value of the nth 2 sheets per student and
about the meaning of .
. arrangement, and sketch a 1 transparency.
.
continuity. Examining . graph of the sequence.
.
.
relationships between .
.
.
continua of arrange- .
.
ments and their graphs .. FOCUS
.
. OVERVIEW MATERIALS FOR TEACHER ACTIVITY
promotes conceptual .
.
. Extended sequences of ar- ✔ Algebra Pieces for each ✔ Focus Master D, 1 copy
understanding regard- .
. rangements are augmented student. per student and 1 trans-
.
ing the real number . so their graphs become ✔ Focus Student Activities parency.
.
continuous. Slopes, inter-
system, variables, func- .. 12.2-12.4, 1 copy of each ✔ Coordinate grid paper
. cepts, and values of ar- per student and 1 trans- (see Blackline Masters),
.
tions, and graphing. . rangements are used to plot parency of each. 11 sheets per student
.
. continuous graphs of linear and 1 transparency.
. ✔ Focus Masters A, C, and
. and quadratic equations.
. E, 1 copy of each per ✔ Red and black pencils or
. Graphs, Algebra Pieces, and
. group and 1 transpar- marking pens (optional).
. algebraic symbols are used
. ency of each. ✔ Algebra Pieces for the
. to represent inequality rela-
. ✔ Focus Master B, 1 trans- overhead.
. tionships and solve systems
. parency.
. of equations.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
. FOLLOW-UP
.
.
. OVERVIEW MATERIALS FOR STUDENT ACTIVITY
.
. Students graph linear and ✔ Student Activity 12.5,
.
. quadratic equations and 1 copy per student.
.
. determine intercepts and
. ✔ Coordinate grid paper
. coordinates of points for
. (see Blackline Masters),
. intersecting graphs. They
. 6 sheets per student.
. graph situations and an-
.
. swer questions that can be
.
. determined from the
.
. graphs.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

Math Alive! Course III / 307

Lesson 12 Continuous Graphs

LESSON IDEAS
.
GRAPHING CALCULATORS tages of both calculator and . velop an understanding
.
Note that at the end of the “by-hand” methods for . that functions are com-
.
Focus activity students be- graphing and solving equa- . posed of variables that
.
gin getting acquainted with tions. . have a dynamic relation-
.
graphing calculators. . ship. Changes in one vari-
.
Emphasis throughout FOLLOW-UP . able result in change in
.
this lesson is on the con- It is helpful to have students . another. The identification
.
cepts of graphing as pre- complete the Follow-up . of the special characteris-
.
liminaries to using the prior to assigning Focus . tics of a relationship, such
.
graphing calculator. If stu- Student Activity 12.4 in Ac- . as minimum or maximum
.
dents already have calcula- tion 21. . values or points at which
.
tors, some may wish to use . the value of one of the
. .
them during this lesson. . QUOTE . variables is 0 (x- and y-
. .
One way to deal with this is . When students make . intercepts), lays the foun-
. .
to allow calculator use but, . graphs, data tables, ex- . dation for a more formal
. .
to decrease distractions . pressions, equations, or . study of functions in
. .
from the conceptual discus- . verbal descriptions to rep- . grades 9-12.
. .
sion, periodically ask the . resent a single relation- . NCTM Standards
students to set aside the
. ship, they discover that
.
calculators. And, always ask
. different representations
.
the students to think criti-
. yield different interpreta-
.
cally about the relative ad-
. tions of a situation. In in-
.
vantages and disadvan-
. formal ways, students de-
.

SELECTED ANSWERS

1. a) x v (x ) b) x v (x ) 5. a) The graph of v1 is above the graph of v2 for

61 ⁄ 2 17 55 –108.5 x < 35 ⁄ 7 and below for x > 35 ⁄ 7 .
–3 1 ⁄ 2 –13 115 3 ⁄ 4 –230
67 1 ⁄ 2 200 61 1 ⁄ 4 –121 b) The graph of v1 is above the graph of v2 for
31 90.5 –88 1 ⁄ 4 178 x < –5 or x > 3 and below for –5 < x < 3.
x 3x – 5⁄ 2 x 3 ⁄ 2 – 2x

c) The graph of v1 is above the graph of v2 for

x < –2 or x > 3 and below for –2 < x < 3.
2. a) v (x ) = 3x –2 c) v (x ) = –x + 3
b) v (x ) = 4x –1 d) v (x ) = –7
6. a) x-intercepts are –7 and 1, y-intercept is –7
b) x = 21 ⁄ 2
3. a) x-intercepts, 3 and –4, y-intercept, –12; turning point c) –8 < x < 2
at (–1 ⁄ 2 ,–49 ⁄ 4 ). d) x < –8 and x > 2
e) (–3,–25)
b) x-intercepts, 2 and –5, y-intercept, 10; turning point at
(–3 ⁄ 2 ,49 ⁄ 4 ).

4. a) v1(x ) = v2(x ) for x = 35 ⁄ 7

b) v1(x ) = v2(x ) for x = 3 and x = –5
c) v1(x) = v2(x) for x = 3 and x = –2

308 / Math Alive! Course III

Continuous Graphs Lesson 12

Connector Teacher Activity

OVERVIEW & PURPOSE MATERIALS
Given specific arrangement numbers and the corresponding ✔ Connector Student Activity 12.1, 1 copy per pair of
values of the arrangements, students sketch several arrange- students and 1 transparency.
ments in a sequence, determine the value of the nth arrange- ✔ Coordinate grid paper (see Blackline Masters), 2 sheets
ment, and sketch a graph of the sequence. per student and 1 transparency.

ACTIONS COMMENTS

1␣ ␣ Arrange the students in pairs and give each pair a 1␣ ␣ It may be helpful to remind students that each point
copy of Connector Student Activity 12.1 and 2 sheets of shown on their graphs represents one arrangement.
coordinate grid paper. Ask the pairs to carry out the Graphs should be sets of discrete points, since connect-
instructions. Discuss their results. ing the points on the graph would imply there are
arrangements for every point on the line or curve. For
these sequences, the only arrangement numbers are
Continuous Graphs Lesson 12
from the set of integers. In the Focus activity, sequences
Connector Student Activity 12.1 are augmented to include nonintegral arrangement
NAME DATE numbers.
The 1st column of each table below lists, in order, the arrangement
numbers of a sequence of counting piece arrangements, and the 2nd
column lists the values of the arrangements. For each sequence: Note that Tables 1 and 4 do not have an ellipsis that
a) Sketch 4 consecutive arrangements. Label the number and value of precedes n = 1. This implies there are no arrangement
each arrangement.
numbers less than 1. Hence, Tables 1 and 4 do not
b) Sketch the nth arrangement of the sequence.
c) On a coordinate grid, plot ordered pairs that represent several ar-
represent an extended sequence and their graphs should
rangements.
include points associated with only the positive integers
d) Fill in the blanks in the table.
on the n-axis.
e) Write a concise mathematical description of the set of all arrange-
ment numbers in the sequence. Then describe mathematically the set
of all numbers that are the values of the arrangements.
1 n v (n ) 2 n v (n )
Table 3 represents a sequence whose arrangement num-
1 4
bers are the negative integers (note that zero is consid-
…

2 9 –3 18
3 14 –2 8 ered neither negative nor positive) and so the graph
4 19 –1 2
5 24 0
1
0
2
should include points associated with only the negative
…

13 __ 2 8 integers on the n-axis.

14 __
…

__ 450
…

__ 154
…

43 __ Notice that, for each sequence represented by the tables

…

n v (n ) = ______
…

n v (n ) = ______ on Connector Student Activity 12.1, for every arrange-

…

ment number n, there is exactly one v(n). Hence, each of

3 n v (n ) 4 n v (n )
–1 1 1 3 the tables represents a set of ordered pairs [n,v(n)] that is
–2 2 2 –4
–3 3 3 9 a function. The set of all arrangement numbers for each
–4 4 4 –8
5 15
sequence is the domain of the function. The set of values
…

n v (n ) = ______ 6 –12
of all arrangements is the range of the function.
…

n v (n ) = ______
…

Students’ expressions for v(n) may depend on how they

“see” the nth arrangements of each sequence. However,
all expressions should be equivalent to those given below.

1d) v(n) = 5n – 1

1e) The set of arrangement numbers is the set of positive

integers; the set of values of the arrangements is the set
of positive integers that are 1 less than 5 times the value
of a positive integer.

(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 309

Lesson 12 Continuous Graphs
Connector Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

1 (continued.)

2d) v(n) = 2n 2

2e) The arrangement numbers are the set of integers.

The values of the arrangements are the set of positive
integers that are 2 times the square of an integer.

3d) v(n) = –n

3e) The arrangement numbers are the set of negative

integers. The values of the arrangements are the set of
positive integers.

4d) v(n) = –2n, when n is even, and v(n) = 3n, when n is

odd.

4e) The arrangement numbers are the set of positive

integers. The values of the arrangements are every other
positive integer that is a multiple of 3, together with the
set of negative integers that are multiples of 4.

2␣ ␣ Announce that students will use graphing calculators 2␣ ␣ Announcing this now allows students time to pur-
at the end of this lesson and they will be considered chase calculators prior to needing them for the last
everyday classroom tools thereafter. If you haven’t action of the Focus. Conceptual work in this lesson is
discussed your preferences regarding brand and model intended to provide students with insights about graph-
(we use the TI-83) and recommendations for best places ing that will be useful later when they use a graphing
to purchase a calculator, do so now. calculator.

310 / Math Alive! Course III

Continuous Graphs Lesson 12

Focus Teacher Activity

OVERVIEW & PURPOSE MATERIALS
Extended sequences of arrangements are augmented so their ✔ Algebra Pieces for each student.
graphs become continuous. Slopes, intercepts, and values of ✔ Focus Student Activities 12.2-12.4, 1 copy of each per
arrangements are used to plot continuous graphs of linear student and 1 transparency of each.
and quadratic equations. Graphs, Algebra Pieces, and alge-
✔ Focus Masters A, C, and E, 1 copy of each per group
braic symbols are used to represent inequality relationships
and 1 transparency of each.
and solve systems of equations.
✔ Focus Master B, 1 transparency.
✔ Focus Master D, 1 copy per student and 1 transpar-
ency.
✔ Coordinate grid paper (see Blackline Masters), 11 sheets
per student and 1 transparency.
✔ Red and black pencils or marking pens (optional).
✔ Algebra Pieces for the overhead.

ACTIONS COMMENTS

1␣ ␣ Arrange the students in groups and give red and 1␣ ␣ Some students may wish to use red and black count-
black pencils or marking pens, Algebra Pieces, and 1 ing pieces to form the arrangements; if so, ask them to
copy of Focus Student Activity 12.2 to each student. also draw sketches. If red and black pencils or marking
Show them the arrangement of 2 n-frames and 1 red pens are unavailable, students can devise ways of indi-
counting piece shown below. Tell them it is the nth cating red and black. In the copy of Focus Student Activ-
arrangement of an extended sequence of counting piece ity 12.2 shown below, part A is completed with the
arrangements. Ask them to sketch (in Section A of Focus lighter-shaded squares representing red counting pieces.
Student Activity 12.2, see completed copy at the right)
the –3rd through 3rd arrangements of the sequence, Continuous Graphs Lesson 12

representing counting pieces by grid squares.

Focus Student Activity 12.2
NAME DATE

arrangement number
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3

B C D

Math Alive! Course III / 311

Lesson 12 Continuous Graphs
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

2␣ ␣ Give each student a copy of Focus Student Activity 2␣ ␣ The completed graph is shown below on a copy of
12.3. For the extended sequence introduced in Action 1, Focus Student Activity 12.3. A formula is v(n) = 2n – 1.
ask the students to record a formula for v(n) in the space Note that the set of ordered pairs (n, 2n – 1) is a function
provided at the bottom of the sheet and then construct whose domain is the set of all integers and the range is
the graph of v(n). Discuss and invite volunteers to graph the set of all odd integers and their opposites.
the sequence on a transparency of Focus Student Activ-
ity 12.3 (see completed copy at the right).
Lesson 12 Continuous Graphs

Focus Student Activity 12.3

NAME DATE

v (n )

11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
n
–8 –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
–1
–2
–3
–4
–5
–6
–7
–8
–9
–10
–11

v (n ) = 2n – __________
1

3␣ ␣ Mention to the students that there is no point on the 3␣ ␣ Below on the left is a sketch of a 11⁄ 2th arrangement,
graph for n = 11 ⁄ 2
since there is no 11 ⁄ 2 th
arrangement. based on the pattern of the arrangements in the original
Ask the students to imagine that the sequence has been sequence. Its net value is 2. Thus, (11 ⁄ 2 ,2) is the point on
augmented to contain such an arrangement. Ask them the graph corresponding to this arrangement. Similarly,
to sketch, in Section B of Focus Student Activity 12.2, (31 ⁄ 2 ,6) is the ordered pair associated with the 31 ⁄ 2 th
what they think the 11 ⁄ 2 th arrangement looks like. Have arrangement.
them compute the value of that arrangement and add
the corresponding point to their graph. Discuss their B C
ideas and reasoning. Repeat for n = 31 ⁄ 2 and n = –23 ⁄ 4 in
Sections C and D of Focus Student Activity 12.2.

v (11 ⁄ 2 ) = 2(11 ⁄ 2 ) – 1 = 2 v (31 ⁄ 2 ) = 2(31 ⁄ 2 ) – 1 = 6

312 / Math Alive! Course III

Continuous Graphs Lesson 12
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS
D The net value of the –23 ⁄ 4 th arrangement is –61⁄ 2 , as
illustrated at the left. Its corresponding point on the
graph is (–23 ⁄ 4,–61 ⁄ 2 ).
rearranged

v (–23⁄4) = 2(–23⁄4) – 1 = –61 ⁄ 2

4␣ ␣ Have the students each do the following on Focus 4␣ ␣ Shown below are sketches of the Pth and Qth ar-
Student Activities 12.2 and 12.3: rangements for the choices of P and Q shown on the
graph at the left below. The corresponding points
a) on 12.3 choose some noninteger number on the [P,v(P)] and [Q,v(Q)] are shown on the graph.
positive part of the n-axis and label it P (students’ num-
bers will vary), E F

b) on 12.3 choose a noninteger number on the negative

part of the n-axis and label it Q ,

c) in Sections E and F of 12.2 sketch approximations of

the Pth and Qth arrangements and determine the values v (P ) = 2P – 1 v (Q ) = 2 Q – 1
of these arrangements,
The location of the points on the graph can be deter-
d) on 12.3 add the points associated with the Pth and mined by measuring. For example, one can mark off on
Qth arrangements to the graph, the edge of a piece of paper a segment whose length is
the distance between 0 and P, and adjoin to it a segment
e) discuss the students’ methods of determining the whose length is P – 1. The sum of these two lengths will
location of the points for d) above. be the distance of the point [P,v(P)] above the n-axis.
This is illustrated at the left. Some of the students may
Continuous Graphs Lesson 12 locate the points by noting that all the points of the
Focus Student Activity 12.3 graph are collinear (i.e., they all lie on the same line) and
locate [P,v(P)] and [Q ,v(Q)] so that collinearity is main-
NAME DATE
tained.
v (n )

11
10
(P, 2P – 1)
9
8
7 P–1

6
5
4
3
P
2
Q 1 P
Q P
n
–8 –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
–1
Q –2
–3
–4
–5
–6
Q–1 –7
–8
–9
(Q, 2Q – 1)
–10
–11

v(n) = _______________________
2n – 1

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Lesson 12 Continuous Graphs
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

5␣ ␣ Ask the students to imagine that the sequence of 5␣ ␣ The resulting graph is a straight line, only a portion
arrangements discussed in Actions 1-4 has been aug- of which shows in the graph the students have con-
mented so there is an arrangement corresponding to structed. The actual graph extends indefinitely in both
every point on the n-axis. Ask them how they could directions, as indicated by the arrowheads.
show this on their graphs. Discuss. Use this as a context
for a brief discussion of the real number system. A sequence of arrangements for which there is an ar-
rangement corresponding to every point on the horizon-
tal axis, will henceforth be referred to as a continuum of
Lesson 12 Continuous Graphs
arrangements, or a continuous sequence of arrangements.
Focus Student Activity 12.3
A sequence of arrangements whose arrangement num-
NAME DATE
bers are the integers or the natural numbers (see below)
v (n )
is a discrete sequence and its graph is discontinuous be-
cause it is a set of discrete (disconnected) points.
11
10
9 The graph of a continuum of arrangements may be a
8
continuous graph. An informal “test” for continuity of a
7
6 graph over an interval on the x-axis is: can the graph be
5 traced over the interval without ever picking up one’s
4
pencil?
3
2

Q
1
P
The x- and y-axes are called real number lines because
n
–8 –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 there is a one-to-one correspondence between all the points
–1
–2
on a line and the real numbers. That is, for every point
–3 on a line, there is a real number that can be assigned to
–4 the point, and conversely.
–5
–6
–7 The set of real numbers contains the set of irrational
–8 numbers (nonrepeating, nonterminating decimals such
–9
–10
as √2) together with the set of rational numbers (termi-
–11 nating or repeating decimals). Every real number is
either rational or irrational.
v (n ) = 2n – 1__________
Any number that is rational can be written in the form
a ⁄ b , where a and b are integers and b ≠ 0. Irrational num-

bers cannot be written in this form (this idea is explored

further in Math Alive! Course IV). The sets of natural
numbers {1, 2, 3, 4, 5,…}, whole numbers {0, 1, 2, 3, 4,…},
and integers {…–3, –2, –1, 0, 1, 2, 3…} are contained in
the set of rational numbers. You might ask the students
to create a Venn diagram to show the relationships
among these subsets of the real numbers. For example:

Real Numbers

Rational Numbers

Integers
Irrational
Whole Numbers Numbers
Natural
Numbers

314 / Math Alive! Course III

Continuous Graphs Lesson 12
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

Notice that every natural number is a whole number, an

integer, a rational number, and a real number, but not
an irrational number. The natural numbers are used to
number the arrangements for nonextended, noncon-
tinuous sequences of arrangements. The integers num-
ber the arrangements for extended, noncontinuous
sequences of arrangements. The reals number the ar-
rangements of a continuous sequence of arrangements.

6␣ ␣ Ask the students to suppose a generic point x on the 6␣ ␣ The students may suggest a variety of ways to repre-
n-axis is selected and to create a representation of the sent the xth arrangement. It might be represented by a
xth arrangement. Discuss their representations. sketch. For example, the 1st sketch on the left consists
of 2 unshaded strips, each labeled x, and a single red
Sketches: counting piece. It is understood that each strip is to be
x filled with a collection of counting pieces (and/or parts
2 of pieces) whose value equals its label. Thus, if x is
x
positive, the strip is filled with black counting pieces; if
x x is negative it is filled with red counting pieces; and if x
2x – 1 2x – 1 is 0, it is empty. The 2nd sketch on the left uses edge
pieces to represent 2x as a rectangle with edge values 2
and x.
Pieces:
Alternatively, Algebra Pieces might be used to form a
representation (see left). The frames are to be thought of
as x-frames rather than n-frames; that is, each frame
2x – 1 represents a strip of counting pieces whose value is x
rather than n.

When arrangement x - frame Henceforth, the letter x will refer to a generic arrange-
numbers are real ment from a continuous sequence of arrangements, i.e.,
oooo
oooo

numbers: –x - frame the domain is the real numbers. The letter n will be used
for a discrete sequence of arrangements, i.e., the domain
is the integers. In the former case, frames will be desig-
When arrangement n -frame nated as x-frames or –x-frames and represent strips of
numbers are integers: counting pieces whose values are x and –x, respectively.
oooo
oooo

–n -frame In the latter case, frames will be referred to as n-frames

or –n-frames. It may help to call –x-frames, opposite x-
frames.

The above usage follows the customary, but not univer-

sal, practice of using letters like x, y, and z to represent
quantities that can take on any value, integral or not,
(i.e., continuous variables) and using letters like k, m, and
n to represent quantities that have integral values (i.e.,
discrete variables). The choice of a letter to represent a
generic arrangement is arbitrary. For example, one
might refer to the zth arrangement and write v(z) =
2z – 1. In this case, if frames were used to represent the
zth arrangement, they would be referred to as z-frames
or –z-frames and have values z or –z, respectively.

Math Alive! Course III / 315

Lesson 12 Continuous Graphs
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

7␣ ␣ Show the students the following xth arrangement 7␣ ␣ You may want to clarify that the partial counting
from a continuum of arrangements. Ask them to write a piece is 1⁄ 2 of a black counting piece, so y = v(x) =
formula for v(x). Then give 1 sheet of coordinate grid 7⁄ 2
– 3x. Note that, in the graph shown below, the hori-
paper (see Blackline Masters) to each student and have zontal axis is labeled x. The vertical axis is labeled y and
them construct a graph consisting of all points (x,y) could also be labeled v(x).
such that y = v(x). Discuss their ideas about whether
y
y = v(x) is a function, and if so, what are the domain and
range of the function. If it hasn’t already come up,
11
introduce use of the vertical line test for a function. 10
9
8
7
6
oooo oooo oooo

oooo oooo oooo

5
4
3
2
1
x
–8 –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
–1
–2
–3
–4
–5
–6
–7
–8
–9
–10
–11

y = 7⁄ 2 – 3x

Notice that for this graph, the values for x included in

the graph are all of the real numbers and the values for y
are all of the real numbers. Hence, the domain and
range of y = 7⁄ 2 – 3x are the real numbers. To verify that y
= 7⁄ 2 – 3x is a function, one needs to show that any point
in the domain is associated with exactly 1 point in the
range. This can be done by sliding a vertical line along
the x-axis (keeping the line perpendicular to the x-axis)
and noting that the vertical line always crosses the
graph of v(x) = 7⁄ 2 – 3x in exactly one point (this is often
referred to as the vertical line test for a function). In terms
of a sequence of arrangements, this means there is
exactly 1 value for each arrangement. If y = 7⁄ 2 – 3x were
not a function, there would be at least one value of x for
which the vertical line would cross the graph in more
than 1 point.

316 / Math Alive! Course III

Continuous Graphs Lesson 12
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

8␣ ␣ Copy the following table on the overhead or board 8␣ ␣ The table shown in Action 8 differs from those given
and ask the students to find the missing values for x, for the Connector activity in that this is simply an
assuming (x,y) is on the graph from Action 7: “organizer” for recording selected ordered pairs from a
graph rather than an ordered listing that represents all
x y ordered pairs for a graph.
a) 8
b) –9 a) The students might see from their graphs that there is
c) –14.2 exactly 1 point (x,y) for which y = 8. For that point, one
d) 100 sees (if the graph is constructed carefully enough) that
x = –1.5.
Discuss the students’ methods of determining the values
for x. Then ask them to relate each ordered pair (x,y) Alternatively, the students may use Algebra Pieces to de-
from the table to the sequence of arrangements for termine x. For example, if the value of the xth arrange-
which v(x) = 7 ⁄ 2 – 3x. Discuss. ment shown here is 8, then the –x-frames must have a
total value of 8 – 7 ⁄ 2 or 9 ⁄ 2 . Since there are 3 of them,
each –x-frame has a value of 3 ⁄ 2 . Hence, the value of x is
–3 ⁄ 2 .

oooo oooo oooo

oooo oooo oooo

7
__ 9
__
2 2

v (x ) = 8 = 16⁄ 2
–x
7
__ 25
2 –x – ___
2
b) When y = –9, it is difficult to determine the exact
value of x from the graph. Referring to a sketch of the
–x xth arrangement, as shown at the left, one sees that if its
value is –9, the –x-frames have a total value of –9 – 7 ⁄ 2 or
–( 25⁄ 2 ). Since there are 3 of them, each –x-frame has a
v (x ) = –9 = – 18 ⁄ 2 value of –( 25⁄ 6 ). Hence, x = 25 ⁄ 6.

It is important to acknowledge and discuss the students’

preferences for methods of solving equations (e.g.,
symbols, Algebra Pieces, sketches, and hand-made
graphs). A goal is for students to develop a variety of
techniques for solving equations and for thinking criti-
cally about which technique is most appropriate for a
given situation. It is also important to make connections
between Algebra Piece, graphical, and symbolic repre-
sentations. Note that in Lesson 14 students will also
explore ways to use the graphing calculator to solve
such problems.
oooo oooo oooo

oooo oooo oooo

c) Proceeding as in b), one finds x = 5.9.

1 1
3 __
2 96 __
2
d) From a picture of the xth arrangement, as shown at
the left, one sees that if the value of the xth arrange-
ment is 100, the total value of the –x-frames is 961 ⁄ 2 .
Since 96 ÷ 3 = 32 and 1 ⁄ 2 ÷ 3 = 1 ⁄ 6 , each –x-frame has
v (x ) = 100 value 321 ⁄ 6. Hence, x = –321 ⁄ 6.

Math Alive! Course III / 317

Lesson 12 Continuous Graphs
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

9␣ ␣ Place a transparency of Focus Master A on the over- 9␣ ␣ One line of reasoning is that the graph shows that
head and give a copy to each group. Tell the students v(x) increases by 4 as x increases by 1. Thus, v(1) =
this is a graph of y = v(x) for a certain continuum of 4 + v(0), v(2) = 8 + v(0), v(3) = 12 + v(0) and so forth.
arrangements. Ask them to write a formula for v(x) in Since v(0) = 2, this shows that the formula is v(x) = 4x + 2
the space provided on the bottom of Focus Master A and which can be verified for other points on the graph. If
to sketch an Algebra Piece representation of the xth the expression v(x) is represented by y, the formula
arrangement. Discuss. might be written y = 4x + 2.

Before sketching the xth arrangement, some students

Continuous Graphs Lesson 12 may wish to form the arrangement with Algebra Pieces.
Focus Master A
An Algebra Piece arrangement is shown on the left
y
below. A sketch of the xth arrangement is shown on the
right.
22 pieces: sketch:
20
18
x
16
14
x
12
x
10 x
8
6 v (x ) = 4x + 2 v (x ) = 4x + 2
4
2
x
Some students may generate a set of ordered pairs from
–8 –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
–2 the graph and find the equation for the graph by deter-
–4 mining an arrangement of Algebra Pieces that represents
–6
all the ordered pairs. For example, one student described
–8
–10
this process as follows:
–12
–14 I started with the ordered pair (5,22). When x is 5, an x-strip
–16
–18
contains 5 units. I determined that 22 units could be ar-
–20 ranged in 4 strips of 5 units with 2 units left over, or 4x + 2
–22 [no (5 × 5) x2-mats could be used]. Then, I checked to be sure
this arrangement could be used to represent all other ordered
v (x ) = ____________________ pairs.
Sketch the x th arrangement:

10␣ ␣ Discuss the students’ ideas about ways the num- 10␣ ␣ You might have groups discuss their ideas before
bers, 4 and 2, in the formula for v(x) relate to its graph. whole class sharing takes place.
Discuss the terms coefficient, slope, and intercept.
Focus Master B, shown on the next page, may be useful
for discussion. The number 4 in the product 4x is called
the coefficient of x. It tells how much y values change as x
values increase by 1 (for example, as x changes from 0 to
1, y changes from 2 to 6, an increase of 4). This rate of
change, the change in y for each unit increase in x, is
called the slope of the line. (Note that if y had decreased
as x increased, the change, and hence the slope, would
have been negative.)

318 / Math Alive! Course III

Continuous Graphs Lesson 12
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

The constant 2 is the value of y when x is 0 or, to put it

Lesson 12 Continuous Graphs
Focus Master B
another way, the y-coordinate of the point where the
line crosses the y-axis. This value is called the y-intercept
of the line. Students may comment that adding 2 to y =
4x (the line with slope 4 that passes through the origin)
10
shifts every point on the line y = 4x “up 2 units.”
8 increase of 4
A line may also cross the x-axis. If it does, the value of y
6 1
is zero at the point of intersection with the x–axis and
4 increase of 4 the value of x at that point is called the x-intercept. For
y - intercept y = 4x + 2, the x-intercept is –1 ⁄ 2 .
2 1

1 slope
–2 –1 2
–2

x - intercept

y = 4x + 2

11␣ ␣ Give each student a sheet of coordinate grid paper. 11␣ ␣ Students will need to locate axes and then scale
Tell them that the graph of y = v(x) for a certain con- them. In the graph shown below, the x-axis is scaled so
tinuum of counting piece arrangements is a straight line that each subdivision represents 1 unit and the y-axis is
which passes through the points (–2,10) and (4,–8). Ask scaled so that each subdivision represents 2 units. The
them to graph and find a formula for v(x). Then have graph will appear differently for other scales, but will
them construct an Algebra Piece representation or draw still be a straight line.
a sketch of the xth arrangement. Discuss. Use their v (x )
formulas as a context for discussing the slope-intercept 18
form of the equation of a line. 16

14

12

10

x
–8 –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
–2

–4

–6

–8

–10

–12

–14

–16

–18

If the points (–2,10) and (4,–8) are located on a graph

and a straightedge is used to draw a line through them,
one sees that the y-intercept of the line is 4.
(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 319

Lesson 12 Continuous Graphs
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

v (x ) 11 (continued.)
The slope of the line is –3 since y values decrease by 3 as
18
x values increase by 1. One way to determine this is to
16

14
note the y values decrease 18 units (from 10 to –8) as the
x values increase 6 units (from –2 to 4), which is equiva-
(–2,1210)
10
lent to a y-decrease of 3 units for every 1 unit x-increase.
8

6 Since the line has slope –3 and y-intercept 4, y = v(x) =

4 –3x + 4. The students may use other methods to find a
decrease 2 formula for v(x).
of 18 x
–8 –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
–2 An equation that is written in the form y = mx + b, such
–4 as y = –3x + 4, is said to be in slope-intercept form; m is
–6 (4, –8) the slope of the line and b is the y-intercept.
–8

–10
Shown below are various sketches and Algebra Piece
–12
representations of y = –3x + 4, some of which include
–14
edge pieces. In the sketches, a numeral alongside the
–16
edge of a rectangle denotes the value of the edge. Note
–18
that the value of an edge may differ from its length—the
length of an edge is always positive or zero, while the
increase of 6
value of an edge can be positive, negative, or zero. If the
slope = –18 ⁄ 6 = –3 value of an edge is positive, the value of the edge and its
length are the same. If the value of an edge is negative,
the value of the edge and its length are opposites. For
example, if the value of an edge is –3, its length is 3.
oooo oooo oooo

oooo oooo oooo

oooo oooo oooo

oooo oooo oooo

oooo oooo oooo

oooo oooo oooo

y = – 3x + 4
Pieces:
o

–x
y = – 3x + 4 –x 3 – 3x 4 –3 – 3x 4
Sketches: –x
–x x

12␣ ␣ Repeat Action 11 for the points (–2,–8) and (4,7). 12␣ ␣ In the graph shown on the next page, the x-axis is
scaled so that each subdivision represents 1 ⁄ 2 unit and
the y-axis is scaled so that each subdivision represents 1
unit. The graph’s appearance will differ for other scales,
but will still be a straight line.

Using a straightedge to draw a line connecting the 2

given points on a graph with x- and y-axes (see diagram
on the next page), one sees that the y-intercept is –3.
Also, y values increase by 15 as x values increase by 6.
This is equivalent to a y-increase of 21 ⁄ 2 for each

320 / Math Alive! Course III

Continuous Graphs Lesson 12
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS
v (x ) x-increase of 1. Thus, the line has slope 5 ⁄ 2. Hence, y =
v(x) = ( 5 ⁄ 2 )x – 3. The students can verify this formula by
8
showing that it provides the correct values for v(–2) and
7
v(4), namely –8 and 7.
6

5 On the left below is an Algebra Piece representation in

4 which an x-frame has been cut in half. On the right is a
3 sketch in which the values of edges and regions are
2 increase shown.
of 15
1
Pieces: Sketch:
x
–3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4
–1
5
__ 5
__
–2 2 2
x –3
–3

1 x
–4 v (x ) = 2 __ x–3 5
2 v (x ) = __ x–3
–5 2
–6

–7

–8 increase
of 6

13␣ ␣ Give each student 4 sheets of coordinate grid paper 13 ␣ The equations that students generate for a) form a
and ask them to construct or sketch an Algebra Piece family of lines with y-intercept 4. Similarly, the sets of
representation of the xth arrangement of a continuum equations students generate for each of b), e), and f)
of arrangements for which the graph of v(x) is a straight form families of lines whose relationships are defined by
line that satisfies the conditions in a) below. Invite the given conditions. This idea is investigated further in
several volunteers to sketch their xth arrangements at Lesson 14. The conditions given in c), d), g), and h) each
the overhead and then have the groups graph v(x) and produce a unique line.
verify that the conditions in a) are met. Discuss relation-
ships among the Algebra Piece representations and the a) If the graph of v(x) has y-intercept 4, then v(0) = 4.
equations and graphs that represent them. Repeat for b)- This will be the case if the “constant” part of the ar-
h). rangements has value 4. Shown below are 2 possibilities.

a) y-intercept is 4

b) slope is 3
oooo oooo

oooo oooo

c) slope is –2 and y-intercept is 3

v(x) = x + 4 v ( x ) = –2x + 4
d) slope is 0 and y-intercept is 7
The graphs of the above equations have y-intercept 4
e) slope is undefined and slopes 1 and –2, respectively.

f) slope is 3 ⁄ 4 b) If the graph of v(x) is a straight line whose slope is 3,

then the values of the arrangements must increase by 3
g) slope is –4⁄ 6 and y-intercept is –3 as x increases by 1. One possibility is that v(0) = 0, v(1) =
3, v(2) = 6, and so forth. This will be the case if v(x) = 3x.
h) y intercept is 3 and slope is the same as the slope of Other possibilities can be obtained by adding a constant
y = 2 ⁄ 5x
(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 321

Lesson 12 Continuous Graphs
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

13 (continued.)
to this expression, e.g., v(x) = 3x + 2 (see left). The differ-
ence in the graphs of these 2 expressions is that the y-
intercept of the 1st is 0 and that of the 2nd is 2.
v ( x ) = 3x v ( x ) = 3x + 2

c) If the graph of v(x) is a straight line and both the

slope and y-intercept are given, there is only one possi-
bility. In this case, v(x) = –2x + 3, or an equivalent ex-
pression.

y d) The line with 0 slope and y-intercept (0,7) has equa-

tion y = 7. The slope of any horizontal line y = b, for b a
real number, is 0. This is because, for any 2 distinct
(x1,b) (x2,b)
y=b points (x1,b) and (x2,b) on the line y = b, the slope of the
line is (b – b)⁄ (x2 – x1) = 0⁄(x2 – x1) = 0 (see diagram at the left).
x
(0,0)

x=c y e) For any vertical line x = c, where c is a real number,

passing through the points (c,y1) and (c,y2 ), the slope of
the line is ( y2 – y1) ⁄ (c – c), or (y2 – y2 ) ⁄ 0 . Since division by 0 is
(c,y1) undefined (see Lesson 6 of this course), the slope of a
(c,y2) vertical line is undefined. Notice in the diagram at the
left that an equation of the form x = c, where c is a real
x
(0,0) number, does not represent a function, since there are
an infinite number of y values in the range associated
with the one value x = c in the domain.

f) Since the slope of this line is 3 ⁄ 4 , then the line must

“rise” (i.e., change upwards vertically) 3 ⁄ 4 unit for every 1
unit of “run” (i.e., left to right horizontal change). Or, in
other words, it must rise 3 units for every run of 4 units.
Hence, any line whose equation can be written in the
form y = ( 3 ⁄ 4 )x + b, where b is a real number, has slope
3⁄ 4.

g) The equation for this line is y = (–4 ⁄ 6 )x – 3. Some

students may point out this could also be written as y =
( –2 ⁄ 3 )x – 3. In fact, any fraction equivalent to –4 ⁄ 6 can be
substituted as the coefficient of x and the equation will
have the same graph as y = (–4 ⁄ 6 )x – 3.

Note also that the graph of the equation y = (–4 ⁄ 6 )x – 3 is

identical to the graph of –4x + –6y = 18. The latter equa-
tion is commonly referred to as the standard form of the
equation. In general, an equation ax + by = c, where a, b,

322 / Math Alive! Course III

Continuous Graphs Lesson 12
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

and c are integers, is in standard form. Notice the vari-

ables are on one side of the equation and the constant is
on the other. It is not as easy to “see” the slope and
intercept of the graph of a linear equation in standard
form as compared to an equation in slope-intercept
form. Note that in Math Alive! Course IV, students will
examine in more depth different forms of equations of
lines.

14␣ ␣ Give each student another sheet of coordinate grid 14␣ ␣ a) Shown below is an Algebra Piece representation,
paper. with edge pieces.

a) Ask the students to build or sketch an Algebra Piece

representation of the xth arrangement of a continuum
of arrangements for which v 1(x) = (2 – x)(3 + x). o oooo oooo oooo

b) Ask the students to predict what the graph of v1(x)

looks like. Discuss their predictions and then ask them
to draw the graph, starting with integer values for x. Ask
the students for their observations.
o oooo oooo oooo

v 1(x ) = (2 – x )(3 + x )

b) Since v1(0) = 6, the y-intercept is 6. The students may

observe that the x-intercepts are 2 and –3 since v1(x) = 0
for those values of x. If x is in the interval between the
y x-intercepts, both factors of v1(x) are positive and v1(x) is
positive (i.e., for –3 < x < 2, v1(x) > 0). Outside this
7 interval, one factor of v1(x) is positive and the other is
6 negative, so v1(x) is negative (i.e., for x < –3 and x > 2,
5 v1(x) < 0).
4

3
An alternate form for v 1(x) is –x2 – x + 6, as can be seen
2
from the Algebra Piece representation shown in Com-
ment a).
1

–4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4
x In the graph of y = v 1(x) shown at the left, every subdivi-
–1
sion of the x-axis represents 1 ⁄ 2 unit and every subdivi-
–2
sion of the y-axis represents 1 unit. The shape of the
–3 graph will vary slightly for other scalings of the axes;
–4 however, regardless of the scaling, the graph is a pa-
–5 rabola that is symmetric about the vertical line x = –1⁄ 2
–6 and opens downward.
–7

–8
Some students may find a few points on the graph and
connect these points with straight line segments. If so,
you might have them find more points on the graph to
y = v 1 ( x ) = (2 – x )(3 + x ) help show that it is rounded rather than angular.

Math Alive! Course III / 323

Lesson 12 Continuous Graphs
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

15␣ ␣ Ask the students to graph v 2(x) = x on the same 15␣ ␣ If y = x and y = (2 – x)(3 + x) are graphed on the
coordinate axes as their sketch of v 1(x) = (2 – x)(3 + x). same coordinate system, it appears that the two graphs
Have them find the exact and approximate coordinates intersect when x is about 1.7 and –3.7 (see diagram
of the points where the graphs intersect. Discuss the below). The x-coordinates of these points are the num-
students’ ideas about how these intersection points bers of the arrangements for which the 2 sequences have
relate to the sequences of arrangements represented by the same value.
the graphs, and discuss their observations, in general, y
about the graph.
7

6 y = (2 – x)(3 + x)
5

2
y=x
1

–4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4
x
–1

–2

–3

–4

–5

–6

–7

–8

The exact values of x where the 2 graphs intersect can be

found by determining when v1(x) = v2(x), i.e., when
oooo oooo oooo
(2 – x)(3 + x) = x. This is the case if the value of the
circled portion of the Algebra Piece representation for
v(x), shown at the left, is 0. If the value of the circled
collection is 0, the value of its opposite collection,
shown below, is also 0.
oooo oooo oooo

value of uncircled portion is x

value of circled portion is 0

If a red counting piece and a black counting piece are

added to the above collection, its value is unchanged.
The resulting collection can be arranged into a square
x+1 with edge (x + 1), and with 7 red counting pieces left
over, as shown at the left. Since the total collection has
value 0, the square must have value 7. Thus, x + 1 equals
√7 or –√7, so x = –1 + √7 or x = –1 – √7. Since √7 ≈ 2.65,
x+1 the two graphs intersect when x ≈ 1.65 or x ≈ –3.65.

324 / Math Alive! Course III

Continuous Graphs Lesson 12
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

16 If the following did not come up during Actions 14 16 ␣ The intent here is to informally discuss some ideas
and 15, pose them for discussion. Invite volunteers to involving inequality relationships and to continue
mark the graph to indicate points that satisfy the given making connections between graphical and Algebra
conditions. As needed, discuss symbolic ways of denot- Piece representations of sequences.
ing inequality relationships.
a) Notice, the graph of y = x is above the graph of y =
a) For what values of x, if any, is the graph of y = x (2 – x)(3 + x), when x < –1 – √7 and when x > –1 + √7. In
above the graph of y = (2 – x)(3 + x)? Relate this informa- terms of the sequence, when the arrangement number is
tion to the sequences of counting piece arrangements less than –1 – √7, or ≈ –3.65, and when the arrangement
represented by the graphs. number is greater than –1 + √7, or ≈ 1.65, then the values
of the arrangements for the sequence y = x are greater
b) For what values of x, if any, is the graph of y = x than the values of the arrangements for y = (2 – x)(3 + x).
below the graph of y = (2 – x)(3 + x)? Relate this informa- Another way of writing this is x > (2 – x)(3 + x) when
tion to the sequences represented by the graphs. x < –1 – √7 and when x > – 1 + √7.

c) For what values of x, if any, is (2 – x)(3 + x) = 0? Relate b) The graph of y = x is below the graph of y = (2 – x)(3 + x),
this information to the sequences represented by the i.e., x < (2 – x)(3 + x), when –1 – √7 < x < –1 + √7. Hence,
graphs. the values of the arrangements for y = x are less than the
values of the arrangements for y = (2 – x)(3 + x) when x
d) When x = 0, what is the value of (2 – x)(3 + x)? Relate is between ≈ –3.65 and ≈ 1.65.
to the sequences.
c) x = 2 and x = –3. These are the x intercepts of the
e) Will the graph of y = (2 – x)(3 + x) ever intersect the graph of y = (2 – x)(3 + x) and they are the numbers of
line y = x again? Why or why not? Relate to the se- the arrangements whose values are zero.
quences.
d) When x = 0, the graph of y = (2 – x)(3 + x) crosses the
y-axis. Since v(0) = (2 – 0)(3 + 0) = 6, the y–intercept is
(0,6). In terms of the sequence of arrangements for
whose values are v(x) = (2 – x)(3 + x), 6 is the value of
the 0th arrangement.

e) Since the value of y = (2 – x)(3 + x) decreases for

x > –1 + √7 and the value of y = x increases over that
interval, it is not possible they will ever intersect again
for any x > –1 + √7. Further, since y = (2 – x)(3 + x) de-
creases at a faster rate than y = x for all x < –1 – √7, it is
not possible that they intersect for any x < –1 – √7. In
terms of the sequences, the only arrangement numbers
for which the sequences have the same value are ≈ –3.65
and ≈ 1.65.

17␣ ␣ Give each group a copy of coordinate grid paper 17␣ ␣ You may find it helpful to have the students com-
and a copy of Focus Master C (see next page) and ask plete and discuss each problem before proceeding to the
them to carry out the instructions. Discuss their results next.␣
and their ideas about the usefulness of graphing as a
tool for solving equations and inequalities. a) b) In the graph shown below, both the x- and y-axes
are scaled so that 1 subdivision is 1 unit.

(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 325

Lesson 12 Continuous Graphs
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

17 (continued.)
Continuous Graphs Lesson 12
y
Focus Master C

a) Suppose that the value of the x th arrangement of a certain con- 6

1
tinuous sequence of arrangements is, v 1(x ) = 2 x 2 – x – 8. Graph
v 1 and determine the value of x if v 1(x ) = 4; if v 1(x ) = –2.5. 5

b) Suppose the x th arrangement of a 2nd continuous sequence 4

has value v 2(x ) = 4, and a 3rd has value v 3(x ) = –2.5. Sketch the
graphs of v2 and v3 on the same coordinate axes as v 1. 3

2
y = v 2( x ) = 4
c) Circle and label the coordinates of the points where v 2 and v 3
intersect v 1. Explain how these points relate to the sequences of 1
arrangements represented by the graphs.
1
d) Find all the values of x for which 2 x 2 – x – 8 > 4. Explain the –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
x
relationship between these values and the sequences of arrange- –1
ments for v 1 and v 2.
–2
1
e) Find all the values of x for which 2 x 2 – x – 8 < –2.5. Relate these
–3
values to the sequences of arrangements for v 1 and v 3.

f) Draw a box around and label the coordinates of all x-intercepts

–4 y = v 3( x ) = –2.5
of the graphs of v1, v2, and v3. Relate your results to the sequences –5
of arrangements.
–6
g) Label the coordinates of the y-intercepts, if any, of the graphs
of v 1, v 2, and v 3 and place a black dot at each y-intercept. Relate –7
these points to the sequences of arrangements.
–8 y = v 1( x ) = 1⁄ 2x 2 – x – 8
h) Place a V where you think v 1 stops decreasing and begins to
–9
increase. Explain how this turning point relates to the sequence
of arrangements for v 1. –10

i) Challenge: give the coordinates of the turning point of v 1.

Explain your methods.

c) If the students have drawn their graphs carefully, they

can determine from them that v1(x) = v2(x) when x is –4
or 6. This conclusion can also be reached by using Alge-
bra Pieces, as illustrated at the left. Because of the ( 1⁄ 2 )x2
in the expression for v1(x), it is easier to work with
oooo

oooo

1 2v 1(x). Thus, to determine when v1(x) is 4, one can

oooo
determine when 2v1(x) is 8, that is, when x2 – 2x – 16 =
8. This will be the case if x 2 – 2x = 24 or, adding one
24 black unit to complete the square, if (x – 1)2 = 25 (see
diagram to the left). Thus, x – 1 = 5 or x – 1 = –5. If x – 1
= 5, then x = 6; if x – 1 = –5, then x = –4.
oooo

When v1(x) = v3(x), it appears from the graph that x is

x 2 – 2x = 24 somewhere near 4.5 or –2.5. More precise values can be
So, x – 2x + 1 = (x – 1)2 = 25
2
found by using Algebra Piece methods to find when
2v 1 (x) = –5. In this case, x 2 – 2x = 16 – 5 = 11, and so
x2 – 2x + 1 = 12. Hence, the square shown in the dia-
gram to the left has value 12. Therefore, x – 1 has value
√12 or – √12. Thus, x = √12 + 1 or – √12 + 1. Using a
calculator, one finds √12 + 1 ≈ 4.46 and –√12 + 1 ≈ –2.46.

326 / Math Alive! Course III

Continuous Graphs Lesson 12
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

18␣ ␣ Give each student 2 sheets of coordinate grid paper 18␣ ␣ This activity could be completed in class or as home-
and a copy of Focus Master D. Ask the students to carry work. You might encourage students to verify their results
out the instructions. Discuss their results and observa- by using more than one strategy for answering c) and d).
tions about the use of graphs, Algebra Pieces, and alge- That is, students could use graphs, Algebra Pieces, or
bra symbols for solving equations. symbolic representations of Algebra Piece actions.

Lesson 12 Continuous Graphs Pair 1:

Focus Master D
c) v1(x) = v2(x) for x = –101 ⁄ 2 .

Each equation listed below describes the value of the x th arrange- d) v1(x): x-intercept, –21 ⁄ 2; y-intercept, 7.
ment of a continuous sequence of arrangements. For each pair of
equations, complete a)-e). Record your responses to b)-e) next to
v2(x): x-intercepts, all real numbers; y-intercept, 0.
each graph.

Pair 1: v1(x) = 23 x + 7 e) v1(x) < v2(x) for x < –101 ⁄ 2; v1(x) > v2(x) for x > –101 ⁄ 2 .
v2(x) = 0

Pair 2: v1(x) = 3x 2 – 9 Pair 2:

v2(x) = 0 c) v1(x) = v2(x) for x = √3 and x = –√3.
Pair 3: v1(x) = 12 x 2 + 3x – 27
2
v2(x) = –4x – 3
d) v1(x): x intercepts, √3 and –√3; y-intercept, –9.
Pair 4: v1(x) = (x – 4)(x – 2) v2(x): x-intercepts, all real numbers; y-intercept, 0.
v2(x) = –x 2 + 6x – 8

a) Graph the pair on the same coordinate axes. Pair 3:

b) Sketch the x th arrangement of each sequence. c) v1(x) = v2(x) for x = –7 + √70 and x = –7 – √70.
c) Find the value(s) of x, if any, for which v1(x) = v2(x). Explain
your methods and tell how you checked to be sure you are cor- d) v1(x): x-intercepts, 3 and –9; y-intercept, –131 ⁄ 2 .
rect. Are the values exact or approximate?
v2(x): x-intercept, –3 ⁄ 4; y-intercept, –3.
d) Find the x-intercepts and y-intercepts, if any, of v1 and v2. Ex-
plain your methods and tell how you checked to be sure you are
correct. Are your answers exact or approximate? Pair 4:
e) Write two inequality statements that describe relationships be-
c) v1(x) = v2(x) for x = 4 and x = 2.
tween the two graphs.

f) List your observations or conjectures. d) v1(x): x-intercepts, 2 and 4; y-intercept, 8.

v2(x): x-intercepts, 2 and 4; y-intercept, –8.

19␣ ␣ Write the equation shown below on the overhead: 19␣ ␣ The 2-part equation given in this action could be
replaced by v(x) = |x|, where |x| is read “absolute value of
x, for nonnegative x x.” For example, if x = 7, v(x) = |7| = 7. If x = –10, then
v (x ) = v(x) = |–10| = –(–10) = 10. The notation |x| is a shorthand
–x, for negative x way of writing the given 2-part statement. To build
comfort with the absolute value notation, you might ask
Ask the students to sketch the –3rd through 3rd and the the students to identify the coordinates of the points
–21 ⁄ 2th, 31 ⁄ 4 th, –11 ⁄ 3 rd, and 1 ⁄ 5 th arrangements, assuming associated with the following values of x: 6, 9, –100,
v(x) is the value of the xth arrangement of a continuum 171 ⁄ 2, 0, –2001⁄ 3 . Here is a table of values showing the
of arrangements. Then give each student a sheet of absolute value of the preceding numbers:
coordinate grid paper and ask them to graph v(x). Dis-
cuss their observations about the graph and introduce n v ( n ) = | n|
the term absolute value and the notation |x|. 6 |6| = 6
9 |9| = 9
–100 |–100| = –(–100) = 100
17 21 |17 21 | = 17 21
0 |0| = 0
–200 31 |–200 31 | = –(–200 31 ) = 200 31

Math Alive! Course III / 327

Lesson 12 Continuous Graphs
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

20␣ ␣ Give each group 2 sheets of coordinate grid paper 20␣ ␣ This could also be assigned as homework. If so,
and a copy of Focus Master E and ask them to complete each student will need a copy. To reduce sharing time at
a) and b) for Situation 1. Invite volunteers to share their the overhead, as you circulate you can provide groups
results at the overhead. Discuss the students’ ideas about with blank transparencies and overhead pens for record-
whether the graph is continuous, whether it represents a ing their results before coming to the overhead.
function, and what are the domain and range. Repeat
for Situations 2-4. Situation 1: This can be represented by the graph of y =
3x, for x ≥ 0 (points associated with values of x < 0 make
no sense in this context).
Continuous Graphs Lesson 12
Focus Master E
Situation 2: The amount that Erica receives on each
birthday depends on her age in years. Since she only
For each of the following situations, make (and label carefully) the
indicated graph, and next to each graph write the following: receives a birthday gift on her birthday and not on the
days in between, this graph is a set of discrete points
a) a mathematical formula that represents the relationships in
the situation, whose domain is the positive integers and the path of
the points follows the path of the line y = 25 + 1.5x,
b) 2 mathematical conclusions that are based on information
that you can “see” in your graph. where x is her age in years and y is the amount she
receives.
Situation 1 Jonathan earns $3 per hour baby-sitting. Make a
graph that shows the amount Jonathan earns as related to the
number of hours he works. Situation 3: The situation can be represented by the
following graph:
Situation 2 Erica’s grandfather gives her $25 each year on her y
birthday. In addition, he gives her $1.50 for every year of her age.
Make a graph that shows the amount of the birthday gift Erica re- 45
ceives from her grandfather as related to her age on her birthday.
40
y = 10 + 5 x
35
Situation 3 The students in Ms. Cooper’s math class are raising
money for a field trip. The Whatsit Production Company has 30
Donation

agreed to donate $5 for every hour a student works on roadside 25

cleanup, plus an additional $10 if the student works more than 5
hours. Make a graph of the amount donated as related to the 20
number of hours 1 student works. 15
y = 5x
10
Situation 4 When an object is dropped from an initial height of h0 5
feet above the ground, it falls at a rate of 16 feet per second
squared (Galileo observed this in 1604). Linden dropped a marble x
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Hours
(Continued on back.)
The graph for x ≤ 5 is v(x) = 5x, and the graph for x > 5 is
v(x) = 10 + 5x. You may need to point out the use of
closed and open circles such as the ones shown above to
indicate that (5,25) is included in the lower portion of
the graph and the point (5,35) is not included in the
upper portion of the graph (but all points whose x-
coordinates are greater than 5 are included).

Notice that the relation:

5x, for 0 ≤ x ≤ 5
v (x ) =
10 + 5x, for x > 5

is a function with domain the real numbers greater than

or equal to 0. The range is the set of all real numbers y
such that 0 ≤ y ≤ 25 or y > 35. Notice the graph is discon-
tinuous, i.e., when tracing the graph from left to right

328 / Math Alive! Course III

Continuous Graphs Lesson 12
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

with a pencil, it is necessary to pick up the pencil at the

Lesson 12 Continuous Graphs
Focus Master E (cont.)
point (5,25).

Situation 4: Students may need clarification that 16 feet

from the top of a 60-foot building into a pond at the base of the
building. At the same time, Joel, who was standing next to Lin- per second squared does not mean the 16 is squared, but
den, dropped a brick. Make a graph that shows the height of the rather that the time in seconds is squared. The following
marble as related to the number of seconds after it is dropped. Do
the same for the brick. graph shows the height of the marble and brick as
compared to the number of seconds after dropping
Situation 5 Katie and Malia designed the following game: them. Students may be surprised that the brick and
• The game board contains a number line. Both players start with
marble will land at the same time, assuming there is no
a game marker at the origin of the number line (this is their first wind and the objects are dropped (not thrown or re-
board position).
leased with any initial “force”).
• Katie rolls a pair of standard dice (1 red die and 1 black) to de-
termine where to move her marker. The number showing on y
the black die tells the number of spaces to move her game
marker in the positive direction on the number line. The number 60

showing on the red die tells the number of spaces to move the 55
game marker in the negative direction.
50

• The number of points Katie earns is equal to the distance be- 45

tween the origin and her game marker after completing the y = 60 – 16 x 2

Height in feet
moves indicated by the dice. 40

35
• Next Malia repeats the above procedures. Play continues until a
player earns 25 points. 30

25
Graph all the possible ordered pairs (x,y ) where x is a possible lo-
cation of a player’s marker after the first round of play and y is 20

the number of points earned by landing in that position. 15

10

x
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Time in seconds

Depending on the scaling that students use, they may

think the graph looks like a straight line; however, the
height, y, of an object at the end of each amount x of
time is determined by y = 60 – 16x 2, a quadratic whose
graph is a parabola. The part of the parabola that relates
to this situation is in the first quadrant.

If it doesn’t come up, you might ask the students to

determine the number of seconds it takes for the marble
or the brick to hit the ground. This requires finding the
x-intercept, i.e., the value of x when 60 – 16x2 = 0. This
equation is true when x2 = 60⁄ 16, i.e., when x = 60 16 ≈
Points y 1.94 seconds. (Note: the negative solution,
x = – 60 16 , makes no sense in this context.)
5

4 Situation 5. Students may need to be reminded that

3 distance is always a positive amount. Hence, if the
2 marker lands on a negative number on the number line,
1
the distance from the marker to the origin is the abso-
lute value of the negative number. An equation for this
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
x graph is y = |x|, for x an integer between –5 and 5. The
First round marker positions graph (see illustration at the left) is discontinuous,

(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 329

Lesson 12 Continuous Graphs
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

20 (continued.)
but rather a set of discrete points. (Absolute value is
explored again in Lesson 14.)

Notice that the most points a player can earn on a single

roll of the dice is 5 and the fewest is 0. The minimum
number of rolls to win the game is 5, by earning 5
points on each roll.

21␣ ␣ Give each student a copy of Focus Student Activity 21␣ ␣ We recommend that students complete Follow-up
12.4 and explain your expectations regarding this activity. Student Activity 12.5 prior to receiving Focus Student
Activity 12.4.

Continuous Graphs Lesson 12 If students have their own graphing calculators or, if
Focus Student Activity 12.4 they can check out calculators for use at home, you
could ask that work on Focus Student Activity 12.4 be
NAME DATE
completed outside of class. Then, throughout Lesson 13
Although you will have many opportunities during this course to
become familiar with your graphing calculator, it will be helpful if
you could devote brief periods to discussion of students’
you are comfortable with the functions listed below as soon as pos-
sible. Please investigate each function on your calculator and, if
questions and discoveries about procedures for using the
needed, in your calculator manual. A way to test yourself to see if calculator (notice graphing calculators are not used until
you can comfortably use and recall a calculator function is to dem-
onstrate its use to someone else (a family member, a classmate, a Lesson 14). If students do not have access to calculators
neighbor, etc.). Try to check off all functions in Part 1 below by the
following date _________________. at home, then you will need to set aside a class period or
1␣ ␣ I am comfortable using the following calculator functions: two for experimentation with the calculators. You might
____ ON/OFF have manuals available for reference during class.
____ CLEAR the screen
____ show blank coordinate axes in the calculator viewing screen
____ move the cursor around a blank coordinate axes
____ change the viewing WINDOW size
The purpose of Focus Student Activity 12.4 is to encour-
____
____
FORMAT the axes
determine the “standard” WINDOW size on my calculator
age experimentation by students, so they can gain
(on many it is –10 ≤ x ≤ 10 and –10 ≤ y ≤ 10) familiarity with the capabilities of the graphing calcula-
____ enter an equation y =
____
____
GRAPH an equation y =
TRACE a graph (What shows on the screen when you do this?)
tor without requiring extensive class time. Using this
____ ZOOM in on a graph approach, when the calculator is required in Lesson 14,
____ ZOOM in again—and again
____ ZOOM out on a graph students will already be familiar with many of its capa-
____ ZOOM back to the standard window
____ TRACE the graph of a function to determine the approximate bilities.
value of the function at x = 0, x = 19.75, and x = –37.5
____ TRACE the graph of a function to determine the value of x
when y = 75, when y = –75
____ GRAPH 2 equations on the same coordinate axes. We encourage our students to purchase their own graph-
____ TRACE to approximate the intersection of 2 graphs
____ ZOOM and TRACE to improve your approximation ing calculators. Students who cannot purchase a calcula-
____ DRAW a horizontal line on coordinate axes and slide the line
up and down tor may check one out for use in and out of class. They
____ DRAW a vertical line on coordinate axes and slide the line left
and right
are charged for replacement if the calculator is damaged
(Continued on back.)
or lost. We recommend that our students all use the TI-
83, because that is what is recommended by the high
school they enter and because of its range of capabilities.
However, if someone has another brand/model at home,
that is fine. The critical graphing functions are common
to most brands and models, although procedures for
using them may vary.

330 / Math Alive! Course III

Continuous Graphs Lesson 12
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

Lesson 12 Continuous Graphs

Focus Student Activity 12.4 (cont.)

____ view a TABLE of x- and y-coordinates of an equation

____ view a table of coordinates of 2 equations listed simulta-
neously
____ use a table to find when 0 = 5x + 1
____ clear MEMory
____ reset defaults in MEMory
____ solve equations using the “solver” function from the MATH
menu
____ use the “maximum” and minimum” functions from the
CALC menu to find the turning point of a parabola
____ use the “intersect” function from the CALC menu to find the
intersection of 2 graphs
____ use the “zero” function from the CALC menu to find the x-
intercepts of a graph
____ use the “value” function from the CALC menu to find v(x) for
specific values of x
____ set the graphing style to shade the region above a graph; the
region below a graph

2␣ ␣ Here are some other graphing calculator functions that I can use:

3␣ ␣ Here are some other functions I have tried but don’t understand.

Math Alive! Course III / 331

Lesson 12 Continuous Graphs

TEACHER NOTES:

332 / Math Alive! Course III

Continuous Graphs Lesson 12

Follow-up Student Activity 12.5

NAME DATE

1␣ ␣ Using the given xth arrangement from a continuous sequence of

arrangements, find the missing values in each table below. Explain
how you determine the 3rd missing value in each table.

a) x v (x ) b) x v (x )
___ 17 55 ___
x –31 ⁄ 2 ___ ___ –230
x ___ 200 –x ___ –121
31 901 ⁄ 2 ___ 178
x x ___ –x x ___

2␣ ␣ For each of a)-d) below, sketch the graph of a straight line that
satisfies the given conditions. Write an equation for the line.

a) slope of 3 and y-intercept of –2

b) passes through points (–2,–9) and (3,11)

c) passes through (2,1) and x-intercept is 3

d) slope is 0 and passes through (–3,–7)

3␣ ␣ Equations a) and b) below each represent the value of the xth

arrangement of a continuous sequence of arrangements. Graph a)
and b). Label the coordinates of the points for all x-intercepts and y-
intercepts and the “turning points” of the graphs.

a) v(x) = (x + 4)(x – 3) b) v(x) = (2 – x)(5 + x)

4␣ ␣ For each pair of equations given below: i) sketch the graphs of

v1(x) and v2(x) on the same coordinate axes; ii) find a close approxi-
mation of the coordinates of the points where the graphs intersect;
and iii) show the methods you use to approximate the intersection
points.

a) v1(x) = –x ⁄ 2 + 8 v2(x) = 3x – 5

b) v1(x) = (x + 4)(x – 3) v2(x) = –x + 3

c) v1(x) = x2 – x – 12 v2(x) = –x2 + x

(Continued on back.)
Math Alive! Course III / 333
Lesson 12 Continuous Graphs
Follow-up Student Activity (cont.)

5␣ ␣ For each pair of graphs in Problem 4 write an inequality state-

ment that tells when these conditions are satisfied:

i) The graph of v1(x) is above the graph of v2(x);

ii) The graph of v1(x) is below the graph of v2(x).

6␣ ␣ Sketch the xth arrangement of a sequence of arrangements for

which v(x) = x 2 + 6x – 7. Arrange the pieces to illustrate the factored
form of the quadratic expression x 2 + 6x – 7. Then sketch the graph
of v(x) and do the following, if possible:

a) Label the x-intercepts and y-intercepts of v(x).

b) Determine the value of x if v(x) = 141⁄ 4.

c) Find all values of x for which v(x) < 9.

d) Find all values of x for which v(x) > 9.

e) Place an M where you think v(x) stops decreasing and starts in-
creasing.

f) Explain how each of your answers for a)-e) relates to the se-
quence of arrangements for which v(x) = x2 + 6x – 7.

7␣ ␣ For each of the following: i) graph the situation; ii) write 2

thoughtful mathematical questions whose answers can be deter-
mined from the graphs; iii) write the answers to your questions.

a) Maria can burn 4 calories per minute by using a treadmill. Sketch

a graph that shows the amount of calories burned as related to the
number of minutes she works out on the treadmill.

b) Bob’s neighbor agreed to pay Bob $8 for adjusting his lawn

mower plus $2 for every hour it runs without breaking down. Make
a graph of the amount of money Bob will receive as related to the
number of hours the lawn mower runs.

c) A seagull flying 80 feet above the ground drops a clam shell. The
height of the shell can be represented by the equation v(x) = 80 – 16x2,
where x is the number of seconds since the seagull dropped the
shell. Sketch a graph that shows the height as related to the number
of seconds after release.

334 / Math Alive! Course III

Continuous Graphs Lesson 12

Connector Student Activity 12.1

NAME DATE

The 1st column of each table below lists, in order, the arrangement
numbers of a sequence of counting piece arrangements, and the 2nd
column lists the values of the arrangements. For each sequence:

a) Sketch 4 consecutive arrangements. Label the number and value of

each arrangement.

b) Sketch the nth arrangement of the sequence.

c) On a coordinate grid, plot ordered pairs that represent several ar-

rangements.

d) Fill in the blanks in the table.

e) Write a concise mathematical description of the set of all arrange-

ment numbers in the sequence. Then describe mathematically the set
of all numbers that are the values of the arrangements.
1 n v (n ) 2 n v (n )
1 4
…

2 9 –3 18
3 14 –2 8
4 19 –1 2
5 24 0 0
1 2
…

13 __ 2 8
14 __
…

__ 450
…

__ 154
…

43 __
…

n v (n ) = ______
…

n v (n ) = ______
…

3 n v (n ) 4 n v (n )
–1 1 1 3
–2 2 2 –4
–3 3 3 9
–4 4 4 –8
5 15
…

n v (n ) = ______ 6 –12
…

…
…

n v (n ) = ______
…

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 12 Continuous Graphs

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Continuous Graphs Lesson 12
Focus Master A

22
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
x
–8 –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
–2
–4
–6
–8
–10
–12
–14
–16
–18
–20
–22

v (x ) = ____________________
Sketch the x th arrangement:

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 12 Continuous Graphs
Focus Master B

10

8 increase of 4

6 1

4 increase of 4
y - intercept
2 1

1 slope
–2 –1 2
–2

x - intercept

y = 4x + 2

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Continuous Graphs Lesson 12
Focus Master C

a) Suppose that the value of the x th arrangement of a certain con-

1
tinuous sequence of arrangements is, v 1(x ) = 2 x 2 – x – 8. Graph
v 1 and determine the value of x if v 1(x ) = 4; if v 1(x ) = –2.5.

b) Suppose the x th arrangement of a 2nd continuous sequence

has value v 2(x ) = 4, and a 3rd has value v 3(x ) = –2.5. Sketch the
graphs of v2 and v3 on the same coordinate axes as v 1.

c) Circle and label the coordinates of the points where v 2 and v 3

intersect v 1. Explain how these points relate to the sequences of
arrangements represented by the graphs.
1
d) Find all the values of x for which 2 x 2 – x – 8 > 4. Explain the
relationship between these values and the sequences of arrange-
ments for v 1 and v 2.
1
e) Find all the values of x for which 2 x 2 – x – 8 < –2.5. Relate these
values to the sequences of arrangements for v 1 and v 3.

f) Draw a box around and label the coordinates of all x-intercepts

of the graphs of v1, v2, and v3. Relate your results to the sequences
of arrangements.

g) Label the coordinates of the y-intercepts, if any, of the graphs

of v 1, v 2, and v 3 and place a black dot at each y-intercept. Relate
these points to the sequences of arrangements.

h) Place a V where you think v 1 stops decreasing and begins to

increase. Explain how this turning point relates to the sequence
of arrangements for v 1.

i) Challenge: give the coordinates of the turning point of v 1.

Explain your methods.

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 12 Continuous Graphs
Focus Master D

Each equation listed below describes the value of the x th arrange-

ment of a continuous sequence of arrangements. For each pair of
equations, complete a)-e). Record your responses to b)-e) next to
each graph.

Pair 1: v1(x) = 23 x + 7
v2(x) = 0

Pair 2: v1(x) = 3x 2 – 9
v2(x) = 0

Pair 3: v1(x) = 12 x 2 + 3x – 27
2
v2(x) = –4x – 3

Pair 4: v1(x) = (x – 4)(x – 2)

v2(x) = –x 2 + 6x – 8

a) Graph the pair on the same coordinate axes.

b) Sketch the x th arrangement of each sequence.

c) Find the value(s) of x, if any, for which v1(x) = v2(x). Explain

your methods and tell how you checked to be sure you are cor-
rect. Are the values exact or approximate?

d) Find the x-intercepts and y-intercepts, if any, of v1 and v2. Ex-

plain your methods and tell how you checked to be sure you are
correct. Are your answers exact or approximate?

e) Write two inequality statements that describe relationships be-

tween the two graphs.

f) List your observations or conjectures.

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Continuous Graphs Lesson 12
Focus Master E

For each of the following situations, make (and label carefully) the
indicated graph, and next to each graph write the following:

a) a mathematical formula that represents the relationships in

the situation,

b) 2 mathematical conclusions that are based on information

that you can “see” in your graph.

Situation 1 Jonathan earns $3 per hour baby-sitting. Make a

graph that shows the amount Jonathan earns as related to the
number of hours he works.

Situation 2 Erica’s grandfather gives her $25 each year on her

birthday. In addition, he gives her $1.50 for every year of her age.
Make a graph that shows the amount of the birthday gift Erica re-
ceives from her grandfather as related to her age on her birthday.

Situation 3 The students in Ms. Cooper’s math class are raising

money for a field trip. The Whatsit Production Company has
agreed to donate $5 for every hour a student works on roadside
cleanup, plus an additional $10 if the student works more than 5
hours. Make a graph of the amount donated as related to the
number of hours 1 student works.

Situation 4 When an object is dropped from an initial height of h0

feet above the ground, it falls at a rate of 16 feet per second
squared (Galileo observed this in 1604). Linden dropped a marble

(Continued on back.)
© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 12 Continuous Graphs
Focus Master E (cont.)

from the top of a 60-foot building into a pond at the base of the
building. At the same time, Joel, who was standing next to Lin-
den, dropped a brick. Make a graph that shows the height of the
marble as related to the number of seconds after it is dropped. Do
the same for the brick.

Situation 5 Katie and Malia designed the following game:

• The game board contains a number line. Both players start with
a game marker at the origin of the number line (this is their first
board position).

• Katie rolls a pair of standard dice (1 red die and 1 black) to de-
termine where to move her marker. The number showing on
the black die tells the number of spaces to move her game
marker in the positive direction on the number line. The number
showing on the red die tells the number of spaces to move the
game marker in the negative direction.

• The number of points Katie earns is equal to the distance be-

tween the origin and her game marker after completing the
moves indicated by the dice.

• Next Malia repeats the above procedures. Play continues until a

player earns 25 points.

Graph all the possible ordered pairs (x,y ) where x is a possible lo-
cation of a player’s marker after the first round of play and y is
the number of points earned by landing in that position.

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Continuous Graphs Lesson 12

Focus Student Activity 12.2

NAME DATE

B C D

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 12 Continuous Graphs

Focus Student Activity 12.3

NAME DATE

v (n )

11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
n
–8 –7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
–1
–2
–3
–4
–5
–6
–7
–8
–9
–10
–11

v (n ) = __________
Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Continuous Graphs Lesson 12

Focus Student Activity 12.4

NAME DATE

Although you will have many opportunities during this course to

become familiar with your graphing calculator, it will be helpful if
you are comfortable with the functions listed below as soon as pos-
sible. Please investigate each function on your calculator and, if
needed, in your calculator manual. A way to test yourself to see if
you can comfortably use and recall a calculator function is to dem-
onstrate its use to someone else (a family member, a classmate, a
neighbor, etc.). Try to check off all functions in Part 1 below by the
following date _________________.

1␣ ␣ I am comfortable using the following calculator functions:

____ ON/OFF
____ CLEAR the screen
____ show blank coordinate axes in the calculator viewing screen
____ move the cursor around a blank coordinate axes
____ change the viewing WINDOW size
____ FORMAT the axes
____ determine the “standard” WINDOW size on my calculator
(on many it is –10 ≤ x ≤ 10 and –10 ≤ y ≤ 10)
____ enter an equation y =
____ GRAPH an equation y =
____ TRACE a graph (What shows on the screen when you do this?)
____ ZOOM in on a graph
____ ZOOM in again—and again
____ ZOOM out on a graph
____ ZOOM back to the standard window
____ TRACE the graph of a function to determine the approximate
value of the function at x = 0, x = 19.75, and x = –37.5
____ TRACE the graph of a function to determine the value of x
when y = 75, when y = –75
____ GRAPH 2 equations on the same coordinate axes.
____ TRACE to approximate the intersection of 2 graphs
____ ZOOM and TRACE to improve your approximation
____ DRAW a horizontal line on coordinate axes and slide the line
up and down
____ DRAW a vertical line on coordinate axes and slide the line left
and right

(Continued on back.)

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 12 Continuous Graphs
Focus Student Activity 12.4 (cont.)

____ view a TABLE of x- and y-coordinates of an equation

____ view a table of coordinates of 2 equations listed simulta-
neously
____ use a table to find when 0 = 5x + 1
____ clear MEMory
____ reset defaults in MEMory
____ solve equations using the “solver” function from the MATH
menu
____ use the “maximum” and minimum” functions from the
CALC menu to find the turning point of a parabola
____ use the “intersect” function from the CALC menu to find the
intersection of 2 graphs
____ use the “zero” function from the CALC menu to find the x-
intercepts of a graph
____ use the “value” function from the CALC menu to find v(x) for
specific values of x
____ set the graphing style to shade the region above a graph; the
region below a graph

2␣ ␣ Here are some other graphing calculator functions that I can use:

3␣ ␣ Here are some other functions I have tried but don’t understand.

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Continuous Graphs Lesson 12

Follow-up Student Activity 12.5

NAME DATE

1␣ ␣ Using the given xth arrangement from a continuous sequence of

arrangements, find the missing values in each table below. Explain
how you determine the 3rd missing value in each table.

a) x v (x ) b) x v (x )
___ 17 55 ___
x –31 ⁄ 2 ___ ___ –230
x ___ 200 –x ___ –121
31 901 ⁄ 2 ___ 178
x x ___ –x x ___

2␣ ␣ For each of a)-d) below, sketch the graph of a straight line that
satisfies the given conditions. Write an equation for the line.

a) slope of 3 and y-intercept of –2

b) passes through points (–2,–9) and (3,11)

c) passes through (2,1) and x-intercept is 3

d) slope is 0 and passes through (–3,–7)

3␣ ␣ Equations a) and b) below each represent the value of the xth

arrangement of a continuous sequence of arrangements. Graph a)
and b). Label the coordinates of the points for all x-intercepts and y-
intercepts and the “turning points” of the graphs.

a) v(x) = (x + 4)(x – 3) b) v(x) = (2 – x)(5 + x)

4␣ ␣ For each pair of equations given below: i) sketch the graphs of

v1(x) and v2(x) on the same coordinate axes; ii) find a close approxi-
mation of the coordinates of the points where the graphs intersect;
and iii) show the methods you use to approximate the intersection
points.

a) v1(x) = –x ⁄ 2 + 8 v2(x) = 3x – 5

b) v1(x) = (x + 4)(x – 3) v2(x) = –x + 3

c) v1(x) = x2 – x – 12 v2(x) = –x2 + x

(Continued on back.)

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 12 Continuous Graphs
Follow-up Student Activity (cont.)

5␣ ␣ For each pair of graphs in Problem 4 write an inequality state-

ment that tells when these conditions are satisfied:

i) The graph of v1(x) is above the graph of v2(x);

ii) The graph of v1(x) is below the graph of v2(x).

6␣ ␣ Sketch the xth arrangement of a sequence of arrangements for

which v(x) = x 2 + 6x – 7. Arrange the pieces to illustrate the factored
form of the quadratic expression x 2 + 6x – 7. Then sketch the graph
of v(x) and do the following, if possible:

a) Label the x-intercepts and y-intercepts of v(x).

b) Determine the value of x if v(x) = 141⁄ 4.

c) Find all values of x for which v(x) < 9.

d) Find all values of x for which v(x) > 9.

e) Place an M where you think v(x) stops decreasing and starts in-
creasing.

f) Explain how each of your answers for a)-e) relates to the se-
quence of arrangements for which v(x) = x2 + 6x – 7.

7␣ ␣ For each of the following: i) graph the situation; ii) write 2

thoughtful mathematical questions whose answers can be deter-
mined from the graphs; iii) write the answers to your questions.

a) Maria can burn 4 calories per minute by using a treadmill. Sketch

a graph that shows the amount of calories burned as related to the
number of minutes she works out on the treadmill.

b) Bob’s neighbor agreed to pay Bob $8 for adjusting his lawn

mower plus $2 for every hour it runs without breaking down. Make
a graph of the amount of money Bob will receive as related to the
number of hours the lawn mower runs.

c) A seagull flying 80 feet above the ground drops a clam shell. The
height of the shell can be represented by the equation v(x) = 80 – 16x2,
where x is the number of seconds since the seagull dropped the
shell. Sketch a graph that shows the height as related to the number
of seconds after release.

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Modeling Situations
Modeling Situations Lesson 13 Lesson 13

.
.
.
.
THE BIG IDEA .. CONNECTOR
.
. OVERVIEW MATERIALS FOR TEACHER ACTIVITY
The use of diagrams .
.
. Students investigate ✔ Connector Master A,
and sketches and con- .
. L-shapes and use those 1 transparency.
.
crete models to repre- . shapes as a basis for gener- ✔ Miscellaneous materials
.
alizing about squares and
sent the mathematical .. (e.g., scissors, grid pa-
. their differences. per, Algebra Pieces,
relationships in a situa- .. geoboards or geoboard
.
tion is a powerful prob- .. paper, and tile), available
. for each pair of students.
.
lem-solving strategy .
.
.
that fosters insights .
.
about the concept of a ..
FOCUS
.
variable, reinforces the .. OVERVIEW MATERIALS FOR TEACHER ACTIVITY
. Students use sketches and ✔ Focus Masters A, D, and
notion that symbols are ..
. diagrams to model the E, 1 transparency of
. mathematical relationships each.
representations of .
. in various everyday and
“real” relationships and .. ✔ Focus Masters B, C, and
. mathematical situations. F, 1 copy of each per pair
. Students reason from the
actions, and provides . of students and 1 trans-
. sketches to solve “puzzle
. parency of each.
important conceptual .
. problems” involving the
. situations, and in some
links between algebra .
. cases, invent symbolic
.
and geometry. .
. ways of representing their
. reasoning and methods.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
. FOLLOW-UP
.
.
. OVERVIEW MATERIALS FOR STUDENT ACTIVITY
.
. Students investigate and ✔ Student Activity 13.1,
.
. report their findings about 1 copy per student.
.
. rectangles that can be dis-
.
. sected into congruent stair-
.
. cases. They use diagrams
.
. and sketches to represent
.
. and solve a variety of puzzle
.
. problems.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

Math Alive! Course III / 335

Lesson 13 Modeling Situations

LESSON IDEAS
.
ASSESSMENT ent staircases in more than . QUOTE
.
Problem 1 from the Follow- one way, and if so, which . Different representations
.
up could be used as a stu- rectangles and in how . of problems serve as dif-
.
dent portfolio entry. If used many ways? Can all “odd . ferent lenses through
.
for this purpose, you might by even” rectangles be cut . which students interpret
.
provide (or have students into 2 congruent staircases? . the problems and the so-
.
create) an expanded assess- What numbers can be writ- . lutions. If students are to
.
ment guide (see Starting ten as the sum of consecu- . become mathematically
.
Points). tive integers and how does . powerful, they must be
.
The following questions this relate to the problem? . flexible enough to ap-
.
may be useful for encourag- What happens if the steps . proach situations in a vari-
.
ing detailed responses to are 2 or more grid squares . ety of ways and recognize
.
Problem 1: Can some rect- high and wide? Etc. . the relationships among
.
angles be cut into 2 congru- . different points of view.
.
. NCTM Standards

SELECTED ANSWERS

1. The sides of the rectangle must both d) 2 and 9

be greater than 1; the length of 1 e) 12 feet by 15 feet
n+1
dimension must be an odd number
and the other an even number, e.g., f) Two copies of Kay’s staircase 990
see 3 × 6 rectangle at the right. See have 1980 tile. 44 × 45 = 1980, n
Lesson Ideas above for questions to so n = 44. 990
prompt other ideas.
18
g) 5
2-3. a) Inner Square X has sides of length s. h) 69, 71, and 73
s+6 i) 10 + 10√2
3 9 3s 9 4(9) + 4(3s) = 63 j) 120
36 + 12s = 63 k) The pure acid in Region C is used to level off the acid
s 3s 3s s + 6 12s = 27 in Regions A and B at a height x.
1
s = 2 __
4
3 9 3s 9
C
So, perimeter of Square X is 9.
A B
100%
b) Average speeds are 40 and 60 miles per hour. x%
40% 50%
x x
c) 30 50
x x2 30x x2 30x 20x 40cc 70cc 50cc
20x

20 30 × 20 = 600 600
A+B= C
So, x2 + 50x = 600 40(x – .40) + 70(x – .50) = 50(1.00 – x)
1200 40x – 16 + 70x – 35 = 50 – 50x
x2 + 30x + 20x + 600 = 1200 160x = 101
x x ≈ .63
25 So, a 63% acid solution results.
x x2 25x Thus, x2 + 50x + 625 = 600 + 625
or, (x + 25)2 = 1225
So, x + 25 = 1225 l) 50cc
25x

25 25 2 = 625 x = 35 – 25 = 10 m) shilling = $.14 and franc = $.204

n) There are 52 black balls and 32 white balls. The prob-
ability of selecting a white ball is 32 ⁄ 84 = 8 ⁄ 21 ≈ 38%.
So, strips will have widths of 10 meters.

336 / Math Alive! Course III

Modeling Situations Lesson 13

Connector Teacher Activity

OVERVIEW & PURPOSE MATERIALS
Students investigate L-shapes and use those shapes as a basis ✔ Connector Master A, 1 transparency.
for generalizing about squares and their differences. ✔ Miscellaneous materials (e.g., scissors, grid paper,
Algebra Pieces, geoboards or geoboard paper, and
tile), available for each pair of students.

ACTIONS COMMENTS

1␣ ␣ Arrange the students in pairs and sketch the follow- 1␣ ␣ Notice that an L-shape is formed by removing a
ing L-shape on the overhead. square from one corner of a larger square:

L-Shape
Ask the students to list some possible questions for Students questions may include those listed on Connec-
investigation about L-shapes. Record these questions. tor Master A (see Comment 2), and they may pose others.

2␣ ␣ Select questions posed by the students during Action 2␣ ␣ The intent here is to emphasize the mathematical
1 and/or place a transparency of Connector Master A on information and relationships that can be accessed and
the overhead and ask the pairs to investigate ways to use proven by working with models of L-shapes. Following
models of L-shapes as the basis for answering these are observations that may come up in response to the
questions. Call attention to materials (e.g., scissors, grid questions on Connector Master A.
paper, Algebra Pieces, geoboards or geoboard paper, and
tile) that are available for student use. a) There are 2 ways that 24 square tile can be arranged
into L-shapes (as a 7 by 7 square with a 5 by 5 square cut
from the upper right corner, and as a 5 by 5 square with
Modeling Situations Lesson 13 a 1 by 1 square cut from the upper right corner); 1 way
Connector Master A
for 36 tile; and 3 ways for 45 tile. Some students may
investigate L-shapes for other numbers of tile and con-
For each of the following, suppose that whole square jecture about L-shapes made from n square tile. Note
tile are used to form L-shapes. that investigating questions b)-d) may provide insights
about the general case.
a) Can 24 square tile be arranged in an L-shape? If so,
in how many ways? What about 36 tile? 45 tile?
b) The following single cut on any L-shape produces 2
b) Determine ways to dissect an L-shape, using only pieces that contain only whole tiles and can be reas-
straight cuts along edges of whole tile, so the pieces sembled to form a rectangle:
can be reassembled to form a rectangle. What is the
minimum number of cuts necessary for any L-shape?

c) What rectangles can be dissected with exactly 1 A

straight cut (along edges of whole tile) and
reassembled to form an L-shape?

d) What counting numbers can be written as the differ- B B A

ence of 2 perfect squares? of 2 consecutive perfect
squares? Why?
(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 337

Lesson 13 Modeling Situations
Connector Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

2 (continued.)
c) Not all rectangular arrangements of tile can be dis-
sected with a single straight cut and reassembled to form
an L-shape. If a square (e.g., see region A in the diagram
at the left) is marked off the end of a rectangle, the
B
__
2 remaining rectangle (see region B) must be cut into 2
equal parts in order to make an L-shape. Hence, assum-
B
__ B
__ B
__ ing that only whole tile are allowed, the length of region
A B A 2 2 A 2
B must be an even number.

Notice that, since the sum of 2 even numbers is an even

x+y
number and the sum of an even number and an odd
x y
number is an odd number (see Math Alive! Course II,
x A B Lesson 4), whenever the length x in the diagram at left is
even and the length (x + y) is even, then the length y
must be even; similarly, if x is even and (x + y) is odd,
then y must be odd. Therefore, only rectangles whose
dimensions are both even or both odd can be dissected
with a single straight cut and reassembled to form an L-
shape containing only whole tile. That is, the dimen-
sions must be of the same parity, as illustrated below:

odd even
odd even even even

odd A B or even

d) Students responses may vary; as they share their

ideas, you might ask them to determine whether their
various conclusions are equivalent.

Based on the results of c) above, students may notice

that a given number can be written as the difference of 2
perfect squares if an L-shape can be formed with area
equal to the given number. This is possible if the num-
ber can be expressed as the product of 2 even numbers
or 2 odd numbers.

Further, for any 2 squares, the following diagram shows

why a2 – b2 = (a – b)(a + b):
a
a b a–b b a–b

b b2 b2 b
a a2 a

a2 – b2 a–b
a b
a+b

Students may notice that the difference between consecu-

tive perfect squares, n 2 and (n – 1)2 is always an L-shape

338 / Math Alive! Course III

Modeling Situations Lesson 13
Connector Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

that is only 1 tile wide, and the number of tile in such

an L-shape is the nth odd number, as illustrated by the
following sequence of tile arrangements.
Arrangement
Number 1 2 3 4 n

Number
of Tile 12 – 02 = 1 22 – 12 = 3 3 2 – 22 = 5 42 – 3 2 = 7 n 2 – (n – 1)2

Some students may comment that the nth odd number

can be written in the form 2n – 1, for all whole numbers
n, based on prior experiences with the following sequence
of tile arrangements (see diagram below and see Math
Alive! Course II, Lesson 4). Thus, n 2 – (n – 1)2 = 2n – 1.
Arrangement
Number 1 2 3 4 n

Number
of Tile (1 + 1) – 1 = 1 (2 + 2) – 1 = 3 (3 + 3) – 1 = 5 (4 + 4) – 1 = 7 n + n – 1 = 2n – 1

Students may make other observations that relate differ-

ences of squares to odd and even numbers. For example,
the following diagram shows why the number of tile in
any L-shape that is more than 1 tile wide is the sum of 2
or more consecutive odd numbers:

a (a – b) odd numbers
a–b b

. …
b2
a

a2 – b2 a–b a–b
…

a2 a2 – b2
Notice also that an L-shape formed by the difference of
2 perfect squares, a 2 and b 2, contains an odd number of
tile if a – b is odd, since the sum of an odd number of
odd numbers is an odd number. Further, the L-shape
contains an even number of tile if a – b is even, since the
sum of an even number of odd numbers is an even
number. Some students may point out that if an L-shape
contains an even number of tile, that number must be
divisible by 4.

Math Alive! Course III / 339

Lesson 13 Modeling Situations
Connector Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

3␣ ␣ Sketch an L-shape (see diagram for Action 1) on the 3␣ ␣ Students’ statements and questions may vary de-
overhead once again. Ask for volunteers to offer several pending on the questions investigated in Action 2.
conjectures and generalizations about L-shapes together Based on the needs and interest of your students, you
with any new questions that may be interesting to could suggest for investigation some ideas from Com-
investigate. ment 2 that didn’t come up.

340 / Math Alive! Course III

Modeling Situations Lesson 13

Focus Teacher Activity

OVERVIEW & PURPOSE MATERIALS
Students use sketches and diagrams to model the mathemati- ✔ Focus Masters A, D, and E, 1 transparency of each.
cal relationships in various everyday and mathematical ✔ Focus Masters B, C, and F, 1 copy of each per pair of
situations. Students reason from the sketches to solve “puzzle students and 1 transparency of each.
problems” involving the situations, and in some cases, invent
symbolic ways of representing their reasoning and methods.

ACTIONS COMMENTS

1␣ ␣ Arrange the students in pairs and sketch a copy of 1␣ ␣ Following are examples of students’ observations:
the following rectangle on the overhead.
The quadrilateral is a rectangle.
6
Opposite sides of the figure are equal and parallel.

One dimension is 6 units longer than the other.

Once they know the perimeter, students may conclude

the following:
6
Ask the students to describe what they see. After they Half the perimeter is 28, so 2 of the unknown segments total
have had an opportunity to respond, ask them what 28 – 6 = 22 linear units.
more they can say about the rectangle if its perimeter is
56 units. Discuss the students’ observations. If the unknown lengths are d, then an equation that repre-
sents the perimeter is 4d + 12 = 56 linear units.

Some students may use “symbolic shorthand” to record

their thought processes, and give verbal explanations
based on the diagram. For example:

Explanation of thinking: Recording:

The perimeter consists of 2 segments of length 6, and 4

other segments all of equal length—let’s call this length
d—and since the perimeter is 56, these lengths total 56. 12 + 4d = 56

The 4 segments have a total length of 56 – 12 or 44. 4d = 56 – 12 = 44

Thus, the length of each segment is 44 ÷ 4 or 11. d = 44 ÷ 4 = 11

So, the dimensions of the rectangle are 11 and 11 + 6. width = d = 11

length = d + 6 = 17

Notice, in the above case, the algebraic equations reflect

a chain of thought based on the student’s knowledge
and insight.

(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 341

Lesson 13 Modeling Situations
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

1 (continued.)
Note: Some students may question the assumption that
the sketch is a rectangle since no right angles are
marked. It is often the case that sketches do not include
such markings; however, the class may prefer to set a
policy that right angles be marked. Students may find
the following related question interesting to investigate:
If opposite sides of a quadrilateral are congruent, does
one need to be given that 0, 1, 2, 3, or all 4 angles are
right angles in order to prove the quadrilateral is a
rectangle? (Since opposite sides are congruent, the
quadrilateral is a parallelogram; since opposite angles of
a parallelogram are congruent and consecutive angles
are supplementary, if 1 angle of a parallelogram is a
right angle, then it is possible to show that all angles
must be right angles.)

2␣ ␣ Ask the students to draw a sketch, using as few words 2␣ ␣ Having the students draw sketches of a situation
and symbols as possible, that portrays a rectangle of before a problem is posed focuses their attention on
unknown dimensions whose length is 4 units longer creating a sketch that portrays the essential features of
than 3 times its width. Have several students replicate the situation.
their drawings on the chalkboard. Discuss whether the
drawings adequately convey the information given Below are some possible sketches. Notice that, in the last
about the rectangle and whether the words and symbols sketch shown, the essential information is carried in the
used are essential. symbols and not the sketch—that is, if the symbolic
phrase “3w + 4” is erased, the distinguishing feature of
the rectangle is lost.

4 x x x 4 3w + 4
x w

3␣ ␣ Ask the students to suppose the perimeter of the 3␣ ␣ The students will use various methods to arrive at the
rectangle they drew in Action 2 is 48 inches. Then ask dimensions. One way is to note that the perimeter of 48
them to determine the dimensions of the rectangle. Ask inches consists of 2 segments of length 4 and 8 other
for volunteers to describe their thinking. segments of equal length. Hence, the lengths of the 8
segments total 40 inches, so each is 5. Thus, the dimen-
sions of the rectangle are 5 inches and 3 × 5 + 4 = 19
inches.

342 / Math Alive! Course III

Modeling Situations Lesson 13
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

4␣ ␣ Repeat Action 2 for a rectangle whose length is 5 4␣ ␣ To emphasize the mathematical relationships in the
inches less than twice its width. Then ask the students rectangle, it is helpful to discuss the students’ sketches
to determine the dimensions of the rectangle if its before telling them the perimeter of the rectangle. Here
perimeter is 32 inches. Have several students show their is one sketch:
sketches and describe their thinking in determining the w w
dimensions of the rectangle.
w

The extended rectangle shown above has a perimeter of

42 inches—10 inches longer than the original rectangle.
These 42 inches are composed of 6 equal lengths. So
each of these lengths is 7 inches. The width of the origi-
nal rectangle is one of these lengths, or 7 inches; the
length of the rectangle is 5 inches less than 2 of these
lengths, or 9 inches.

5␣ ␣ Ask the students to sketch a square. Then have them 5␣ ␣ The perimeter of the square, in the following draw-
sketch an equilateral triangle whose sides are 2 units ing, contains 4 segments of length s; that of the equilat-
longer than the sides of the square. Ask the students to eral triangle contains 3 segments of length s and 3 of
reason from their diagrams to determine the length of length 2. Thus, the 3 segments of length 2 must sum to
the side of the square if the square and the triangle have s. So s is 6.
equal perimeters. Ask for volunteers to show their s 2
sketches and describe their thinking. s
s s s
2
s s 2

6␣ ␣ Ask the students to draw diagrams or sketches which 6␣ ␣ Since numbers have no particular shape, the students
represent a number and that number increased by 6. must invent a way of portraying number. They might do
Show the various ways in which students have done this in a variety of ways, e.g., as a length or as an area or
this. Then ask the students to use one of the sketches to as a “blob.”
determine what the numbers are if their sum is 40.

1 1
1 1
6 1 1

Three sketches of a number

and that number plus 6.

Looking at the sketch on the left above, the sum of the

lengths of the segments portraying the numbers is 40.
The small segment has length 6. Hence, the sum of
lengths of the other 2 segments is 34. Since these 2
segments are congruent, the length of each is 34 ÷ 2, or
17. Hence the 2 numbers are 17 and 17 + 6, or 23.

Math Alive! Course III / 343

Lesson 13 Modeling Situations
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

7␣ ␣ Ask the students to draw sketches that represent 2 7␣ ␣ If the sum of the 2 numbers is 36, in the sketch
numbers such that 4 times the smaller number is 1 less shown below, the sum of the lengths of the 5 congruent
than the larger. Then ask them to reason from their segments (1 in the smaller number and 4 in the larger
sketches to determine the numbers if their sum is 36. number) is 36 – 1, or 35. Hence, the length of each is
Ask for volunteers to show their sketches and explain 35 ÷ 5, or 7. Thus the numbers are 7 and 4(7) + 1, or 29.
their reasoning.
smaller number
larger number
1

8␣ ␣ Read aloud Part 1 shown below and ask the students 8␣ ␣ In the following sketch, the value of Mike’s and
to make a sketch that illustrates the mathematical rela- Larry’s coins are represented by boxes, all of which have
tionships in the given situation. Then read aloud Part 2 the same value. Since Mike has 3 times as many coins as
and ask the students to add to their sketches to show Larry, his stack of boxes is 3 times as high as Larry’s.
this new information. Invite volunteers to make math- Larry’s stack is twice the width of Mike’s since each of
ematical observations by reasoning from their sketches. Larry’s coins is worth twice as much as each of Mike’s.
Invite volunteers to share their observations and reason-
ing. If no one suggests it, ask the students to show how
to reason from a diagram to determine how much
money and what coins Larry and Mike each have.

Part 1: Mike has 3 times as many nickels as value of value of

Larry has dimes. Mike’s coins Larry’s coins

Part 2: Mike has 45¢ more than Larry. Mike’s stack contains 1 more box then Larry’s. Since
Mike has 45¢ more than Larry, this box is worth 45¢.
Thus, Mike has 3 × 45¢ = $1.35 in 3 × 9 = 27 nickels,
while Larry has 2 × 45¢ = 90¢ in 9 dimes.

9␣ ␣ Place a transparency of Focus Master A on the over- 9␣ As examples, shown below are 3 different students’
head revealing only the first sentence of Situation A. Ask sketches of Situation a).
the students to make a quick sketch to represent the
given information. Then reveal the second sentence and Group 1 + 5 Group 2
ask the students to adapt their sketches to include this 1st 5
information. Repeat for the 3rd sentence. Then ask the 43
students to reason from their sketches to make mathemati- 2nd
cal observations and conclusions about the situation.
Discuss, inviting volunteers to share their sketches, 48
conclusions, and reasoning at the overhead. If no one
suggests it, ask the students to reason from their dia- 0 43 48
grams to determine the number of people in each group.
2nd group 1st group 5

One can reason from each of the diagrams above to

determine there are 31 people in the 1st group and 12 in
the 2nd. If students have difficulty, you might copy
these 3 sketches on the overhead and ask the students to
speculate about ways students may have reasoned from
each diagram to determine the number of people in
each group.

344 / Math Alive! Course III

Modeling Situations Lesson 13
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

It is intended here that emphasis be on modeling rela-

Modeling Situations Lesson 13 tionships and reasoning from a diagram rather than on
Focus Master A
getting answers. Revealing the information in parts and
having the students make observations promotes such
Situations emphasis. Some students may point out that “guessing
a) The people at a meeting are separated into 2 groups.
and checking” is one way to determine the number in
The 1st group has 5 less people than 3 times the number each group; while this is true, such methods do not
in the 2nd group.
There are 43 people at the meeting. typically lead to generalizations or strong connections to
algebra.

10␣ Slowly reveal the 4 sentences in Situation b) on 10␣ ␣ Some students may use Algebra Pieces or sketches
Focus Master A, pausing between sentences so that of Algebra Pieces to represent some of these situations.
students can create and adjust sketches as information is This is appropriate.
revealed. Then ask the students to reason from their
diagrams to determine the 3 numbers. Invite volunteers It may be helpful to point out that reasoning from a
to show their sketches at the overhead, without giving diagram does not preclude using computation; rather
explanations, so that other students can speculate about the diagram suggests what to compute. To facilitate the
the reasoning used. Then discuss the actual reasoning sharing process, you might have several overhead pens
used by the volunteers. Where appropriate, encourage and half-sheets of blank transparencies available so they
students to discuss ways to represent their visual solu- can prepare their diagrams prior to presenting them to
tions and thought processes with algebraic symbols and the class.
equations.
b) Here is one student’s sketch and reasoning.
Modeling Situations Lesson 13
Focus Master A
1st number

2nd number
Situations
3rd number
a) The people at a meeting are separated into 2 groups.
The 1st group has 5 less people than 3 times the number
in the 2nd group.
There are 43 people at the meeting. Each box represents 112 ÷ 7. or 16. Therefore,
b) There are 3 numbers. the numbers are 32, 16, and 64.
The 1st number is twice the 2nd number.
The 3rd is twice the 1st.
The sum of the 3 numbers is 112. Following is an algebraic representation of the visual
c) The sum of 2 numbers is 40.
reasoning used above:
Their difference is 14.

d) The sides of square A are 2 inches longer than the sides

If x = 2nd number,
of square B. 2x = 1st number,
The area of square A is 48 square inches greater than the
area of square B. 2(2x) = 4x = 3rd number
e) Melody has $2.75 in dimes and quarters.
She has 14 coins altogether. So, 2x + x + 4x = 112
f) Three particular integers are consecutive.
7x = 112
The product of the 1st and 2nd integers is 40 less than x = 112 ⁄ 7 = 16.
the square of the 3rd integer.

g) Karen is 4 times as old as Lucille. Therefore, the 3 numbers are 16, 32, and 64.
In 6 years, Karen will be 3 times as old as Lucille.

Math Alive! Course III / 345

Lesson 13 Modeling Situations
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

11␣ ␣ Repeat Action 10 for the remaining situations on 11␣ ␣ It may be helpful to suggest that students view the
Focus Master A, inviting students to pose questions for questions they pose as “puzzle problems” to solve geo-
the class to answer about each situation. metrically. Asking for geometric solutions encourages
students to rely on their understanding of mathematical
concepts and leads to connections between geometry
and algebra. If students use algebraic symbols, encourage
them to draw diagrams that illustrate what the symbols
represent and why the algebraic solutions work. And, for
some problems, you might ask the students to represent
their geometric solutions and reasoning using algebraic
symbols.

Following are sample questions and diagrams posed by

students, together with their reasoning:

c) What are the numbers?

Solution 1 Solution 2

40 = sum
large small larger number 40

14 small small smaller number 14

40 – 14 = 26
26
__ = 13 13
difference 2
The area of the shaded region is the sum of the 2
The smaller number is 26 ÷ 2, or 13. numbers; the area of the unshaded region is the
The larger number is 40 – 13, or 27. difference. The combined area of the shaded and
unshaded regions is twice the larger number.
Hence, the larger number is (40 + 14) ÷ 2, or 27.
The smaller number is 27 – 14, or 13.

d) What is the length of the small square? In each of the

following, s is the side of the smaller square.

Solution 1 Solution 2 Solution 3

s 1 s 1 s+1 1
2
2 4 1 1 1 1

s+1
s B s+1 B
s B

1 1 1 1
s+1
1
The area of the unshaded The area of each of the The area of the unshaded
border is 48. Hence, the area four 1 × s rectangles is border is 48. Hence, the area
of each of the two 2 × s rect- (48 – 4) ÷ 4, or 11. Thus, of each of the four 1 × (s + 1)
angles is (48 – 4) ÷ 2 or 22. s is 11. rectangles is 48 ÷ 4, or 12,
Thus, s is 11. and s is 11.

346 / Math Alive! Course III

Modeling Situations Lesson 13
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

e) How many dimes and how many quarters does

Modeling Situations Lesson 13
Focus Master A
Melanie have?
5¢
5¢
Situations
5¢
a) The people at a meeting are separated into 2 groups. 5¢
The 1st group has 5 less people than 3 times the number
in the 2nd group. 5¢
There are 43 people at the meeting.
no. of quarters no. of dimes
b) There are 3 numbers. 14 coins
The 1st number is twice the 2nd number.
The 3rd is twice the 1st.
The sum of the 3 numbers is 112. The value of each shaded bar is 5 × 14, or 70¢.
c) The sum of 2 numbers is 40.
Hence, the value of each unshaded bar is
Their difference is 14. (275 – 140) ÷ 3, or 45¢. So, there are 9 quarters
d) The sides of square A are 2 inches longer than the sides and 5 dimes.
of square B.
The area of square A is 48 square inches greater than the
area of square B. f) What are the 3 integers? Note: Some students may
represent this situation with Algebra Pieces, using edge
e) Melody has $2.75 in dimes and quarters.
She has 14 coins altogether. pieces for lengths and area pieces for products. Or, they
f) Three particular integers are consecutive.
use diagrams such as the following:
The product of the 1st and 2nd integers is 40 less than
the square of the 3rd integer.
1 1 1
1 1 1
g) Karen is 4 times as old as Lucille. 1st integer
In 6 years, Karen will be 3 times as old as Lucille.
3rd
1st
integer
integer
2nd integer

3rd integer 2nd integer

The area of the shaded rectangle is the product

x = 1st integer of the first 2 integers. The area of the unshaded
x + 1 = 2nd integer region is the difference between that product and
x + 2 = 3rd integer the square of the 3rd integer which is given to be
(x + 2)2 – x (x + 1) = 40 40. So, each of the 3 unshaded rectangles has
x 2 + 4x + 4 – x 2 = 40 area (40 – 4) ÷ 3, or 12. Thus, the 3 numbers are
3x + 4 = 40 12, 13, and 14.
3x = 40 – 4 = 36
x = 36 ⁄ 3 = 12 Shown at the left is an algebraic representation of the
So, the numbers are 12, 13, and14. above visual soluton.

g) How old is Lucille?

Comparison of Karen’s age in 6 years with 3

times Lucille’s age in 6 years:

Karen Karen 6
ages
now
Lucille Lucille (3 times) 6 6 6

Karen 6 These have the same value if each box repre-

ages in
6 years sents two 6’s, or 12. So, Karen is now 48 and
Lucille 6
Lucille is 12.

Math Alive! Course III / 347

Lesson 13 Modeling Situations
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

12␣ ␣ Write the following on the overhead: 12␣ ␣ The intent here is to engage the students in think-
ing about the problem and then to encourage students
One pump can fill a tank in 6 hours. to reflect on other students’ work. Some students may
Another pump can fill it in 4 hours. not reach a solution before you distribute Focus Master
Both pumps are turned on together to fill the B; you might give them the option not to examine
tank. Focus Master B until they are ready.

Ask the pairs of students to create sketches that illustrate

Lesson 13 Modeling Situations
the mathematical relationships in the given informa- Focus Master B
tion, and to reason from their sketches to determine One pump can fill a tank in 6 hours. Another pump can fill it in 4 hours.
how long it will take to fill the tank using both pumps If both pumps are used, how long will it take to fill the tank?
together. After the pairs have worked for 10-15 minutes, Solution 1

distribute a copy of Focus Master B to each pair, point- Pump A

ing out that these are sketches made by 3 students from 1 hour
Pump B
another class. Ask the pairs to discuss their ideas and 1 hour
questions about the thinking behind the 3 solutions, to Together

complete the “so…” statements, and to compare their So…

1 hour 1 hour 2
__
5
of 1 hr.

methods with those shown on Focus Master B. Discuss

Solution 2
as a large group. Time to fill 1 tank: Pump A
6 hours
Pump B
4 hours

Tanks filled in Pump A

12 hours: 6 hours 6 hours
Pump B
4 hours 4 hours 4 hours

Pumps A and B fill 5 tanks in 12 hours; so…

Solution 3
Pump A fills 4 subdivisions in 1 hour.
Pump B fills 6 subdivisions in 1 hour.
1
__ 1
__
Pump A fills tank Pump B fills tank Together, they fill 10 subdivisions in
6 4
in 1 hour. in 1 hour. 1 hour:

1 hour

1 hour

4
__
10 hour

So…

13␣ ␣ Give each pair of students a copy of Focus Master 13␣ ␣ Select situations according to the students’ levels of
C. Select (or have the students select) situations from comfort and interest. You might encourage the students
Focus Master C and ask the students to make diagrams to view questions about these situations as “visual
or sketches that illustrate the mathematical relationships puzzles.” For selected situations, after students have
in those situations. Then ask the students to pose (or completed their visual solutions, ask them use to algebra
you could pose) mathematical questions about the symbols to represent their solutions and thought pro-
situations and to answer the questions by reasoning cesses.
from their diagrams and sketches. Discuss.
On the following 4 pages are sample questions and
student solutions for situations a)-l).

348 / Math Alive! Course III

Modeling Situations Lesson 13
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

a) How long does it take to empty the tank using only

Modeling Situations Lesson 13
Focus Master C
the 2nd drain?

More Situations 1st drain empties Both drains empty So, 2nd drain must
1
__ 1
__ 4
__
a) A tank has 2 drains of different sizes. 7
tank in 1 hour. 3
tank in 1 hour. empty 21 tank in 1 hour.
If both drains are used, it takes 3 hours to empty the tank.
If only the first drain is used, it takes 7 hours to empty the tank.
1 hr.
On Tuesday only the 2nd drain is used to empty the tank.
1 hr.
b) Yesterday Maria and Lisa together had 20 library books.
1 hr.
Today Maria and Lisa visited the library; Lisa checked out new
books and now has double the number of books that she had 1 hr.
yesterday; Maria returned 3 of her books.
1 hr.
Now Maria and Lisa together have 30 books.
1
__
4
hr.
c) Of the students in Ms. Quan’s class, 3⁄ 5 are girls.
Ms. Nelson’s class joined Ms. Quan’s for a project; this doubled
the number of boys and increased the number of girls by 6.
There are an equal number of boys and girls in the combined
Working together, It takes the 2nd
class. both drains empty drain 51 ⁄ 4 hours
d) On Moe’s walk home from school, after 1 mile he stopped for 7 subdivisions in 1 to empty the
a drink of water. hour. The 1st drain tank.
Next, Moe walked 1⁄ 2 the remaining distance and stopped to
rest at the park bench. empties 3, so the
When Moe reached the park bench, he still needed to walk 1
mile more than 1 ⁄ 3 the total distance from school to his home.
2nd drain empties 4.
e) Jill has a gallon of paint that contains 20% red paint and 80%
blue paint. b) How many books does each girl have now?
Jill adds more red paint until she has 50% red paint.

f) Standard quality coffee sells for $18.00 per kg. 20

Prime quality coffee sells for $24.00 per kg.
Every Saturday morning Moonman’s Coffee Shop grinds a Lisa Lisa Maria
40kg batch of a standard/prime blend to sell for $22.50/kg.
3
(Continued on back.) 30
33

Lesson 13 Modeling Situations The difference in length of the top and bottom
Focus Master C (cont.) arrows is the number of books Lisa has. Hence,
she has 33 – 20, or 13, books. So, Maria has
g) Alex’s collection of nickels, dimes, and quarters has 3 fewer 20 – 13, or 7, books.
nickels than dimes and 3 more quarters than dimes.
Alex’s collection is worth $4.20.
c) How many students are in Ms. Quan’s class?
h) For a school play, Kyle sold 6 adult tickets and 15 student
tickets.
Kyle collected $48 for his ticket sales.
Matt sold 8 adult tickets and 7 student tickets for the same
Each of the boxes below Doubling the boys gives
school play. contains the same num- 4 boxes of boys. Adding
Matt collected $38 for his ticket sales.
ber of students; 3 of the 6 to the girls (each X is
i) The doctor mixed a 1200 ml of an 85% sugar solution (i.e., the boxes contain girls and a girl), gives 6 more
container is 85% sugar and the rest is water).
The nurse added enough of a 40% sugar solution to create a 2 contain boys: than 3 boxes of girls:
60% solution.

j) On Wednesday, Steve drove from Gillette to Spearfish in 1 hr. G B G

and 30 min. G B G
On Thursday, driving 8 miles per hour faster, Steve made the G B G
return trip in 1 hr. and 20 min. B B XXXXXX
B
k) Michael averaged 78 points on 3 history tests.
His score on the 1st test was 86 points. Ms. Quan’s class
His average for the 1st 2 tests was 3 points more than his
score on the 3rd test. If the number of boys and girls are equal, the
l) Traveling by train and then by bus, a 1200 mile trip took Wally last box of boys must contain 6 boys. Thus, all
17 hours.
The train averaged 75 mph and the bus averaged 60 mph.
boxes contain 6 students and, to begin with
there are 18 girls and 12 boys Ms. Quan’s class.

(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 349

Lesson 13 Modeling Situations
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS
COMMENTS COMMENTS

13 (continued.)
d) How far is it from school to Moe’s home?

Distance from school to home:

park
school water bench home
1
__
1 1 3
total distance

A B

Segments A and B are equal. Thus, replacing A

with B:

1 1
1 1 __
3
total distance 1 __
3
total distance

B B

The 3 segments of length 1 comprise the other

third of the distance. Hence, the distance from
school to home is 9 miles.

An algebraic representation of the above visual solution

could be: Let x = the total distance in miles. Then,

(1 ⁄ 3 )x + 1 = 1 ⁄ 2 (x – 1).
So, 1 + (x ⁄ 3 + 1) + (x ⁄ 3 + 1) = x
3 + 2⁄ 3x = x
3 = 1⁄ 3x
9 = x.

Therefore, the distance from school to home is 9 miles.

e) How much pure red paint does Jill add?

Solution 1

original gallon added part

Solution 2 20% =
1
__ 1
__ 1
__ 1
__ 1
__ 1
__ 1
__ 1
__
5 gal 5 gal 5 gal 5 gal 5 gal 5 gal 5 gal 5 gal
Sketch I: Sketch II:
red red
100 100 100 100

blue B 50 The areas of the rectangles shown at the left in

% % red Sketch I represent the amount of red paint in 1
blue added
paint paint red red paint gallon of the mixture and x gallons of added red
50 50
paint
A
paint. If the resulting mixture is to be 50% red
30 paint, the 2 rectangles should be “leveled off”
red
20 20 red at 50. This will be the case if, in Sketch II, area A
red paint
red = area B. Since area A is 30 and area B is 50x,
in mixture
0 0 0 0 the areas are equal if 30 = 50x, that is, if x = 3 ⁄ 5 .
1 x 1 x
gallons gallons Hence, 3 ⁄ 5 gallon of red paint must be added.

350 / Math Alive! Course III

Modeling Situations Lesson 13
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS
COMMENTS COMMENTS

f) How much prime coffee and how much standard

coffee are needed to produce 40 kg of blend?
Sketch I: Sketch II:
The areas of the rectangles in
24 24
22.5 B 22.5 1.5
Sketch I at the left represent
the values of the coffees in the
4.5 A blend. If the blend is to sell for
price 18 value of 18 $22.50, the 2 rectangles should
per kg premium “level off” at 22.5. This will be
value of the case if, in Sketch II, area A
standard = area B. Since the height of B
is 1 ⁄ 3 the height of A (see dia-
0 0 grams at the left), for the areas
40 kg a 3a to be equal, the base of B must
40 be 3 times the base of A. So, if
the base of A is a, the base of
B is 3a. Thus, 4a = 40 and a =
10. Hence, there should be 10
kg of standard coffee and 30 kg
of premium coffee.

g) How many of each coin does Alex have?

3 75¢
The heights of the rectangles shown at the left
3 30¢ 75¢
numbers represent the number of coins and their bases
of coins the values, so the sum of the areas of the rect-
x
angles is the total value of the collection. The
value of the unshaded portion is $1.80. Hence,
the value of the shaded rectangle is $4.20 –
10¢ 5¢ 25¢
$1.80, or $2.40. Since the value of its base is
40¢ 40¢, its height is 2.40 ÷ .40 = 6. Thus, there are 6
values of coins nickels, 9 dimes, and 12 quarters.
number of
tickets sold

15 h) What is the cost of student and adult tickets?

6 48 8 38 7
A is the cost of an adult ticket; S is the cost of a
A S A S student ticket. Vertical dimensions represent the
number of tickets sold.
I. Kyle’s sales II. Matt’s sales
Increasing Kyle’s sales by a factor of 1 ⁄ 3 and re-
moving Matt’s sales from the result, as shown
26 13 in sketch IV, shows that 13 student tickets cost
$26, so each cost $2. Thus, in sketch I, the 15
20
student tickets cost $30, so the 6 adult tickets
cost $18, and each ticket costs $3.
8 64

A S A S

III. Kyle’s sales increased IV. Removing II from III

by a factor of 1 ⁄ 3 (Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 351

Lesson 13 Modeling Situations
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS
COMMENTS COMMENTS

Sketch I: 13 (continued.)
85 i) How much of the 40% solution did the nurse add?

% of The areas of the rectangles in Sketch I at the left

sugar in
sugar 85% solution represent the amount of sugar in the solutions.
40 sugar in If the resulting solution is to be 60% sugar, the 2
40% solution rectangles should “level off” at 60. This will be
0
? 1200 the case if, in Sketch II, area A = area B. Since
milliliters
the area of B is 1200 × 25 and the height of A is
20, for the areas to be equal, the width of A
must be (1200 × 25) ÷ 20, or 1500. Hence, 1500
Sketch II: ml of the 40% solution should be added.
85
B 25
% of 60 60
sugar 20 A
40

0
? 1200
milliliters
j) How far is it from Gillette to Spearfish?
1
1 __
2
1
Return Trip: 1 __
3 1 1 1
1 __ – 1 __ = __
Trip: 8 A 8 × 4⁄ 3 2 3 6
distance from
distance from (x + 8) mph Spearfish to B
x mph Gillette to Spearfish Gillette x x

1 1
1 __
2
hours 1 __
3
hours Area B = Area A
x
__ 32
6
= __
3
,
Following is one possible algebraic representa- x = 64 mph
tion of the above visual solution: Let x = the
speed.
(11 ⁄ 2 ) x = (11 ⁄ 3 )(x + 8) The areas of the above rectangles represent
(3 ⁄ 2 ) x = (4 ⁄ 3 ) x + (4 ⁄ 3 )8 distances traveled. Since the distances are the
( ⁄ 2 ) x – (4 ⁄ 3 ) x = 32 ⁄ 3
3
same, the areas are equal. Thus, if one rect-
x ⁄ 6 = 32 ⁄ 3
angle is superimposed on the other as shown
x = 64mph above, the areas of A and B are equal. So,
the distance between Gillette and Spearfish is
So, 64 × 11 ⁄ 2 = 96 miles is the distance from 64 × (11 ⁄ 2 ) = 96 miles.
Gillette to Spearfish.

k) What were Michael’s 3 test scores?

86
78 78 78 79 79 76
72 76

Average score is 78: Moving 1 point from last Moving 7 points from 2nd score
score to each of 1st 2 scores, to 1st score, makes 1st score 86,
so average of 1st 2 scores is 3 and the 2nd and 3rd scores are
greater than 3rd score: 72 and 76, respectively.

352 / Math Alive! Course III

Modeling Situations Lesson 13
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

l) How far did the train travel?

The distance traveled is represented by the area

of the region in the 1st sketch below. This re-
gion can be divided into the 2 rectangles shown
in the 2nd sketch. The area of the lower rect-
angle is 1020 miles. Hence, that of the upper is
180 miles, so its length is 180 ÷ 15, or 12 hours.
Thus, 12 hours of the trip were by train, and the
distance traveled by train was 75 × 12, or 900,
miles.
time
(train)
1200 – 1020 =
15 180 miles
speed
75
mph 60 1200 miles 60 1020 miles

time time 17
(train) (bus)
17 hours

14␣ ␣ Ask the students to sketch a rectangle whose length 14␣ ␣ Here is one sketch of the rectangle:
is 8 units greater than its width. Then tell them the area
of the rectangle is 1428 and ask them to find its dimen-
sions. Discuss the equations that have been solved.
x

x 8
One way to determine the dimensions of the rectangle is
to find 2 numbers which differ by 8 and whose product
is 1428. If the rectangle were a square, its dimension
would be 1428 which is about 38. Since its not a
square, one dimension should be somewhat larger than
this and one dimension somewhat smaller. If one
guesses the dimensions are 34 and 42, a check will verify
that this is correct. Making an educated guess and then
checking to see if it is correct would be more difficult if
the dimensions were not integers.

Another way to proceed is by “completing the square,”

as shown in the sketches on the left. If the strip of width
8 in the above sketch is split in two and half of it is
4 16 moved to an adjacent side, as shown in Figure 1, the
result is a square with a 4 × 4 corner missing. Adding
x+4 1444 this corner produces a square of area 1428 + 16, or 1444,
x 1428 and edge x + 4, as shown in Figure 2. Hence, x + 4 is
1444 , or 38, and x is 34. So the dimensions of the
original rectangle are 34 and 34 + 8, or 42. Thus, the
x x+4 equation x(x + 8) = 1428 has been solved without the
4
Figure 1 Figure 2 use of guessing.

Math Alive! Course III / 353

Lesson 13 Modeling Situations
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

15␣ ␣ Ask the students to draw sketches to solve the 15␣ ␣ All of these equations can be solved by completing
following equations: the square. Note that, in Math Alive! Course IV, students
develop the quadratic formula and investigate quadrat-
a) x2 – 4x + 6 = 5 ics with solutions that are complex numbers (i.e., not
real numbers).
b) x2 + 9x = 400
In the sketches that follow, differences are treated as
c) x(3x – 4) = 4 sums, e.g., x – 2 is thought of as x + (–2) and is portrayed
by a line segment of value x augmented by a segment of
d) 2x(3 – x) = 3 value –2.

a) One can complete the square as shown in the follow-

ing sequence of sketches. Notice that, since x2 – 4x + 6 =
5, then x2 – 4x = –1 and x2 – 4x + 4 = 3.

–1
–2 –2x 4

x 2 – 4x + 4 x – 2 3 x–2
x2 –4x x x2 –2x

x x–2 x–2
–2
If a square region has value 3, its edges have value 3 or
– 3 . Hence, x – 2 = 3 or x – 2 = – 3 , and x = 2 + 3
or x = 2 – 3 .

b) Completing the square gives the sequence of sketches

shown below.

400 9
__ 9
__ 81
__
2 2
x 4 x 2 + 9x + 81
__
4

9 81
__
420.25
x x2 __ x = 400 +
x2 9x 2
4

x 9
__ 9
x + __ x + 4.5
2 2
= ± 420.25

With the help of a calculator, one finds 420.25 = 20.5.

Thus, x + 4.5 = ± 20.5 and x = 16 or x = –25.

Fractions can be avoided by doubling dimensions as

shown in the sketches below.

Since 1681 = 41, 2x + 9 = ±41 and the result follows.

9 18x 81
4x 2 + 36x + 81
= 4(x 2 + 9x ) + 81 1681
2x 4x 2
18x = 4(400) + 81

2x 9 2x + 9 2x + 9

354 / Math Alive! Course III

Modeling Situations Lesson 13
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

c) In the following sequence, the second rectangular

region is obtained from the first by increasing its height
by a factor of 3.

–2 4
3x – 2 = ±4
3x 12 3x 12 16
3x = 6 or 3x = –2
x 4 x = 2 or x = – 2 ⁄ 3
3x –4 3x –4 3x 3x – 2
–2

d) x = 3
2
± 2
3

Many sequences of sketches shown in the solutions

above, and elsewhere in this lesson, contain more fig-
ures than may be in the sketches the students draw. In a
number of instances, several figures shown in a se-
quence of sketches could be combined into a single
figure, especially if an oral presentation is being made
concurrently, or if solutions are being developed for
private use and not for the benefit of a reader.

16␣ ␣ Place a transparency of Focus Master D on the 16␣ ␣ If students’ observations are limited, you could
overhead, revealing a) only. Ask the students to use pose a question for students to answer by reasoning
sketches to represent the mathematical relationships in from their diagrams. One possible problem related to
Situation a), and to reason from the diagram to make each of a)-f) is shown below together with a visual
mathematical observations. Invite volunteers to share solution to each problem.
their mathematical observations and reasoning. Discuss
equations that are solved by students’ sketches. Repeat a) What are the 2 numbers?
for b)-f).
The difference of 2 numbers is 6 and the sum of their
squares is 1476:
Modeling Situations Lesson 13
Focus Master D
6

a) The difference between 2 numbers is 6.

The sum of their squares is 1476. 1476
b) The length of a rectangle is 6 units less than twice
its width. x x+6
Its area is 836 square units.
The shaded area below is 36; so the unshaded area is
c) The product of 2 consecutive even numbers is 2808. 1476 – 36, or 1440:
d) The perimeter of a certain rectangle is 92 linear units.
The area of the rectangle is 493 square units. 6 36

e) The sum of 2 numbers is 32.

The sum of the squares of the numbers is 520. 1440
f) A 40 foot by 60 foot rectangular garden is bordered
by a sidewalk of uniform width. x x 6
The area of the sidewalk is 864 square feet.
(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 355

Lesson 13 Modeling Situations
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

16 (continued.)
Half the unshaded area is 720:
720

x 6
Completing the square:

3 9
729
x 720

x x+3
3
Since 729 = 27, x + 3 = ±27. Thus, x is either 24 or –30
and x + 6 is, respectively, 30 or –24. Hence, the 2 num-
bers are 24 and 30 or –24 and –30.

b) What are the dimensions of the rectangle?

A rectangular region whose Doubling this region: Completing the square:

value is 836 with 1 edge whose
–3 9
value is 6 less than twice the
value of the other edge.
1681
2x 1672 2x 1672
x 836

x x –6 2x –6 2x 2x – 3
–3
2x – 3 = 1681 = 41,
x = 22. So, the dimensions
are 22 and 2(22) – 6, or 38.

Note: 2x – 3 = − 1681 is not considered above since

dimensions (i.e., lengths) are always positive.

c) What are the numbers?

Two consecutive Completing the

even numers whose square:
product is 2808:
1

2809
x 2808 x 2808

x 2 x x+1
1
x + 1 = ± 2809 = ±53,
x = 52 or x = –54. So,
the 2 numbers are 52
and 54 or –54 and –52.

356 / Math Alive! Course III

Modeling Situations Lesson 13
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

d) What are the dimensions of a rectangle whose perim-

eter is 92 and area is 493?
A rectangle whose pe- Changing the value of the Completing the
rimeter is 92 and area is base and, hence, the value square:
493: of the region by a factor of
–1: –23 529 36

x 493 x –493 x –493

92 – 2x
_______ = 46 – x
x –46 x –23 x – 23
2
x – 23 = 36 = 6,
x = 29. So, the dimensions
are 29 and 46 – 29, or 17.
e) What are the numbers?
Two numbers, x and x + d, Double the figure: Move the shaded re- The result is 2 squares,
whose sum is 32 and whose gion from the top to the one 32 × 32 and one
squares add to 520: x d
bottom of the figure: d × d, which sum to 1040:
d d d d 16 d

520 x
1040
x x d 32 1040 32 322 = 1024 32
32 x

x d
x d 32 32
32
d2 = 1040 – 1024 = 16,
so, d = 4.
Since d = 4, then in the 1st sketch, 2x + 4 = 32.
Thus, x = 14 and the 2 numbers are 14 and 18.
f) What is the width of the sidewalk?

A 40 × 60 rectangular garden Rearranging the Moving 10 feet from the end of rectangles a
with an 864 square foot bor- border: and b to the end of rectangles c and d, and
der of uniform width, w : then completing the square:
a b
e a 864 f 60 50 2500
864
60
3364
c 40 d
w e f c
2w 864
b
g hw w g h d
w w w 40 2w 50 2w + 50

2w + 50 = 3364 = 58,
so, w = 4 (i.e., the width
of the border is 4 feet).

Math Alive! Course III / 357

Lesson 13 Modeling Situations
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

17␣ ␣ Ask the students to each sketch a rectangle with 17␣ ␣ Based on rectangle maneuvers for forming equal
edges 12 and 18. Then have them use “rectangle maneu- products, as explored in Lesson 7 of this course and
vers” to form noncongruent rectangles whose values are Lesson 20 of Math Alive! Course II, here are methods of
equal to 12 × 18. Invite volunteers to show examples. forming 3 noncongruent rectangles each with value
Use this as a context for introducing the term inverse 12 × 18:
variation.

18 18 36

6
12 12
12 × 18 = 6 × 36

18 9

12

24 12 × 18 = 24 × 9

18 54
4

12 12 × 18 = 4 × 54

The above examples illustrate the general relationship

that multiplying one edge of a rectangle by a factor k,
and the other edge by the inverse, 1 ⁄ k, does not change
the value of the rectangle. This is an example of inverse
variation. That is, the edges of the rectangle vary inversely
with each other and, although the values of the edges
change, the product is constant. Inverse variation is also
referred to as indirect variation.

b bk
a
__
k ab
a ab

358 / Math Alive! Course III

Modeling Situations Lesson 13
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

18␣ ␣ Place a transparency of Focus Master E on the 18␣ ␣ Following is one possible diagram and reasoning.
overhead, revealing Situation A only. Ask the groups to
make a sketch that models the mathematical conditions The amount of rations in each lifeboat is fixed.
in the given situation. Invite volunteers to show their One edge of the rectangle represents the num-
sketches and make mathematical observations. Then, if ber of people on board and the other edge, rep-
the students haven’t brought it up, ask them to show resents the number of days the rations will last.
how to reason from a sketch to determine how long the
rations will last the 40 people in Lifeboat A. 120 people
8 days 960 “people days” of rations
Lesson 13 Modeling Situations 8 days for 120 people
Focus Master E

120
___ = 40 people
Situation A 3
There are several lifeboats on the USS Mathstar, and
8 320
each lifeboat has enough rations to last 120 people for
8 × 3 = 24 days 8 320
8 days. The number of days that rations will last varies
inversely with the number of people in a lifeboat. In a 8 320
storm, the USS Mathstar sinks; 40 people climb
So, 8 × 3 days for 40 people.
aboard Lifeboat A.

19␣ ␣ Ask the students to again sketch a rectangle with 19␣ ␣ Based on the equal quotients strategy explored in
edge values 12 and 18. Then ask them to form several Lesson 7 of this course and Lesson 20 of Math Alive!
new rectangles by multiplying one edge of the 12 × 18 Course II, multiplying the value of one edge of a rect-
rectangle by a whole number or fraction and without angle by a factor multiplies the value of the rectangle by
changing the other edge. Invite volunteers to show the same factor but does not change the value of the
examples, labeling the value of each rectangle and the other edge. That is, the value of the rectangle varies
values of its edges. Discuss their observations. Use this as directly as the value of one edge varies and vice versa.
a context for introducing the term direct variation. This is an example of direct variation. Here are 2 ex-
amples that illustrate this property:

Multiplying an edge and the area by 1 ⁄ 3 :

18 18
12 × 18 __ × 18
4 ______ = 12
3 3

12 12 × 18 = 216

Multiplying an edge and the area by 2:

18 18

12 12 × 18 = 216

216 × 2 =
24
(12 × 18) × 2 =
(12 × 2) × 18

Math Alive! Course III / 359

Lesson 13 Modeling Situations
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

In general,

b b

a ab
ka kab

Notice in the examples given above, that the ratio of the

edge that is changed to the area remains constant.
Another way to describe a situation in which one quan-
tity varies directly as another is to say the 2 quantities
are directly proportional. That is, when 2 quantities are
directly proportional, if one changes, the other changes
proportionally. Note: 2 quantities that vary inversely
with each other (see Actions 16 and 17) are called in-
versely proportional.

20␣ ␣ Place a transparency of Focus Master E on the 20␣ ␣ Here is one possibility:
overhead again, revealing Situation B. Ask the groups to
make a sketch that illustrates the type of variation in the wages so,
given situation. Invite volunteers to share their sketches
and observations at the overhead. Then, if no one has hours
suggested it, ask the students to show how to use a 1
__
last this of $350
sketch to determine Ollie’s wages for 44 hours of work. 5
week: week:
$350 $350 $350 $70
Lesson 13 Modeling Situations
Focus Master E
20 hrs 20 20 4

1
__
Situation A 5
of 20
There are several lifeboats on the USS Mathstar, and
each lifeboat has enough rations to last 120 people for Since Ollie’s wages vary directly with the hours
8 days. The number of days that rations will last varies he works, and since 20 hours × 21 ⁄ 5 = 44 hours,
inversely with the number of people in a lifeboat. In a this week Ollie will earn $350 × 21 ⁄ 5 = $770.
storm, the USS Mathstar sinks; 40 people climb
aboard Lifeboat A. Some students may solve this problem by computing
Ollie’s hourly rate of pay, which is $350 ÷ 20 = $17.50,
and then multiplying by 44 hours:
Situation B
Ollie’s wages vary directly with the time he works. Last
rate wages so,
week his wages for 20 hours of work were $350. This
week he will work 44 hours. hours

last this
week: week:
$350
____ = $17.50 $350 $17.50 $17.50 × 44 = $770
20
20 hrs 44 hrs

360 / Math Alive! Course III

Modeling Situations Lesson 13
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

21␣ ␣ Place a transparency of Focus Master F on the 21␣ ␣ Notice that Problem 1 contains a mix of problems
overhead, revealing Puzzle Problem a) only for the that involve direct and inverse variation. Select prob-
groups to complete. Invite volunteers to show their lems according to your students’ comfort, needs, and
visual solutions. Then give each pair of students a copy interest. These problems could also be completed as
of Focus Master F and have them complete selected homework (if so, each student will need a copy of Focus
problems from b)-i). Discuss. Finally, assign Problem 2 Master F).
and discuss the students’ results.
The topics of inverse and direct variation are explored
further in Math Alive! Course IV.
Modeling Situations Lesson 13
Focus Master F
a) yesterday: today:
50
__ of $93.50
Puzzle Problems profit so, $93.50 85

1. For each of the following problems, make sketches that illus- # of 85 50

trate the type of variation given. Then show how to reason from
your sketches to solve the problem. Mark your sketches and write
burgers burgers burgers
equations to show your thinking and calculations.

a) The amount of profit for burger sales at Al’s Burger Bar varies
Since Al sold 50 ⁄ 85 of 85, or 50, burgers today,
directly with the number of burgers sold. During the lunch rush his profit today was 50 ⁄ 85 of $93.50 = $55.
yesterday Al sold 85 burgers and made $93.50 profit. During
lunch today, Al sold 50 burgers. What was his profit today?
Another approach is to determine that the amount of
b) Each year the Math Club receives the same grant for students
to attend the state math contest. The amount each student re- profit per burger is $93.50 ÷ 85 = $1.10, and then multi-
ceives varies inversely with the number of Math Club students
who attend the contest. Last year 12 students each received $25.
ply to determine that the total profit for 50 burgers is
If 16 students attend this year, what amount will each receive? 50 × $1.10 = $55.
c) The amount raised during the school magazine subscription
sale varies directly with the number of sales. This week the stu- b)
dents raised $630 from sales of 450 subscriptions. If they sell 550
subscriptions this week, how much will they earn?
number $300
d) The distance an object falls in a given time varies directly as
the square of the time. A certain object falls 64 feet in 2 seconds
of students (constant)
and hits the ground in 5 seconds. From what height did the object
fall?
money per
e) The current in a simple electrical circuit varies inversely with student
the resistance. If the current is 20 amps when the resistance is 5
ohms, what is the current if the resistance is 8 ohms?
last this
so, year: year:

(Continued on back.)
12 300 300
12 × 16
__
12
25

25 × 12
__ = 18.75
16

Since the number of students this year is the

number last year multiplied by 16 ⁄ 12 (i.e.,
12 × 16 ⁄ 12 = 16) and since the grant amount
does not change, then the amount per student
1
is multiplied by 1612 = 12 ⁄ 16. Hence, each student
receives $25 × 12 ⁄ 16 = $18.75. Note: some stu-
dents may work with 12 ⁄ 16 = 3⁄ 4 and 16 ⁄ 12 = 4 ⁄ 3 .

(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 361

Lesson 13 Modeling Situations
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

21 (continued.)
c)

amount so, For every 50 magazines sold, the students earn

$630 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70 70
$70, so an increase of 100 magazines earns an
earned
additional $140. Hence, for 550 magazines stu-
450 50 $630 earned
number of 450 100 dents earn $770. That is, the ratio 450 magazines
is
magazines $770 earned
equal to the ratio 550 magazines .

distance d)
64 ?
(time)2 so, 22 52 = 25

1
__
4
of 64
16
Lesson 13 Modeling Situations 64 64 64 64 64 64
Focus Master F (cont.)

4 4 4 4 4 4 1

f) To predict the weight of his sculptures, Jim noticed that for his 1
latest design, the weight of a statue seems to vary directly as the
__ of 4
4
cube of its height. What will Jim predict a 5 foot statue will weigh,
if a statue that is 12⁄ 3 feet high weighs 15 pounds?
Since the square of the time (i.e., 22 = 4) is mul-
g) Assuming that the temperature does not change, the pressure
a gas exerts varies inversely with the volume of the gas. If a gas
tiplied by 61 ⁄ 4 to get 25, then the distance (i.e.,
has a volume of 76 cubic inches when the pressure is 16 pounds 64 feet) is multiplied by 61 ⁄ 4 to get 400 feet.
per square inch, what is the volume when the pressure is 64
pounds per square inch?
e)
h) The weight of an object above the surface of the earth varies
inversely as the square of its distance from the center of the resistance constant so,
earth. How much does a person who weighs 100 pounds on earth
weigh when 1000 miles above the earth’s surface? Assume the current
radius of the earth to be 4000 miles. 20
i) Challenge. The length of a piece of wire varies directly as the 5 ohms 8
__ ×5=8
weight of the wire and inversely as the square of the diameter of 5
its cross section. If a 100 foot piece of wire weighs 6 pounds and 20 amps
has a 1 ⁄ 8 inch diameter, how long is 9 pounds of wire of the same
material but with a 1⁄ 16 inch diameter? 20 × 5
__ = 100
___
8 8

2. Describe a situation (other than those given in Problem 1) from Since current and resistance vary inversely and
everyday life that involves direct variation and a situation that in-
volves inverse variation. since the resistance, 5, is multiplied by 8 ⁄ 5 (i.e.,
8 ⁄ 5 × 5 = 8), then the current is multiplied by 5 ⁄ 8 ,

the reciprocal of 8 ⁄ 5 . Hence, for 8 ohms of re-

sistance the current is 20 × 5 ⁄ 8 = 100 ⁄ 8 = 12.5
amps.

f)
5 3 125 125
__ = ___ ft. 53 = 125 = ___ × 27
(height)3 3 27 27

weight so, 15 lbs 15 × 27 = 405 lbs

Since the height cubed of a 15 pound statue is

multiplied by 27 to get the height cubed of a 5
foot statue (i.e., 125 ⁄ 27 × 27 = 125 = 53), then the
weight of a 15 pound statue is multiplied by 27
to get the weight of a 5 foot statue, 15 × 27 =
405 pounds.

362 / Math Alive! Course III

Modeling Situations Lesson 13
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

g) Since pressure and volume vary inversely and

since the pressure is multiplied by 4, then the
volume is multiplied by 1 ⁄ 4 . So, when pressure
is 16 × 4 = 64 psi, the volume is 76 × 1 ⁄ 4 = 19 cu-
bic inches, as shown below.
76
___ = 16
4
volume 76
pressure constant so, 16 constant

16 × 4

h) Since weight varies inversely with distance

squared, and since 50002 = 40002 × 5000
2

4000 2
, a 100
pound person who is 4000 miles from the
earth’s center weighs 100 × 5000
4000 2 = 64 pounds
2

when 5000 miles from the earth’s center:

50002
(distance)2 (4000)2 40002 × ______
40002
= 50002
50002 40002
weight constant so, 100 lbs 100 ÷ ______
40002
= 100 × ______
50002
= 64 pounds

i) Since length and weight vary directly, multiply-

ing the weight, 6 pounds, of 1 ⁄ 8 " wire by 1.5
multiplies the length, 100, by 1.5. Hence, a 150
foot length of 1 ⁄ 8 " wire weighs 9 lbs, as shown
here:

length 100 ft. 1.5 × 100 = 150 ft.

weight so, 6 lbs. 6 × 1.5 = 9 lbs.

Since the diameter squared for a 1 ⁄ 8 " diameter

wire is multiplied by 1 ⁄ 4 to get the diameter
squared for a 1 ⁄ 16" wire, i.e., (1 ⁄ 8 )2 × 1 ⁄ 4 = (1 ⁄ 16 )2,
and since length varies inversely with diameter
squared, then the length of the 1 ⁄ 8 " wire is multi-
plied by 4 (the reciprocal of 1 ⁄ 4 ) to get the length
of the 1 ⁄ 16 " wire. Hence, a 1 ⁄ 16 " wire that weighs
9 pounds is 150 × 4 = 600 feet long, as shown
here:
length 150 ft. 150 × 4 = 600 ft.
1
___
256
1
__
(diameter)2 constant so, 64
constant

150 ft.
1 2 1 1 2 1
8 × 4
__ __ __ ___
Note: = 16 = 256

Math Alive! Course III / 363

Lesson 13 Modeling Situations

TEACHER NOTES:

364 / Math Alive! Course III

Modeling Situations Lesson 13

Follow-up Student Activity 13.1

NAME DATE

1␣ ␣ Investigate the following situation and write a detailed summary of

your investigation, including: what you do and how you do it (don’t
forget to tell what doesn’t work, as well as what does), what conclu-
sions you make and how you know they are true, what you conjecture
and why, what you wonder about when you finish, and how long you
spend on the investigation.

If rectangles are formed on grids so the edges of the rectangles

lie along grid lines, some rectangles can be cut along grid lines
to form 2 congruent staircases and others cannot. Note: as-
sume 1 stairstep is a 1 × 1 square of the grid.

2␣ ␣ For each of the following puzzle problems, make a sketch that illus-
trates the mathematical conditions of the problem. Then reason from
your sketch to solve the problem. Mark each sketch to show your
thinking and reasoning. If needed to fully communicate your thought
processes and calculations, add brief comments next to each diagram.

a) If each side of Square X increases by 3 feet, the area increases by 63

square feet. What is the perimeter of Square X?

b) Two cars start from points 400 miles apart and travel toward each
other. They meet after 4 hours. Find the average speed of each car if
one travels 20 miles per hour faster than the other.

c) An ice-skating rink is 30 meters by 20 meters. Plans are made to

double the rink’s area by first adding a rectangular strip along one end
of the rink, and then adding a strip of the same width along one side
retaining a rectangular shape for the rink. What will be the width of
these strips?

d) Four times the larger of 2 numbers exceeds their sum by 25; four
times the smaller number exceeds their difference by 1. What are the
numbers?

e) The length of a room is 3 feet more than its width. If the length
increases by 3 feet and the width decreases by 2 feet, the area of the
floor does not change. What are the dimensions of the room?

(Continued on back.)
Math Alive! Course III / 365
Lesson 13 Modeling Situations
Follow-up Student Activity (cont.)

f) Kay added a set of consecutive integers, 1 + 2 + 3 + … + n, to get

the total 990. What is n?

g) If the length of each side of a square is decreased by 20%, the

area is decreased by 72 square inches. What is the length of an edge
of the original square.

h) What are 3 consecutive odd numbers whose sum is 213?

i) What is the length of the side of a square whose diagonal is 10

inches longer than the side?

j) At Henry High School, 1 less than 1 ⁄ 5 of the students are seniors,

3 less than 1⁄ 4 are juniors, 7 ⁄ 20 are freshmen, and the remaining 28
students are sophomores. How many students attend Henry High?

k) If 40 cc of a 40% acid solution, 70 cc of a 50% acid solution, and

50 cc of pure acid are combined, what % acid solution results?

l) How many cubic centimeters of pure sulfuric acid must be added

to 100 cc of a 40% solution to obtain a 60% solution?

m) If 8 shillings and 5 francs are worth $2.14, and 9 shillings and 70

francs are worth $15.54, what is the value of a shilling and the value
of a franc?

n) A bag contains only white balls and black balls. Ten more than
1⁄ 2
the total number of balls are black, and 6 more than 1⁄ 2 the num-
ber of black balls are white. If 1 ball is randomly selected at random
from the bag, what is the probability it will be white?

3␣ ␣ Select 3 or more of the puzzle problems from Problem 2 and

write algebraic equations to represent important parts of your
sketches and the steps of your thought processes. Be sure to tell
what each variable and equation represents.

4␣ ␣ Use diagrams and brief explanations to show what each of the

following means: a) direct variation and b) inverse variation. For
each of a) and b), describe an everyday situation involving that type
of variation and make a diagram that illustrates the mathematical
relationships in the situation.

366 / Math Alive! Course III

Modeling Situations Lesson 13
Connector Master A

For each of the following, suppose that whole square

tile are used to form L-shapes.

a) Can 24 square tile be arranged in an L-shape? If so,

in how many ways? What about 36 tile? 45 tile?

b) Determine ways to dissect an L-shape, using only

straight cuts along edges of whole tile, so the pieces
can be reassembled to form a rectangle. What is the
minimum number of cuts necessary for any L-shape?

c) What rectangles can be dissected with exactly 1

straight cut (along edges of whole tile) and
reassembled to form an L-shape?

d) What counting numbers can be written as the differ-

ence of 2 perfect squares? of 2 consecutive perfect
squares? Why?

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 13 Modeling Situations

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Modeling Situations Lesson 13
Focus Master A

Situations
a) The people at a meeting are separated into 2 groups.
The 1st group has 5 less people than 3 times the number
in the 2nd group.
There are 43 people at the meeting.

b) There are 3 numbers.

The 1st number is twice the 2nd number.
The 3rd is twice the 1st.
The sum of the 3 numbers is 112.

c) The sum of 2 numbers is 40.

Their difference is 14.

d) The sides of square A are 2 inches longer than the sides

of square B.
The area of square A is 48 square inches greater than the
area of square B.

e) Melody has $2.75 in dimes and quarters.

She has 14 coins altogether.

f) Three particular integers are consecutive.

The product of the 1st and 2nd integers is 40 less than
the square of the 3rd integer.

g) Karen is 4 times as old as Lucille.

In 6 years, Karen will be 3 times as old as Lucille.

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 13 Modeling Situations
Focus Master B

One pump can fill a tank in 6 hours. Another pump can fill it in 4 hours.
If both pumps are used, how long will it take to fill the tank?
Solution 1

Pump A
1 hour
Pump B
1 hour
Together

1 hour 1 hour 2
__ of 1 hr.
5
So…

Solution 2

Time to fill 1 tank: Pump A

6 hours
Pump B
4 hours

Tanks filled in Pump A

12 hours: 6 hours 6 hours
Pump B
4 hours 4 hours 4 hours

Pumps A and B fill 5 tanks in 12 hours; so…

Solution 3
Pump A fills 4 subdivisions in 1 hour.
Pump B fills 6 subdivisions in 1 hour.
1
__ 1
__ Together, they fill 10 subdivisions in
Pump A fills 6
tank Pump B fills 4
tank
in 1 hour. in 1 hour. 1 hour:

1 hour

1 hour

4
__
10 hour

So…

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Modeling Situations Lesson 13
Focus Master C

More Situations

a) A tank has 2 drains of different sizes.

If both drains are used, it takes 3 hours to empty the tank.
If only the first drain is used, it takes 7 hours to empty the tank.
On Tuesday only the 2nd drain is used to empty the tank.

b) Yesterday Maria and Lisa together had 20 library books.

Today Maria and Lisa visited the library; Lisa checked out new
books and now has double the number of books that she had
yesterday; Maria returned 3 of her books.
Now Maria and Lisa together have 30 books.

c) Of the students in Ms. Quan’s class, 3⁄ 5 are girls.

Ms. Nelson’s class joined Ms. Quan’s for a project; this doubled
the number of boys and increased the number of girls by 6.
There are an equal number of boys and girls in the combined
class.

d) On Moe’s walk home from school, after 1 mile he stopped for

a drink of water.
Next, Moe walked 1⁄ 2 the remaining distance and stopped to
rest at the park bench.
When Moe reached the park bench, he still needed to walk 1
mile more than 1 ⁄ 3 the total distance from school to his home.

e) Jill has a gallon of paint that contains 20% red paint and 80%
blue paint.
Jill adds more red paint until she has 50% red paint.

f) Standard quality coffee sells for $18.00 per kg.

Prime quality coffee sells for $24.00 per kg.
Every Saturday morning Moonman’s Coffee Shop grinds a
40kg batch of a standard/prime blend to sell for $22.50/kg.

(Continued on back.)
© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 13 Modeling Situations
Focus Master C (cont.)

g) Alex’s collection of nickels, dimes, and quarters has 3 fewer

nickels than dimes and 3 more quarters than dimes.
Alex’s collection is worth $4.20.

h) For a school play, Kyle sold 6 adult tickets and 15 student

tickets.
Kyle collected $48 for his ticket sales.
Matt sold 8 adult tickets and 7 student tickets for the same
school play.
Matt collected $38 for his ticket sales.

i) The doctor mixed a 1200 ml of an 85% sugar solution (i.e., the

container is 85% sugar and the rest is water).
The nurse added enough of a 40% sugar solution to create a
60% solution.

j) On Wednesday, Steve drove from Gillette to Spearfish in 1 hr.

and 30 min.
On Thursday, driving 8 miles per hour faster, Steve made the
return trip in 1 hr. and 20 min.

k) Michael averaged 78 points on 3 history tests.

His score on the 1st test was 86 points.
His average for the 1st 2 tests was 3 points more than his
score on the 3rd test.

l) Traveling by train and then by bus, a 1200 mile trip took Wally
17 hours.
The train averaged 75 mph and the bus averaged 60 mph.

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Modeling Situations Lesson 13
Focus Master D

a) The difference between 2 numbers is 6.

The sum of their squares is 1476.

b) The length of a rectangle is 6 units less than twice

its width.
Its area is 836 square units.

c) The product of 2 consecutive even numbers is 2808.

d) The perimeter of a certain rectangle is 92 linear units.

The area of the rectangle is 493 square units.

e) The sum of 2 numbers is 32.

The sum of the squares of the numbers is 520.

f) A 40 foot by 60 foot rectangular garden is bordered

by a sidewalk of uniform width.
The area of the sidewalk is 864 square feet.

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 13 Modeling Situations
Focus Master E

Situation A
There are several lifeboats on the USS Mathstar, and
each lifeboat has enough rations to last 120 people for
8 days. The number of days that rations will last varies
inversely with the number of people in a lifeboat. In a
storm, the USS Mathstar sinks; 40 people climb
aboard Lifeboat A.

Situation B
Ollie’s wages vary directly with the time he works. Last
week his wages for 20 hours of work were $350. This
week he will work 44 hours.

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Modeling Situations Lesson 13
Focus Master F

Puzzle Problems

1. For each of the following problems, make sketches that illus-

trate the type of variation given. Then show how to reason from
your sketches to solve the problem. Mark your sketches and write
equations to show your thinking and calculations.

a) The amount of profit for burger sales at Al’s Burger Bar varies
directly with the number of burgers sold. During the lunch rush
yesterday Al sold 85 burgers and made $93.50 profit. During
lunch today, Al sold 50 burgers. What was his profit today?

b) Each year the Math Club receives the same grant for students
to attend the state math contest. The amount each student re-
ceives varies inversely with the number of Math Club students
who attend the contest. Last year 12 students each received $25.
If 16 students attend this year, what amount will each receive?

c) The amount raised during the school magazine subscription

sale varies directly with the number of sales. This week the stu-
dents raised $630 from sales of 450 subscriptions. If they sell 550
subscriptions this week, how much will they earn?

d) The distance an object falls in a given time varies directly as

the square of the time. A certain object falls 64 feet in 2 seconds
and hits the ground in 5 seconds. From what height did the object
fall?

e) The current in a simple electrical circuit varies inversely with

the resistance. If the current is 20 amps when the resistance is 5
ohms, what is the current if the resistance is 8 ohms?

(Continued on back.)
© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 13 Modeling Situations
Focus Master F (cont.)

f) To predict the weight of his sculptures, Jim noticed that for his
latest design, the weight of a statue seems to vary directly as the
cube of its height. What will Jim predict a 5 foot statue will weigh,
if a statue that is 12⁄ 3 feet high weighs 15 pounds?

g) Assuming that the temperature does not change, the pressure

a gas exerts varies inversely with the volume of the gas. If a gas
has a volume of 76 cubic inches when the pressure is 16 pounds
per square inch, what is the volume when the pressure is 64
pounds per square inch?

h) The weight of an object above the surface of the earth varies

inversely as the square of its distance from the center of the
earth. How much does a person who weighs 100 pounds on earth
weigh when 1000 miles above the earth’s surface? Assume the
radius of the earth to be 4000 miles.

i) Challenge. The length of a piece of wire varies directly as the

weight of the wire and inversely as the square of the diameter of
its cross section. If a 100 foot piece of wire weighs 6 pounds and
has a 1 ⁄ 8 inch diameter, how long is 9 pounds of wire of the same
material but with a 1⁄ 16 inch diameter?

2. Describe a situation (other than those given in Problem 1) from

everyday life that involves direct variation and a situation that in-
volves inverse variation.

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Modeling Situations Lesson 13

Follow-up Student Activity 13.1

NAME DATE

1␣␣Investigate the following situation and write a detailed summary of

your investigation, including: what you do and how you do it (don’t
forget to tell what doesn’t work, as well as what does), what conclu-
sions you make and how you know they are true, what you conjecture
and why, what you wonder about when you finish, and how long you
spend on the investigation.

If rectangles are formed on grids so the edges of the rectangles

lie along grid lines, some rectangles can be cut along grid lines
to form 2 congruent staircases and others cannot. Note: as-
sume 1 stairstep is a 1 × 1 square of the grid.

2␣␣For each of the following puzzle problems, make a sketch that illus-
trates the mathematical conditions of the problem. Then reason from
your sketch to solve the problem. Mark each sketch to show your
thinking and reasoning. If needed to fully communicate your thought
processes and calculations, add brief comments next to each diagram.

a) If each side of Square X increases by 3 feet, the area increases by 63

square feet. What is the perimeter of Square X?

b) Two cars start from points 400 miles apart and travel toward each
other. They meet after 4 hours. Find the average speed of each car if
one travels 20 miles per hour faster than the other.

c) An ice-skating rink is 30 meters by 20 meters. Plans are made to

double the rink’s area by first adding a rectangular strip along one end
of the rink, and then adding a strip of the same width along one side
retaining a rectangular shape for the rink. What will be the width of
these strips?

d) Four times the larger of 2 numbers exceeds their sum by 25; four
times the smaller number exceeds their difference by 1. What are the
numbers?

e) The length of a room is 3 feet more than its width. If the length
increases by 3 feet and the width decreases by 2 feet, the area of the
floor does not change. What are the dimensions of the room?

(Continued on back.)

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 13 Modeling Situations
Follow-up Student Activity (cont.)

f) Kay added a set of consecutive integers, 1 + 2 + 3 + … + n, to get

the total 990. What is n?

g) If the length of each side of a square is decreased by 20%, the

area is decreased by 72 square inches. What is the length of an edge
of the original square.

h) What are 3 consecutive odd numbers whose sum is 213?

i) What is the length of the side of a square whose diagonal is 10

inches longer than the side?

j) At Henry High School, 1 less than 1 ⁄ 5 of the students are seniors,

3 less than 1⁄ 4 are juniors, 7 ⁄ 20 are freshmen, and the remaining 28
students are sophomores. How many students attend Henry High?

k) If 40 cc of a 40% acid solution, 70 cc of a 50% acid solution, and

50 cc of pure acid are combined, what % acid solution results?

l) How many cubic centimeters of pure sulfuric acid must be added

to 100 cc of a 40% solution to obtain a 60% solution?

m) If 8 shillings and 5 francs are worth $2.14, and 9 shillings and 70

francs are worth $15.54, what is the value of a shilling and the value
of a franc?

n) A bag contains only white balls and black balls. Ten more than
1⁄ 2
the total number of balls are black, and 6 more than 1⁄ 2 the num-
ber of black balls are white. If 1 ball is randomly selected at random
from the bag, what is the probability it will be white?

3␣␣Select 3 or more of the puzzle problems from Problem 2 and

write algebraic equations to represent important parts of your
sketches and the steps of your thought processes. Be sure to tell
what each variable and equation represents.

4␣␣Use diagrams and brief explanations to show what each of the

following means: a) direct variation and b) inverse variation. For
each of a) and b), describe an everyday situation involving that type
of variation and make a diagram that illustrates the mathematical
relationships in the situation.

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Analyzing Graphs
Analyzing Graphs Lesson 14 Lesson 14

.
.
.
.
THE BIG IDEA .. CONNECTOR
.
. OVERVIEW MATERIALS FOR TEACHER ACTIVITY
Analyzing the graphs .
.
. Students discuss their suc- ✔ Focus Student Activity ✔ Graphing calculator for
and Algebra Piece .
. cesses and challenges with 12.4 (see Lesson 12), the overhead (optional).
.
representations of . the graphing calculator ex- each student needs their ✔ Butcher paper, 1 sheet
.
. ploration started in the last completed copy. per class.
families of linear and .
. action of Lesson 12. ✔ Graphing calculators,
.
quadratic equations . 1 per student.
.
prompts intuitions and ..
.
.
conjectures about the .
. FOCUS
general characteristics ..
. OVERVIEW MATERIALS FOR TEACHER ACTIVITY
of linear and quadratic ..
. Students use graphing cal- ✔ Focus Master A, 1 trans- ✔ Algebra Pieces for each
.
functions. Exploring a . culators to graph, solve, parency. student.
.
. and evaluate linear and ✔ Focus Masters B-C, ✔ Algebra Pieces for the
variety of equation .
. quadratic equations and 1 copy of each per group overhead.
.
solving options—“by- . inequalities. Special func- and 1 transparency of
. ✔ Graphing calculators,
tions of graphing calcula-
hand” graphs, graphing .. each. 1 per student.
. tors provide information
. ✔ Focus Master D, 1 copy ✔ Graphing calculator for
calculators, Algebra . about graphs of everyday
. per student and 1 trans- the overhead (optional).
. situations. Students com-
Pieces, algebra sym- . parency.
. pare the advantages and
. ✔ Focus Student Activities
bols, and mental . disadvantages of the graph-
. 14.1-14.2, 1 copy of each
. ing calculator as a tool for
methods—provides . per student and 1 trans-
. solving and graphing equa-
. parency.
students a powerful . tions to by-hand graphing,
.
. Algebra Piece and symbolic
“tool kit” of problem- .
. methods, and mental strate-
.
solving strategies. . gies.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
FOLLOW-UP
.
. OVERVIEW MATERIALS FOR STUDENT ACTIVITY
.
. Students use graphs to rep- ✔ Student Activity 14.3,
.
. resent and solve equations 1 copy per student.
.
. and system of equations.
. ✔ Coordinate grid paper
. They write math expres-
. (see Blackline Masters),
. sions that represent graphs
. 6 sheets per student.
. of equations and inequali-
.
. ties. They use graphs to
.
. solve problems regarding
.
. ice cream sales.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

Math Alive! Course III / 367

Lesson 14 Analyzing Graphs

LESSON IDEAS TEACHER NOTES:

. QUOTE
.
. Calculators and computers
.
. with appropriate software
.
. transform the mathemat-
.
. ics classroom into a labo-
.
. ratory much like the envi-
.
. ronment in many science
.
. classes, where students
.
. use technology to investi-
.
. gate, conjecture, and
.
. verify their findings. In this
.
. setting, the teacher en-
.
. courages experimentation
.
. and provides opportuni-
.
. ties for students to sum-
.
. marize ideas and establish
.
. connections with previ-
.
. ously studied topics.
.
.
. NCTM Standards

SELECTED ANSWERS

2. Coordinates of points of intersection to nearest tenth:

a) (–1.2,4.1) d) (–2.3,6.7) and (.6,2.9)
b) no points of intersection e) (3.8,1.1) and (–1.6,5.2)
c) (1,5) f) (0,–2)

5. a) y = (–3⁄4)x + 3; function; domain and range are all real

numbers.

b) y = –|x | or y = x for x ≤ 0, –x for x > 0. This is a func-

tion with domain all real numbers and range all
nonpositive real numbers.

c) x > 3, i.e., the region to the right of the vertical line

x = 3. Not a function.
d) y ≥ x 2 + 3; not a function.

e) y < 2x + 1; not a function.

f) Parabola y = –x 2 – 1; function; domain all real num-

bers and range all real numbers less than or equal to –1.

6. a) y1 = 200 + .25x
b) y2 = 1.5x
d) 161 (for 160, expenses = income)
e) y2 – y1 for x = $300,
or 1.5($300) – [$200 + .25($300)] = $175

368 / Math Alive! Course III

Analyzing Graphs Lesson 14

Connector Teacher Activity

OVERVIEW & PURPOSE MATERIALS
Students discuss their successes and challenges with the ✔ Focus Student Activity 12.4 (see Lesson 12), each
graphing calculator exploration started in the last action of student needs their completed copy.
Lesson 12. ✔ Graphing calculators, 1 per student.
✔ Graphing calculator for the overhead (optional).
✔ Butcher paper, 1 sheet per class.

ACTIONS COMMENTS

1␣ ␣ Arrange the students in groups and ask them to get 1␣ ␣ It isn’t necessary to immediately address every ques-
out their completed copies of Focus Student Activity tion that students post. Rather, you might discuss a few
12.4 (the graphing calculator checklists distributed in questions now and leave the list posted for reference
Lesson 12). Have the groups do a round robin share in throughout this lesson. Periodically, you might check to
which group members describe the calculator functions see if there are questions that need attention, ones that
they find difficult to use and those they feel most com- can be crossed off, or others that need to be added.
fortable using. Allow a few minutes for groups to discuss
these and to determine 2 or 3 questions about the use of An overhead graphing calculator and/or a transparency
the calculator to pose to the class. Post one sheet of of a calculator keyboard are convenient for demonstra-
butcher paper on the wall. As the groups report their tions and discussion. Calculator manuals should be
lists of questions, record the questions on the butcher referenced for specific procedures.
paper. Invite individuals to add any other questions
they feel are especially important. Discuss 2 or 3 of the
listed questions.

Continuous Graphs Lesson 12 Lesson 12 Continuous Graphs

Focus Student Activity 12.4 (cont.)
Focus Student Activity 12.4
____ view a TABLE of x- and y-coordinates of an equation
NAME DATE ____ view a table of coordinates of 2 equations listed simulta-
neously
Although you will have many opportunities during this course to ____ use a table to find when 0 = 5x + 1
become familiar with your graphing calculator, it will be helpful if ____ clear MEMory
you are comfortable with the functions listed below as soon as pos- ____ reset defaults in MEMory
sible. Please investigate each function on your calculator and, if ____ solve equations using the “solver” function from the MATH
needed, in your calculator manual. A way to test yourself to see if menu
you can comfortably use and recall a calculator function is to dem- ____ use the “maximum” and minimum” functions from the
onstrate its use to someone else (a family member, a classmate, a CALC menu to find the turning point of a parabola
neighbor, etc.). Try to check off all functions in Part 1 below by the ____ use the “intersect” function from the CALC menu to find the
following date _________________. intersection of 2 graphs
____ use the “zero” function from the CALC menu to find the x-
1␣ ␣ I am comfortable using the following calculator functions: intercepts of a graph
____ use the “value” function from the CALC menu to find v(x) for
____ ON/OFF specific values of x
____ CLEAR the screen ____ set the graphing style to shade the region above a graph; the
____ show blank coordinate axes in the calculator viewing screen region below a graph
____ move the cursor around a blank coordinate axes
____ change the viewing WINDOW size
____ FORMAT the axes 2␣ ␣ Here are some other graphing calculator functions that I can use:
____ determine the “standard” WINDOW size on my calculator
(on many it is –10 ≤ x ≤ 10 and –10 ≤ y ≤ 10)
____ enter an equation y =
____ GRAPH an equation y =
____ TRACE a graph (What shows on the screen when you do this?)
____ ZOOM in on a graph
____ ZOOM in again—and again
____ ZOOM out on a graph
____ ZOOM back to the standard window
____ TRACE the graph of a function to determine the approximate
value of the function at x = 0, x = 19.75, and x = –37.5
____ TRACE the graph of a function to determine the value of x 3␣ ␣ Here are some other functions I have tried but don’t understand.
when y = 75, when y = –75
____ GRAPH 2 equations on the same coordinate axes.
____ TRACE to approximate the intersection of 2 graphs
____ ZOOM and TRACE to improve your approximation
____ DRAW a horizontal line on coordinate axes and slide the line
up and down
____ DRAW a vertical line on coordinate axes and slide the line left
and right

(Continued on back.)

Math Alive! Course III / 369

Lesson 14 Analyzing Graphs

TEACHER NOTES:

370 / Math Alive! Course III

Analyzing Graphs Lesson 14

Focus Teacher Activity

OVERVIEW & PURPOSE MATERIALS
Students use graphing calculators to graph, solve, and evalu- ✔ Focus Master A, 1 transparency.
ate linear and quadratic equations and inequalities. Special ✔ Focus Masters B-C, 1 copy of each per group and
functions of graphing calculators provide information about 1 transparency of each.
graphs of everyday situations. Students compare the advan-
✔ Focus Master D, 1 copy per student and 1 transpar-
tages and disadvantages of the graphing calculator as a tool
ency.
for solving and graphing equations to by-hand graphing,
Algebra Piece and symbolic methods, and mental strategies. ✔ Focus Student Activities 14.1-14.2, 1 copy of each per
student and 1 transparency.
✔ Algebra Pieces for each student.
✔ Algebra Pieces for the overhead.
✔ Graphing calculators, 1 per student.
✔ Graphing calculator for the overhead (optional).

ACTIONS COMMENTS

1␣ ␣ Arrange the students in groups and distribute Algebra 1␣ ␣ Students investigated continuous sequences of count-
Pieces to each student. Write the formula v(x) = –3x + 5 ing piece arrangements in Lesson 12 of this course.
on the overhead and tell the students that this formula Several Algebra Piece arrangements for the given se-
represents the xth arrangement of a continuous se- quence are shown below.
quence of counting piece arrangements. Ask the groups
to form the –3rd, –2nd, –1st, 0th, 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and xth
arrangements of this sequence. Discuss.

–2nd –1st 0 1st 2nd xth

oooo oooo oooo

oooo oooo oooo

… …

2␣ ␣ Ask the students to leave the arrangements formed in 2␣ In the above sequence, each time the arrangement
Action 1 on their desks/tables and to imagine the graph number increases by 1, the value of the arrangement
of y = –3x + 5 in enough detail that they can “see” im- decreases by 3. Hence, the graph of y = –3x + 5 is a line
portant features of the graph. Ask for volunteers to that falls from left to right at the rate of 3 vertical units
sketch and explain their ideas at the overhead. Use this for every 1 horizontal unit, i.e., its slope is –3. The line
as a context for recalling the terms slope, x-intercept, passes through the y-axis at the point (0,5), the y-inter-
and y-intercept, and how to determine the value of each. cept.

If it hasn’t come up previously, point out to students Some students may predict the x-intercept as “a point
that an x-intercept of a graph is also referred to as a zero on the x-axis between x = 1 and x = 2, and closer to 2.”
of the equation, since it is a point where the value of y is Others may mentally solve the equation –3x + 5 = 0 to
zero. determine the x-intercept is x = 5 ⁄ 3 . And, some may use
Algebra Piece representations of y = –3x + 5 or use alge-
bra symbols to solve for x when y = 0.

Still others may note that, since the slope is –3, the line
drops 3 units vertically for every 1 unit of horizontal
change (to the right), or down 1 unit for every 1 ⁄ 3 unit to
the right. Hence, since the y–intercept is at (0,5), one
can drop down 3 units and move to the right 1 unit to
locate the point (1,2) and from there move down 2 units
and over 2 ⁄ 3 unit to locate the x-intercept.

Math Alive! Course III / 371

Lesson 14 Analyzing Graphs
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

3␣ ␣ If it didn’t come up in Actions 1 or 2, ask the groups 3␣ ␣ The slope of a line is the ratio of the difference in the
to determine how the slope, y-intercept, and x-intercept values of 2 arrangements to the difference in the corre-
of the graph relate to the arrangements formed in Ac- sponding arrangement numbers. The value of the y-in-
tion 1. Discuss. tercept is the value of the 0th arrangement. The x-inter-
cept is the number of the arrangement whose value is 0.

4␣ ␣ Distribute graphing calculators (if students don’t 4␣ ␣ If the calculators were used by other classes, students
have them). Ask the students to graph v(x) = –3x + 5 on may need to clear or turn off graphs that were stored in
their calculators, and to determine various methods of the calculator.
using a graphing calculator to determine a) below.
Discuss their ideas regarding the advantages and disad- Throughout this lesson students have opportunities to
vantages of the graphing calculator methods when use the calculator functions that were listed on Focus
compared to: hand graphing, mental strategies, and Student Activity 12.4, and they are introduced to other
algebraic procedures (either with Algebra Pieces or with functions as needed or appropriate for use in the activ-
symbols representing the pieces). Are some methods ity. The names of functions and menus that are refer-
more reasonable than others for this problem? Why? enced in this lesson may vary among calculator brands,
Repeat for b) and c). and some brands may not have some of the functions.
Hence, you may need to adapt some actions according
a) the x-intercept to the calculators used by your students. All of the
examples described in this lesson are based on the TI-83.
b) the y-intercept
a) The students should notice that the TRACE function
c) the point where x = 49 can give a very close “approximation” for the x-inter-
cept, but not necessarily an exact value. A series of traces
and zooms for y = –3x + 5 is shown below at the left. Each
ZOOM obtains a closer approximation of the x-intercept.
Using ZOOM and TRACE to locate the x-intercept:
Many students may suggest that mentally calculating
1st trace: Trace after 1st zoom: the x-intercept (by mentally determining when 0 =
–3x + 5) is simple and therefore using the calculator is
not needed to compute the x-intercept. And others may
note that symbolic procedures are quick and exact for
this equation. Two important purposes of this lesson are
for students to: 1) develop a “tool kit” of options for
graphing and solving equations and 2) develop a sense
X = 1.91 Y = –.74 X = 1.65 Y = –.05 for the appropriate uses of the available options.

On the TI-83, for example, the “zero” and “intersect”

Trace after 2nd zoom: Trace after 3rd zoom: functions from the CALC menu, are both appropriate for
locating the x-intercept. The “solver” function from the
MATH menu can also be used to determine the value of x
for which 0 = –3x + 5. Or, students may use the table
function.

b) Students may feel that mentally evaluating the equa-

X = 1.67 Y = –.02 X = 1.666 Y = –.0033 tion at x = 0, by substituting 0 for x to get y = (–3)(0) + 5
= 5 is the most “reasonable” approach for finding the y-
intercept of this equation. However, on the TI-83, for
example, they could also use the “value” function from
the CALC menu by entering the value 0 for x. Or, they
may ZOOM and TRACE the graph.

372 / Math Alive! Course III

Analyzing Graphs Lesson 14
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

Use WINDOW to set minimum and maximums: c) Students may graph y = –3x + 5 in a standard window
x min 0 x max 50 and attempt tracing the graph to determine the y value
y min –150 y max 20 for x = 49. However, this is not possible if x = 49 is
outside the viewing window. (Note: in graphing calcula-
tors there is a standard default viewing window, such as
[–10,10] for y, and [–10,10] for x.) Hence, use the WINDOW
y = –3x + 5 function to resize the window so that x = 49 is included
and so the corresponding y-value also appears (see
example at the left). This requires making a mental
estimate of the y-value when x = 49. For example, one
X= 49 Y= –142 could note that y = –3(49) + 5 should be a little more
than –3(50), and therefore, set the minimum y at –150.
The y-value at x = 49.
Once y = –3x + 5 is entered in the calculator and the
window is set so that x = 49 is included, one can also use
the “value” function from the TI-83 CALC menu. Or,
some students may “see” v(x) using Algebra Pieces:

oooo oooo oooo

oooo oooo oooo

If 49 then – 49
– 49 3(–49) + 5
– 49

5␣ ␣ Ask the students to determine various methods of 5␣ ␣ As students discuss the advantages and disadvantages
identifying the points on y = –3x + 5 where the follow- of various techniques, you might encourage them to
ing are true. Discuss. make connections among the representations they use
for these techniques. For example, a particular counting
a) y = –75 piece arrangement corresponds to a point on the graph;
a point on the graph can be described by a pair of val-
b) y = 102 ⁄ 3 ues, x and y; and the relationship between the values x
and y can be described by a general formula (in this case,
c) x = –28.75 y = –3x + 5). Understanding connections among these
mathematical representations empowers students as
d) x = 10 algebraic thinkers.

e) x = 257 The intent here is to have students continue exploring

various techniques for solving and evaluating equations
while developing comfort with the techniques and a
sense about their appropriate uses. Following are some
methods that students may suggest. Others are possible
(e.g., although not discussed in this lesson if computers
are available, you might have the students explore the
use of one or more computer graphing utilities).

a) One way to solve –3x + 5 = –75 is to use Algebra Pieces,

as shown below:
–3x +5 –3x
oooo oooo oooo

oooo oooo oooo

oooo oooo oooo

oooo oooo oooo

= –75 so, = –80 and thus, = 80⁄ 3 = 262 ⁄ 3

(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 373

Lesson 14 Analyzing Graphs
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

5 (continued.)
Instead of Algebra Pieces, one can use symbols represent-
ing Algebra Piece actions, as shown here:

–3x + 5 = –75
–3x + 5 – 5 = –75 – 5
–3x = –80
–3x ⁄ 3 = –80 ⁄ 3
1st trace: –x = –80 ⁄ 3
x = 80 ⁄ 3

Another possibility is to adjust the window, then graph

both y = –3x + 5 and y = –75 simultaneously on a graph-
y = –3x + 5 ing calculator, and finally zoom and trace to approxi-
y = –75 mate the x-value where these graphs intersect. (Note: to
determine the window size, one must approximate the
value of x when y = –75). The line y = –75 can be
X= 26.38 Y= –75.16 graphed by using the Y = function and the GRAPH func-
Trace after 1st zoom: tion on the calculator, or by using the “horizontal”
function from the DRAW menu to form a horizontal line
and then slide the horizontal line vertically until it
intersects y = –3x + 5 at y = –75. In the graphs shown at
the left the horizontal axis was set for –10 ≤ x ≤ 50, and
y = –3x + 5 the vertical axis was set for –150 ≤ y ≤ 20.
y = –75
Students could also adjust the window so y = – 75 is
included, then graph the lines y = –3x + 5 and y = –75
X= 26.66 Y= –74.99 simultaneously on the calculator, and finally select the
function “intersect” from the TI-83 CALC menu to deter-
mine the point of intersection.

Yet another method of solving –3x + 5 = –75 is to use the

TI-83 “solver” function from the MATH menu. Since this
function requires that equations be entered in the form
“0 = …,” and since the difference between the values of
the two equations y1 = –75 and y2 = –3x + 5 is zero at the
point of intersection of the lines y1 = –75 and y2 = –3x + 5,
one can enter the equation 0 = (–3x + 5) – (–75), or the
equivalent 0 = –3x + 80, for the calculator to solve.

Still another method is to use the TABLE function from

the graphing calculator to view a table of values for y =
–3x + 5. Scroll to the entry closest to y = –75. Increments
in x may need adjustment in order to locate an x-value
that produces a y-value closer to y = –75.

b) x = –18 ⁄ 9

c) If = –28.75, then –3x + 5

= –3(–28.75) + 5
= 86.25 + 5
= 91.25

374 / Math Alive! Course III

Analyzing Graphs Lesson 14
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

One could also set the window of the graphing calcula-

tor to include x = –28.75 and y = v(–28.75), and then
trace and zoom to approximate v(–28.75) or use the
“value” function from the CALC menu. To determine a
window that will include v(–28.75), one could set the
upper bound for y at v(–30), which is easy to compute
mentally. Another approach is to locate the y-value that
corresponds to x = –28.75 in a table for y = –3x + 5.

d)-e) Methods similar to those used for c) are appropriate

for d) and e).

6␣ ␣ Place a transparency of Focus Master A on the over- 6␣ ␣ a) You may need to remind the students to imagine
head, revealing Part a) only. Discuss the groups’ ideas. and predict the graphs at this point, not to draw or use
Then reveal and discuss Parts b)-d). their calculators. Students may mention differences in
the slope, both its steepness and rise/fall. They may
predict that I and IV are mirror images of each other
Analyzing Graphs Lesson 14
Focus Master A
across the y-axis, as are lines II and III; and many may
point out they all have y-intercept 5.

I y = –3x + 5 b) Here are graphs of the 4 equations. You might suggest

II y = –x + 5
that students be sure to determine the equation associ-
III y=x+5
IV y = 3x + 5
ated with each graph on their calculators.

a) Imagine the graph of each of equations I-IV. What y

similarities and differences does your group predict
about the graphs?

b) Now graph the 4 equations simultaneously on your 5 (0, 5)

graphing calculators. Do the results agree with your
predictions? What else do you notice?

c) Equations I-IV are a “family” of equations. What

x
characteristic(s) do you think make these equations a –5 5
family? What are two other equations that could be-
long to this family?

d) What are similarities and differences among Alge- y=x+5 –5

bra Piece representations of the x th arrangements of
y = –x + 5
the sequences represented by equations I-IV?
y = 3x + 5 y = –3x + 5

c) Some students may describe these as a “family of lines

with a common y-intercept.” Hence, other family mem-
bers could be equations of any lines whose y-intercept is
5. Other students may suggest that the lines must have
slopes of +1, –1, +3, or –3. Still others may say that, for
every line in the family, if the line has slope m, then an-
other family member must have slope –m, and others
may suggest any lines whose slopes are integers and
whose y-intercepts are 5 belong in the family.

(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 375

Lesson 14 Analyzing Graphs
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

6 (continued.)
d) For example, the xth arrangements of the sequences
represented by these equations each contain only x-
frames and 5 units or –x-frames and 5 units.

7␣ ␣ Give each student a copy of Focus Student Activity 7␣ ␣ Students could explore these in groups or individu-
14.1 and repeat Action 6 for 5 or more of the equation ally as homework. And you might create other families
families listed. Encourage conjectures and generaliza- for students to examine, based on mathematical ideas or
tions about relationships between the graph of a line or relationships you feel students need to discuss further or
parabola and the constant, coefficients, and variables in based on prior conjectures that students have made.
the equation for the line or parabola. Encourage discus-
sion about the information revealed by different forms The intent here is for students to continue their search
of an equation (e.g., factored or expanded forms of a for insights about relationships among equations, their
quadratic). graphs, and their Algebra Piece representations. This
search will also extend throughout Math Alive! Course IV.
Analyzing Graphs Lesson 14
Conjectures that surface may shift discussion in a num-
Focus Student Activity 14.1 ber of directions; the direction to pursue can be based
on students’ interest and needs.
NAME DATE

For each equation family below, record the following on separate

paper: 1) Changes in the y-intercept generate a family of paral-
a) your predictions about the graphs of the 4 equations, lel lines, each with slope –3 in this case.
b) your observations about calculator graphs of the equations,
y
c) the characteristic(s) that you think make the equations a family,

d) two additional equations that would fit in the family,

e) similarities and differences among Algebra Piece representations

of the 4 equations.
5

1 I y = –3x + 5 5 I y = (x – 3)(x – 4)
II y = –3x – 5 II y = x 2 – 7x + 12
III y = –3x + 2 III y = (x + 2)(x + 3)
IV y = –3x – 2 IV y = (x + 1)(x – 2)
x
–5 5
2 I y = x2 – 6 6 I y = (x – 2)(x – 5)
II y = x 2 + 6 II y = 2(x – 2)(x – 5)
III y = –x 2 – 6 III y = –(x – 2)(x – 5)
IV y = –(x 2 – 6) IV y = –2(x 2 – 7x + 10)
y = –3x + 5
–5 y = –3x + 2
3 I y = 4x 2 7 I 28x + 8y = 0
II y = ( 1⁄ 4 )x 2 II 7x + 2y = 6
III y = –3x 2 – 6 III 14x + 4y = 4 y = –3x – 2
IV y = (– 3 ⁄ 4)x 2 IV 21x + 6y = –12
y = –3x – 5
4 I y = x(x – 3) 8 I y = –5x + 2⁄ 3
II y = x 2 – 2x
III y = x 2 + 2x
II 3y = –15x + 2
III 0 = –5x – y + 2 ⁄ 3
2) Notice that graphs of equations I and II are identical
IV y = x(x + 3) IV –2 = –15x – 3y
to the parabola y = x2 after translating it 6 units down (I)
or up (II) the y-axis. Similarly, graphs of III and IV are
translations of the parabola, y = –x2, 6 units down (III) or
up (IV) the y-axis. Graphs of II and III are reflections of
each other across the x-axis, as are graphs of I and IV.
Graphs of I and III are reflections of each other across
the line y = –6, while graphs of II and IV are reflections
of each other across the line y = 6.

3) Some may refer to this as a family of quadratic func-

tions whose graphs are parabolas with vertices are on
the y-axis. This is also true for the quadratics in 2) above.

376 / Math Alive! Course III

Analyzing Graphs Lesson 14
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

4) These are all quadratic functions and, when written

in standard form, the coefficients of the x 2 and x terms
are integers and the constant is 0. When expressed in
factored form, all have x as one factor.

Students may be interested in pursuing the effects of

y = x2 adding various x-terms to the equation y = x 2. One inter-
y = x 2 + 2x esting conjecture that may come up is that the vertices
of all the parabolas of the form y = x 2 + bx, where b is a
real number, lie on the parabola y = –x 2 (see left); and
y = x 2 + – 3x vertices of all parabolas of the form y = –x2 + bx lie on
y = –x 2
the parabola y = x2.

5) Some students may call this a family of parabolas that

can be written in the form y = x 2 + bx + c, where b and c
are real numbers not equal to zero. Some may notice
that the x-intercepts of a parabola are easy to identify
when the equation is in factored form (assuming it
factors). For example, if the equation is of the form y =
(x – r)(x – s) , where r and s are real numbers, the x-
intercepts are x = r and x = s.

Notice that when the two factors in equation I are

multiplied, the product is equation II. Hence, equations
I and II have identical graphs, with x-intercepts 3 and 4.

6) Students may describe this as a family of parabolas

whose vertices lie on the vertical line midway between
x = 2 and x = 5, i.e., parabolas whose vertices lie on the
vertical line x = 3.5. For each family member, its reflec-
tion across the x-axis is also in the family. Students may
make conjectures about equations for lines whose
graphs are reflections of each other across the x-axis.
Encourage this. To prompt thinking you might pose
questions, such as, “How can an equation be altered to
create a graph that is a reflection across the y-axis?
across the line y = x?” Note: replacing x with –x in an
equation creates a reflection across the y-axis, and ex-
changing x and y in an equation creates a reflection
across the line y = x; however, students may not reach
these conclusions now.

7) These equations are all written in standard linear

form (ax + by = c). Rewriting each equation in slope-
intercept form shows that all 4 lines have the same slope
but different y-intercepts. Hence, this is a family of
parallel lines with slope –7⁄ 2 . Notice, the standard form
of a linear equation does not give away as many explicit
“clues” about its graph as does the slope-intercept form.

(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 377

Lesson 14 Analyzing Graphs
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

7 (continued.)
8) The graphs of these equations are all identical; hence
the equations are all equivalent. Students may add other
equations equivalent to these, or they may add a set of
equivalent equations that represent another line.

8 Give each student a copy of Focus Student Activity 8␣ ␣ Students could also work independently on Focus
14.2 and ask the groups to complete i)-vi) for the pair of Student Activity 14.2 as homework and then share their
equations given in a). Discuss. Then repeat for b)-g). ideas during group discussions or during class discus-
Encourage students to make conjectures about relation- sions.
ships between equations, their graphs, and their Algebra
Piece representations. a) The absolute value function was introduced in Lesson
12 of this course. On the TI-83, for example, the abso-
lute value function is “abs” in the “NUM” menu of the
Lesson 14 Analyzing Graphs MATH menu.

Focus Student Activity 14.2

Many students will probably create a family of equations
NAME DATE
of the form y = |x| + b, where b is a real number. Adding
For each pair of equations given in a)-g): b to |x| in y = |x| shifts the graph of y = |x| up or down
i) Sketch and label counting piece arrangements to represent y1 for
x = –3, –2, –1, 0, 1, 2, and 3, and sketch an Algebra Piece representa-
the y-axis, depending on whether b is a positive or
tion of the xth arrangement of y1. Repeat for y2. negative number.
ii) Make a table that shows the corresponding values of x, y1, and y2
for the arrangements formed in i).
b) Students may need help interpreting the notation
iii) Predict how you think the graphs of y1 and y2 will look in com-
parison to the graph of y = |x|. Then, on the same coordinate axes, here. For example, |x – 5| implies “subtract 5 from x and
sketch a graph of y1, y2, and y = |x| over the domain of real numbers
such that –10 ≤ x ≤ 10. Label the coordinates of the points from the then find the absolute value of the result,” whereas
table in ii).
|x| – 5, implies “compute the absolute value of x and
iv) On the same coordinate axes of the graphing calculator, graph
y1, y2, and y = |x| over the domain given in iii).
then subtract 5.”
v) Write 3 additional equations that form a family with y1, and y2,
and explain the relationship that makes the 5 equations a family. Students may create a family of equations of the form y
vi) Record conjectures and generalizations based on your observa-
tions from i)-v).
= |x + b|, whose graphs are horizontal translations of the
graph y = |x|.
a) y1 = |x| – 3 y2 = |x| + 4

b) y1 = |x – 5| y2 = |x + 1⁄ 2| c) The graphs of these 2 equations are identical to each

c) y1 = |2x| y2 = |–2x| other and rise/fall at double the rate of y = |x|. The graph
d) y1 = 5|x| y2 = –5|x| of an equation of the form y = |bx| is V-shaped, opens
e) y1 = |x – 2x| y2 = |3x + 2| up, and the vertex of the V is at (0,0). The sign of b has
f ) y1 = |x| – |2x| y2 = |3x| + |2| no affect on the graph, while |b| determines the steep-
g) y1 = 1 ⁄ x y2 = 3 ⁄ x
ness with which the sides of the V rise or fall.

d) Since the coefficients, 5 and –5, are outside the abso-

lute value notation, the graphs of y1 and y2 are reflec-
tions of each other across the horizontal axis. Graphs of
equations of the form y = b|x| are V-shaped, and the
vertex of the V is at (0,0). The V opens up if b > 0, opens
down if b < 0, and |b| determines the steepness with
which the sides of the V rise of fall.

e)-f) Notice that the absolute value of a sum or differ-

ence of two expressions is not necessarily equal to the
sum or difference of the absolute values of the expres-
sions.

378 / Math Alive! Course III

Analyzing Graphs Lesson 14
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

g) The intent here is only to introduce a new “type” of

graph that students may find of interest.

The graph of y = 1 ⁄ x (see diagram below) is called a hyper-

bola. Notice that, as the value of x gets closer to 0 from
the right, the value of 1 ⁄ x increases. For example: if x =
1 ⁄ 2 , then 1 ⁄ x = 2; if x = 1 ⁄ 4 , then 1 ⁄ x = 4; if x = 1 ⁄ 100 , then 1 ⁄ x

= 100, etc. Thus, as x gets closer and closer to 0, y gets

larger and larger. Similarly, as x gets closer to 0 from the
left, the value of y = 1 ⁄ x gets increasingly large in the
negative direction. Hence, one can say that, as x ap-
proaches 0 from the right, y approaches ∞ and as x
approaches zero from the left, y approaches –∞. Further,
the value of y = 1 ⁄ x is undefined for x = 0, since 1 ⁄ 0 is
undefined. Hence, x can never take on the value 0. Note:
The infinity symbol, ∞, is used to indicate that a quantity
gets larger and larger without bounds.

1
y = __
x

Notice also that, as the value of x increases in either the

positive or negative direction, the value of 1 ⁄ x gets closer
to 0. For example, when x = 100, y = 1 ⁄ 100 and when
x = –1000, y = 1⁄ –1000 . In the graph, y = 1 ⁄ x , the x- and y-
axis are called asymptotes of the graph because they are
lines that the graph gets increasingly closer to, but never
touches or crosses. Such ideas are examined in depth in
calculus courses.

The graph of y = 3⁄ x is also a hyperbola with branches in

the 1st and 3rd quadrants, and with the x- and y-axes as
asymptotes. The graphs of all equations of the form
y = k ⁄ x are hyperbolas with asymptotes the x- and y-axes;
the branches of such hyperbolas are in the 1st and 3rd
quadrants if k > 0 and the branches are in the 2nd and
4th quadrants if k < 0, while |k| determines how close
the hyperbola comes to the origin.

Notice that the equation y = k ⁄ x is equivalent to the

equation xy = k. Such equations and their graphs repre-
sent situations in which x and y vary inversely. That is,
since the product of xy is equal to a constant k, then x
and y are inversely proportional (see Lesson 13 of this
course, and see Math Alive! Course IV).

Math Alive! Course III / 379

Lesson 14 Analyzing Graphs
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

9␣ ␣ Write the equations y1 = 2x + 1 and y2 = x2 – 2 on the 9␣ ␣ Solving this system of equations means to find the value
overhead or board. Point out that these are referred to as of x for which 2x + 1 = x2 – 2, i.e., to solve the equations
a system of 2 equations in 2 variables. Ask the groups to simultaneously. In terms of the graph, solving the system
solve this system of equations, using each of the methods means finding the points of intersection of the two
listed below. Discuss. graphs. In terms of sequences of counting piece arrange-
ments, solving the system is equivalent to finding the
a) the TRACE and ZOOM functions on the graphing calcula- values of x for which the 2 different xth arrangements of
tor the sequences represented by the equations have the
same value.
b) Algebra Pieces (or sketches of the pieces)
a) The diagrams below show a trace and zoom to locate
c) algebraic symbols x = 2.97 and x = 3.03 as approximations for one solu-
tion. Additional zooms improve the approximation,
d) the calculator “solver” function suggesting the graphs intersect at x = 3.

e) the calculator “intersect” function Trace:

f) the calculator TABLE function

y2 = x 2 – 2
y1 = 2x + 1

X= 2.97 Y= 6.87

Zoom and then trace again:

y2 = x 2 – 2
y1 = 2x + 1

X= 3.03 Y= 7.06

A series of zooms and traces of the other intersection

point suggests x = –1 as a solution. One can verify that
x = 3 and –1 are solutions of the system by testing those
points in equations for y1 and y2. Since v1(3) = 2(3) + 1 =
7 = 32 – 2 = v2(3), and v1(–1) = 2(–1) + 1 = –1 = (–1)2 – 2 =
v2(–1), the points (3,7) and (–1,–1) are intersection
points of these graphs.

380 / Math Alive! Course III

Analyzing Graphs Lesson 14
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

b) Illustrated below is an Algebra Piece solution.

x2 – 2 = 2x + 1
?

ooo

ooo
Adding –2x + 2 to both
ooo
collections produces these
2 collections.

ooo

x2 – 2x = 3 “Completing the squares” by

adding 1 unit to the upper right
ooo

ooo

hand corner of each collection

ooo
produces this diagram. Since
the squares are equal in value,
their edges must be equal.
= Hence, x – 1 = 2 or x – 1 = –2, so
x = 3 or x = –1. Therefore, x = 3
ooo and x = –1 are the x-coordinates
of the intersection points of the
x 2 – 2x + 1 or (x – 1)2 = 4 2 graphs.

c) One can also imagine the Algebra Piece actions and

record symbolic procedures that represent those actions.
For example:

x2 – 2 = 2x + 1 (form the 2 equal collections)

(x 2 – 2) + (–2x + 2) = (2x + 1) + (–2x + 2) (add –2x + 2 to both collections)
x 2 – 2x = 3 (simplify)
2
x – 2x + 1 = 3+1 (add 1 to both collections)
(x – 1)2 = 22 or (–2)2 (form squares of each collection)
x–1 = 2 or –2 (take the square root of the value of
so, x = 3 or –1 each square)

d) One can use the TI-83 “solver” function to determine

when the difference (2x + 1) – (x2 – 2) = 0.

e) If students’ calculators do not have this function, the

students may have other methods to suggest.

f) This requires generating side-by-side tables for the 2

equations, and then scrolling to locate the values of x
for which the y-values from the 2 tables are equal.

Math Alive! Course III / 381

Lesson 14 Analyzing Graphs
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

10␣ ␣ Write 3 or more of the following systems of equa- 10␣ ␣ Allow plenty of time for students to explore and
tions on the overhead and ask the students to determine discuss their approaches and results with their group-
the solution(s), if any, to each system, using the ap- mates before discussing as a class. Students may use a
proach of their choice. Ask that students verify each hand graph, a calculator graph, Algebra Piece proce-
solution using a second method, and so that one of their dures, symbolic procedures, mental strategies, the solver
methods utilizes the graphing calculator and one does or intersect functions on the calculator, tables generated
not. Discuss as needed. by hand or by a calculator, or combinations of these; or,
they may invent other strategies.
a) y = 4 + 2x; y=x+3
a) In the following example, zooming and tracing yields
b) y = 7 – x2; y = –7 + x 2 the estimate (–1.01,1.97). This suggests that the lines
intersect at, or very near, x = –1. Since, y = 4 + 2x and y =
c) y = 3x – 2; y = 3x + 1 x + 3 both equal 2 when x = –1, the point (–1,2) is the
exact point of intersection of the 2 graphs.
d) y = 2x + 7; y = 4x2 – 3x + 2

e) 2x + 3y = 4; x–y=7
y = 4 + 2x
f) y – 2x = 5; x + 3y = 6

g) y = x 2 + 7; y=0 y=x+3

h) y = –2x 2 – 1; y=0 X= -1.01 Y= 1.97

An algebraic solution based on what students imagine as

Algebra Piece actions might look like the following:

4 + 2x = x + 3 (form the 2 equal collections)

4+x = 3 (remove x from both collections)
1+x = 0 (remove 3 units from both collections)
x = –1 (add –1 to both collections)

b) Here is a solution using algebra symbols to represent

Algebra Pieces:

7 – x2 = –7 + x 2
14 = 2x 2
7 = x2
√7 = x or –√7 = x

Since 7 – (±√7)2 = 0 , and –7 + (±√7)2 = 0, the graphs

intersect at the points (–√7,0) and (√7,0). Note that these
are exact points of intersection; calculator methods give
decimal approximations for the x-coordinates.

c) There is no value of x for which these 2 expressions

are equal. Some students may reason that it is not pos-
sible to add 1 to a number and produce the same result
as subtracting 2 from the number. Or, students may
reason that since these 2 graphs are different straight
lines with the same slope, they are parallel and hence,

382 / Math Alive! Course III

Analyzing Graphs Lesson 14
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

never intersect. Zooming out on the calculator graph

(see diagram below) can help verify this; however, it is
important to note that, when 2 lines are not parallel, it
is possible to miss an intersection point by not zooming
out far enough.

y = 3x – 2
y = 3x + 1

Here is a representa-
=
tion using sketches
of Algebra Pieces:
3x – 2 = 3x + 1

Adding –3x to each collection above leaves: =

But it is not possible that –2 = 1, so there are no solu-

tions to the system.

d) As shown in the calculator display below, one ap-

proximation of an intersection point is (–.638,5.72). The
other intersection point is outside the window. Chang-
ing the window ranges for x and y enables one to ap-
proximate the other intersection point.

y = 4x 2 – 3x + 2

y = 2x + 7

X= –.638 Y= 5.72

Using Algebra Pieces (see next page) to complete the

square for this quadratic equation illustrates that these
graphs do not intersect at a point whose coordinates are
whole or rational numbers. Rather, the coordinates of
the points of intersection are irrational numbers.

(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 383

Lesson 14 Analyzing Graphs
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS
COMMENTS COMMENTS

10 (continued.)

ooo ooo ooo

ooo ooo ooo

4x 2 – 3x + 2 = 2x + 7

Adding –2x to both collections in the

ooo

ooo
ooo

ooo
above diagram produces the following ooo

collections:

ooo
ooo ooo

=
ooo ooo

Cutting and rearranging the pieces in the above collec- 4x 2 – 5x + 2 = 7

tion produce the following (note that the pieces on the
upper and right edges of the square are not edge pieces;
rather, they are quartered –x-frames):
1
– —
4
x
1
ooo

ooo

ooo o

ooo o

––
16
ooo

ooo

9
––
ooo o 16

7
–– of a =
16
unit
ooo
left
ooo o
over

ooo

2x –5
—x
4

(2x – 54– )2 + 7
––
16
= 7

384 / Math Alive! Course III

Analyzing Graphs Lesson 14
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

Subtracting 7 ⁄ 16 from both collections above produces

(2x – 5 ⁄ 4 )2 = 69 ⁄ 16 = 105⁄16, and so 2x – 5 ⁄ 4 = ± 10516 . Thus,
x = ( 5 4 ± 105 16 ) and the graphs cross at approximately
2
x ≈ 1.906 and x ≈ –.656. When x = –.656, 2x + 7 = 4x2 – 3x
+ 2 ≈ 5.69. When x ≈ 1.906, 2x + 7 = 4x2 – 3x + 2 ≈ 10.8.
Thus, the 2 points of intersection for these graphs occur
at approximately (–.656,5.69) and (1.906,10.8). These
are rational approximations to irrational coordinates.

This example illustrates the convenience of the graphing

calculator for quickly finding approximate solutions to
equations. Recall that the TRACE function obtained the
approximation x = –.638 (see page 383), which is close
to the algebraic approximation of x = –.656. Repeated
zooms and traces would improve the calculator approxi-
mation.

e) In order to graph these equations on the calculator,

one must rewrite them in slope intercept form as
y = (–2⁄ 3 )x + 4 ⁄ 3 and y = x – 7. Then one can graph and
trace to find the approximate intersections, or use the
“intersect” function from the CALC menu.

Or, one could use the “solver” function from the MATH
menu to determine when 0 = [(–2 ⁄ 3 )x + 4 ⁄ 3 ] – (x – 7).

One way to solve this system of equations symbolically is

to solve (–2 ⁄ 3 )x + 4⁄ 3 = x – 7 for x.

Another symbolic method is to solve for y in one equa-

tion, substitute that value in the other equation, and
then solve for x. For example, solving the equation
x – y = 7 for y, one gets y = x – 7. Then substituting x – 7
for y in the equation 2x + 3y = 4 produces the new
equation 2x + 3(x – 7) = 4. Hence, 2x + 3x – 21 = 4, so 5x
= 25, and thus, x = 5. This is an example of the method
called solving by substitution. Students will investigate
this method further in Math Alive! Course IV.

f ) Students will need to rewrite these equations in slope

intercept form before graphing them on the calculator,
using the “solver” function on the calculator, or solving
them using Algebra Pieces or symbols. The method of
substitution described in e) could also be used here.

g)-h) There are no solutions to either of these systems

since neither the parabola y = x2 + 7 nor the parabola
y = –2x2 – 1 intersects the x-axis (i.e., the line y = 0).
Notice that completing the square to solve x 2 + 7 = 0

(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 385

Lesson 14 Analyzing Graphs
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

10 (continued.)
produces the solutions x = ± 2–28 , which are not defined
for any real number values of x, since there is no real
number whose square is –28. Similarly, there are no real
numbers x for which –2x 2 – 1 = 0. Note in Math Alive!
Course IV students are introduced to the complex number
system which includes solutions of equations involving
square roots of negative numbers.

11␣ ␣ Give each group a copy of Focus Master B and ask 11␣ ␣ It may be helpful to have the students complete a)
the groups to: and then discuss before continuing with the others. En-
courage students to write mathematical statements that
i) Write a mathematical statement involving equalities use as few words as possible, but so that someone read-
and/or inequalities to describe each graph. ing their statements could recreate the graph exactly.

ii) Indicate whether each graph represents a function, a) One statement describing this graph is y = 2 for x ≥ 2.
and if so, identify the domain and range of the function. This is a function whose domain is the real numbers ≥ 2,
and 2 is the only number in the range. Note: Students
iii) Recreate each graph on a graphing calculator. may also point out that this graph is a ray whose end
point is (2,2).
Discuss their results. As needed, clarify graphing calcula-
tor procedures, the use of inequality symbols, and Note that the filled in dot at the point (2,2) implies that
graphing conventions such as the use of dotted lines the point (2,2) is part of the graph. If the dot were not
and open/closed circles. filled in then the domain would be x > 2 and the point
(2,2) would not be considered on the graph. Students
may not be familiar with this notation, but will prob-
ably speculate and you can clarify as needed.

b) An equation for this function is y = |x| + 1. The do-

main is all real numbers and the range is the reals ≥ 1.

c) The domain and range of this function, y = x, are the

real numbers.

d) You may need to tell students that all points in the

shaded region are part of the graph to be described. This
is the graph of an inequality and since for any point on
the graph, each x-value has an infinite number of y-
values, it is not a function. This graph includes the set of
all ordered pairs, (x,y) for which x and y are real numbers
and y ≥ –10. The fact that the line y = –10 is a solid line
implies the points on the line y = –10 are included in the
graph. To graph inequalities on the TI-83, for example,
it is necessary to set the graphing style to shade above or
below a graph (i.e., adjust the icon in the first column
for the “Y =” function, see manual).

e) The dotted line implies the points on the line are not
included in the graph, but all of the shaded region is
part of the graph. Hence, this is a graph of all the or-
dered pairs (x,y) for which x and y are real numbers and

386 / Math Alive! Course III

Analyzing Graphs Lesson 14
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

y > 15. This is not a function. Using dotted lines and

Lesson 14 Analyzing Graphs
Focus Master B
open circles may not be possible on students’ calculators.
a) y b) y c) y
f ) This is a graph of the function y = –20 for x < 40. The
1 1
domain is all real numbers x < 40, and the range con-
1
x
1
x tains only the number –20.
1
x
1
g) This graph does not represent a function. It is a graph
of the inequality y ≤ –x 2 + 4 for all real numbers x. The
d) y e) y f) y
y-values are all real numbers less than or equal to 4.

h) This is a graph of the function y = 2x 2 for x ≥ 0. The

5 10
x x
5 15 20
15
x
domain and range are the real numbers ≥ 0.

i) This is not the graph of a function, but rather a graph

g) y h) y i) y of the inequality y > x for all real numbers x.

1
5
x
j) This inequality may be a challenge for students to
5
1
x describe. It is the set of all ordered pairs for which y <
x + 2 and, at the same time, y > 0. The values of x are all
1
real numbers greater than –2. To graph j) on the graph-
y
j) 2
x ing calculator, one must simultaneously graph y < x + 2
and y > 0. The shaded region shown in j) is the portion
of the graph in which the shaded regions for the 2
1
x graphs overlap. This overlapping shaded region is the
1
solution to the system of inequalities y < x + 2 and y > 0,
and is all the points for which y < x + 2 and y > 0. Note:
keep in mind it may not be possible for students to
distinguish between dotted and solid lines and curves
on calculator graphs.

To give students additional experience solving systems

of inequalities and to prompt further conjectures, you
could replace the equal signs in systems a)-f) from Ac-
tion 10 with various inequality symbols and have the
students solve these new systems of inequalities. Note
that, if there is no overlapping shaded region for a
system of inequalities, then there are no solutions to the
system. Students will explore inequalities further in
Math Alive! Course IV.

Math Alive! Course III / 387

Lesson 14 Analyzing Graphs
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

12 ␣ Give each group a copy of Focus Master C and have 12␣ ␣ Students may wonder: Is this a fair head start for
them carry out the instructions. the son? Who would win a 100 meter race? When would
the man catch up with the child? What length race
Analyzing Graphs Lesson 14 would be most fair? etc. What are equations and graphs
Focus Master C
that could represent this situation?
Franko and his son, Marcus, plan to race one another on a
track.

Marcus can run 20 meters in 5 seconds.

Franko can run 20 meters in 3 seconds.

They have agreed that Marcus will start 30 meters ahead of

Franko.

Write several “We wonder…” statements about this situation.

13␣ ␣ Pick one or more of the groups’ “We wonder…” 13␣ ␣ If students have difficulty deciding what to explore,
statements to explore. Discuss their results. you might suggest something, basing your choice on its
mathematical potential. Or you might suggest they
investigate a question that they pose and a question that
you pose. Have 1-cm grid paper available as needed.

As an example, the following discussion explores the

question “Who would be favored to win a 100 meter
race?”

160 There are several approaches that students could use to

investigate the above question, such as to make a chart
140 or table of values, and/or to graph the times and dis-
tances traveled by both runners. A graph is illustrated at
Distance in Meters

120 the left. A table can be produced by hand or by using

the table function on the graphing calculator. Notice
100 that since Marcus runs 20 meters in 5 seconds, then he
runs 4 meters in 1 second. Similarly, since Franko runs
80 20 meters in 3 seconds, he runs 20 ⁄ 3 meters in 1 second.

60 Marcus Franko
time in distance time in distance
seconds in meters seconds in meters
40
0 30 0 0
1 34 1 62⁄3
20 2 38 2 131⁄3
3 42 3 20
…

–Franko 5 10 15
…

–Marcus Time in Seconds 9 60

10 70 10 662⁄3
11 74 11 731⁄3
12 78 12 80
13 82 13 862⁄3
14 86 14 931⁄3
15 90 15 100
16 94
17 98
18 102

388 / Math Alive! Course III

Analyzing Graphs Lesson 14
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

The table and graph show that Franko catches up with

Marcus between 11 and 12 seconds. Also, at 12 seconds,
Franko is at the 80 meter mark, and Marcus is at the 78
meter mark, so Franko is favored to win a 100 meter
race.

14␣ ␣ If it hasn’t already been suggested, ask the students 14␣ ␣ Students may verify their equations by testing
to write an equation for y1, the distance of Marcus from various numbers of seconds to see if the meters traveled
the starting line x seconds after the start of the race, and match those in their tables from Action 13. For example,
an equation for y2 the distance of Franko from the their equation for y1 should yield 50 meters at 5 seconds
starting line x seconds after the start of the race. Ask for (the initial 30 plus 20 more), 70 meters at 10 seconds,
volunteers to share their equations and have the class and so forth.
determine whether the equations accurately represent
the distances. Then ask the groups to use calculator One possible pair of equations is y1 = 4x + 30 and y2 =
graphs of the equations to determine a fair length for ( 20 ⁄ 3 )x.
the race (or to verify their results from Action 13).
In order to find the race length that makes the 30 meter
head start fair, students must determine where Franko
catches Marcus (i.e., where the graphs cross, or where
the distances run are equal). To do this, they can graph
y1 = 4x + 30 and y2 = (20 ⁄ 3 )x and use trace to determine
the point of intersection (see diagram below).

1st trace:
x min 0 x max 20
y min 0 y max 150

y1 = 4x + 30
y2 = ( 20
__ )x
3
X= 11.7 Y= 76.9

Trace after several zooms:

X= 11.25 Y= 75

Many students will probably suggest a “fair” race is

about 75 meters. An extension question could be, “How
much of a head start does Marcus need for 100 meters to
be the length of a fair race?”

Math Alive! Course III / 389

Lesson 14 Analyzing Graphs
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

15␣ ␣ Give each student a copy of Focus Master D and ask 15␣ ␣ These situations could be explored in class, and/or
them to complete Situation 1. Discuss their results. Then as a homework activity. Either way, it is helpful to
repeat for Situations 2 and 3. encourage students to discuss and compare ideas with
classmates.
Lesson 14 Analyzing Graphs
Focus Master D
Situation 1. Examples of questions students may pose
include: How much does it cost to drive each vehicle 10
miles? 20 miles? etc. Which company has the better
For each of the 3 Situations shown below, please do the following:
deal? Is there a number of miles for which the cost will
a) Make a diagram or sketch that illustrates the important mathematical rela-
tionships in the situation. be the same for both companies? As an example, the
b) Write 3 or more worthwhile mathematical questions that a person might following discussion addresses the question: Which
investigate about the situation.
company has the better deal?
c) Investigate one or more of your mathematical questions. While you inves-
tigate each question, keep a running account of your thought processes. Make
note of your discoveries, stuck points, AHA’s, important mathematical mo-
ments, changes in direction, etc.
Students could make a table, write and solve a system of
d) After you complete your investigation of each question, write a summary
equations describing each company’s cost, or graph the
that includes a restatement of the question, a clear and concise explanation of
a solution process (this might be a refined version of your method or a differ-
equations by hand or on a graphing calculator and look
ent method you discovered during your work), your answer to the question, for the points where the graphs intersect.
and verification that your answer works.

Situation 1 If y1 is the cost at We Hardly Try, y2 is the cost at Rent-

The Rent-A-Wreck and the We Hardly Try car rental companies charge the
following prices: A-Wreck, and x is the number of miles driven, equations
We Hardly Try charges an initial fee of $10 and then charges $.10 per mile. for the total rental cost from each company could be
Rent-A-Wreck does not charge an initial fee, but charges $.15 per mile.
represented as follows:
Situation 2
The Saucey Pizza Company charges $7 for a pizza. The ingredients and labor
for each pizza cost $2.50. The overhead costs (lights, water, heat, rent, etc.)
y1 = $10 + .10x
are $100 per day. y2 = .15x
Situation 3
Michael, the golf pro at U-Drive-It Golf Range, claims that when he hits the A symbolic solution to this system could look like the
ball from the lower level tee, the height h of the ball after t seconds is:
h = 80t – 16t 2. following:
Michael also claims that when he hits the ball from the elevated tee, the ball 10 + .10x = .15x
reaches the following height in t seconds: h = 20 + 80t – 16t 2.
10 + .10x – .10x = .15x – .10x
10 = .05x
10 (1⁄.05) = .05x (1⁄.05)
200 = x

When x = 200, y1 = 30 = y2. Hence, at 200 miles the cost

of driving a car from either company is the same. For
less than 200 miles, Rent-A-Wreck is a better deal, while
We Hardly Try is a better deal for more than 200 miles.
Traces on a graphing calculator illustrate this:
1st Trace:
x min 0 x max 300 (miles)
y min 0 y max 50 (cost) Trace, after several zooms:

WHT WHT
RAW
RAW
X= 201 Y= 30.1 X= 200 Y= 30

390 / Math Alive! Course III

Analyzing Graphs Lesson 14
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

Situation 2. Examples of questions that may come up

x min 0 x max 50 (pizzas) include: If Saucey’s sells 100 pizzas, how much money
y min 0 y max 200 (dollars) will they make or lose that day? How many pizzas do
they need to sell in a day to make a profit? Should they
change their pricing? Following is one way of answering
the question: How many pizzas do they need to sell in a
day to make a profit?
profit: y = 4.5x
Since a pizza is sold for $7 and the ingredients and labor
cost $2.50, the profit on each pizza is $7 – $2.50 = $4.50.
X= 22.3 Y= 100.53
If Saucey’s sells x pizzas in a day, then the amount of
daily profit, y, is y = $4.50x. The minimum number of
pizzas that must be sold to have a total income greater
x min 0 x max 50 (pizzas) than the daily overhead cost of $100 can be found by
y min 0 y max 200 (dollars) tracing a graph of y = 4.5x to determine the value of x
when y exceeds $100, as shown at the left. Since y ex-
ceeds 100 between x = 22 and x = 23, Saucey must sell at
least 23 pizzas per day or lose money.
income: y2 = 7x
cost: y1 = 100 + 2.5x Another approach to answering this question is to
simultaneously graph the equation representing the
daily cost, y1 = 100 + 2.50x (where x is the number of
X= 22.8 Y= 157
pizzas sold), and the equation for daily income, y2 = 7x.
The intersection of the graphs is the point at which
Saucey’s breaks even (see graph at the left). This also
indicates Saucey must sell 23 pizzas in order for daily
income to exceed daily cost.

Situation 3. Here are some questions students may pose:

At what time does the golf ball reach its highest point?
How long does it take before the golf ball hits the
ground? How high is the elevated tee? Where did those
formulas come from?

An example of a table generated by the calculator is

lower level tee elevated tee shown at the left, where y1 describes the height of the
seconds height in feet height in feet ball when hit from the lower tee, and y2 describes the
x y1 = 80x – 16x 2 y2 = 80x – 16x 2 + 20 height of the ball from the elevated tee. The table sug-
gests the ball reaches a high point after 2.5 seconds, and
0 0 20
then starts back down again, hitting the ground after 5
0.5 36 56
seconds (a table with smaller increments can be used to
1.0 64 84
see if the high point is slightly more or less than 2.5).
1.5 84 104
Notice the table lists negative heights, but since the ball
2.0 96 116
stops descending at ground level, those do not make
2.5 100 120
sense and are irrelevant.
3.0 96 116
3.5 84 104
Graphing and tracing both equations on a graphing
4.0 64 84
calculator, one can find the high point of the golf ball
4.5 36 56
and the time when the ball hits the ground (see diagram
5.0 0 20
on the next page).
5.5 –44 –24

(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 391

Lesson 14 Analyzing Graphs
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

x min 0 x max 10 15 (continued.)

y min 0 y max 150 Notice, in the diagram at the left, the 2 graphs are the
same shape, the graph of y2 is a vertical translation 20
units above the graph of y1, and it takes longer for the
y2 ball hit from the elevated tee to hit the ground.

y1 The coefficients of the variables have physical signifi-

cance. For example, the “80” means the golf ball rises at
a rate of 80 feet/sec when it is first hit. On the other
hand, the “–16” is the effect of the pull of the earth’s
x = 2.55 x=5 x = 5.24 gravity on the golf ball (the force of gravity is a down-
y1 = 89.96 y1 = 0 y2 = –.12 ward force of 16 feet per second squared (i.e., per x2,
y2 = 119.96 where x is the number of seconds). Gravity slows the
height gain of the ball over time and eventually the ball
y1 = 80x – 16x 2 starts to descend. The 20 in the elevated tee equation is
y2 = 80x – 16x 2 + 20 the height of the ball at time 0, so the elevated tee is 20
feet above the ground level.
A ball hit from the elevated tee stays 20 feet
higher, and hits the ground about a quarter
second later. Note: the graphs of the equations
are not the paths of the balls, but rather give the
heights of the ball for various times.

16␣ ␣ Write the topics from a)-h) below on the overhead 16␣ ␣ The intent here is to encourage the students to
or board, editing according to the functions available on think critically about the appropriate uses of technol-
your students’ graphing calculators. Ask the groups to ogy, and to keep in mind that the graphing calculator is
each create a list of advantages and disadvantages of one of several options for graphing and solving equa-
using these methods to solve equations or systems of tions. One way to carry out this action is to give each
equations, and to evaluate equations. Discuss the group several strips of butcher paper and some marking
groups’ lists. pens and have them record their comments on the
strips. Then, a class list of recommendations could be
a) a hand sketched graph formed by sorting and consolidating the groups’ lists.

b) the graph, zoom, and trace functions on the graphing It is important that students understand that not every-
calculator one will choose the same option for a particular situa-
tion; what seems most reasonable or easy to one person
c) Algebra Pieces is not necessarily most reasonable or easy for another;
and not every option is a reasonable choice for every
d) symbolic manipulations situation. Here are examples of students’ comments:

e) mental strategies Making tables or graphs by hand may only give us a rough
idea about solutions; a more complete graph may be needed
f) the “solver” function from the graphing calculator for a better approximation to the answer. This was true when
we solved the problem with the two runners, Franko and
g) the “intersect,” “zero,” and “value” functions from Marcus.
the graphing calculator
The graphing calculator can often make tables and graphs
h) tables of values (hand or calculator) more quickly than we can by hand.

392 / Math Alive! Course III

Analyzing Graphs Lesson 14
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

Sometimes it is difficult to know what values to set for the

WINDOW ranges in order to see important parts of the graph in
the calculator window (e.g., the golf problem).

Symbolic strategies are very efficient for solving equations,

unless the equations are complicated or involve really
“messy” numbers.

Sometimes using calculator functions like table, solver,

intersect, and zero is more time-consuming because mental
strategies or simple symbolic procedures are all that are
needed.

To use mental strategies to graph equations, we need to

understand the relationship between the numbers in the
equation and the shape and important points of the graph.

The Algebra Pieces help us make sense out of what the points
on a graph represent and they help us “see” solutions.

An Algebra Piece solution can be complicated for equations

with coefficients and constants that are large numbers or
fractions.

When we solve an equation with Algebra Pieces or symbols

that represent them, we find the exact solution. Graphs
(made either by hand or on the calculators) often only give us
approximations.

The trace and zoom functions on the graphing calculator

may only approximate a solution. We can test the result in
the equation to see if it is exact or approximate.

The equation solver, intersect, and zero functions on the

calculator give exact answers quickly, but they don’t show
where the answers comes from.

If all we need to know are things like the shape of the graph,
whether the values of y continue to increase as x gets larger,
the value of the y-intercept, whether a line rises or falls, or
whether a quadratic equation has a high or low point, we can
often tell just by looking at the equation and imagining the
graph.

If we have to evaluate an equation for a certain value for x,

we could trace on the graphing calculator to get an approxi-
mation, we could compute it by hand or mentally if the
numbers are reasonable, or we could use the table or value
function on the calculator. How messy or large the numbers
are helps us decide which method to use.

Math Alive! Course III / 393

Lesson 14 Analyzing Graphs

TEACHER NOTES:

394 / Math Alive! Course III

Analyzing Graphs Lesson 14

Follow-up Student Activity 14.3

NAME DATE

1␣ ␣ For each of the following families of 3 equations, graph the equa-

tions on 1 coordinate axis, and list the characteristics that make the
equations a family. Then create and graph 2 or more additional
equations that have those characteristics. Label each graph with its
equation.

a) y = 4x – 1 c) y = x2 + 3 e) y = 1⁄ x + 5
y = 4x + 2 y = –2x2 + 3 y = 1⁄ x – 4
2
y = 4x – 5 y = x ⁄4 + 3 y = 1⁄ x + 3

b) y = 3x – 2 d) y = |x| + 2 f) y = 4(x – 2)(x + 5)

y = x⁄ 5 – 2 y = –3|x| y = –3(x – 2)(x + 5)
y = –6x – 2 y + 2|x| – 3 y = (x – 2)(x + 5)

2␣ ␣ For each of the following systems of equations: i) show or de-

scribe how you solve the system; ii) sketch a graph of the system on
coordinate grid paper; and iii) label the coordinates to the nearest
tenth of all points of intersection.

a) 6x + 3y = 5 c) y = 2⁄ x + 3 e) y = x2 – 3x – 2
2y – 3x = 12 y = x2 + 4 x2 + 3y – 18 = 0
2
b) y = x2 – 8x + 18 d) y = x ⁄ 2 – x ⁄ 2 + 3 f) y = –x2 – x – 2
2x + y = 7 y = –x2 – 3x + 5 y = (x + 1)(x – 2)

3␣ ␣ Verify your solutions to Problems 2a) and 2b) by solving each

using another method. Show your thinking and reasoning.

4␣ ␣ Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using the graphing

calculator to solve equations. Give examples to illustrate your ideas.

(Continued on back.)
Math Alive! Course III / 395
Lesson 14 Analyzing Graphs
Follow-up Student Activity (cont.)

5␣ ␣ Write a mathematical statement involving equalities or inequali-

ties to describe each graph. Tell whether the graph represents a
function; if it does, tell the domain and range of the function.

a) y b) y c) y

x x x

d) y e) y f) y

x x x

6␣ ␣ During the summer Patty rents an ice cream truck and sells ice
cream; she pays $200 per month to rent the truck; she sells ice-
cream bars for $1.50 each; and she pays 25 cents for each bar.

a) Write an equation for y1, Patty’s expenses per month, if she sells
x ice cream bars per month.

b) Write an equation for y2, Patty’s monthly income (before she

pays her expenses) for selling x ice cream bars per month.

c) Graph the two equations in a) and b) and label the coordinates

of the intersection of the graphs. Explain how you determine these
coordinates and how they relate to the given situation.

d) What is the minimum number of ice cream bars Patty must sell
in one month in order for her income to be greater than her ex-
penses. Explain your reasoning.

e) If Patty sells 300 ice cream bars in one month, how much profit
will she make? Explain your reasoning.

396 / Math Alive! Course III

Analyzing Graphs Lesson 14
Focus Master A

I y = –3x + 5
II y = –x + 5
III y=x+5
IV y = 3x + 5

a) Imagine the graph of each of equations I-IV. What

similarities and differences does your group predict
about the graphs?

b) Now graph the 4 equations simultaneously on your

graphing calculators. Do the results agree with your
predictions? What else do you notice?

c) Equations I-IV are a “family” of equations. What

characteristic(s) do you think make these equations a
family? What are two other equations that could be-
long to this family?

d) What are similarities and differences among Alge-

bra Piece representations of the x th arrangements of
the sequences represented by equations I-IV?

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 14 Analyzing Graphs
Focus Master B

a) y b) y c) y

1 1
x x
1 1
1
x
1

d) y e) y f) y

5 10
x x
5 15 20
x
15

g) y h) y i) y

5
1 x
5
x
1

1
y
x
j) 2

1
x
1

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Analyzing Graphs Lesson 14
Focus Master C

Franko and his son, Marcus, plan to race one another on a

track.

Marcus can run 20 meters in 5 seconds.

Franko can run 20 meters in 3 seconds.

They have agreed that Marcus will start 30 meters ahead of

Franko.

Write several “We wonder…” statements about this situation.

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 14 Analyzing Graphs
Focus Master D

For each of the 3 Situations shown below, please do the following:

a) Make a diagram or sketch that illustrates the important mathematical rela-

tionships in the situation.

b) Write 3 or more worthwhile mathematical questions that a person might

investigate about the situation.

c) Investigate one or more of your mathematical questions. While you inves-

tigate each question, keep a running account of your thought processes. Make
note of your discoveries, stuck points, AHA’s, important mathematical mo-
ments, changes in direction, etc.

d) After you complete your investigation of each question, write a summary

that includes a restatement of the question, a clear and concise explanation of
a solution process (this might be a refined version of your method or a differ-
ent method you discovered during your work), your answer to the question,
and verification that your answer works.

Situation 1
The Rent-A-Wreck and the We Hardly Try car rental companies charge the
following prices:

We Hardly Try charges an initial fee of $10 and then charges $.10 per mile.
Rent-A-Wreck does not charge an initial fee, but charges $.15 per mile.

Situation 2
The Saucey Pizza Company charges $7 for a pizza. The ingredients and labor
for each pizza cost $2.50. The overhead costs (lights, water, heat, rent, etc.)
are $100 per day.

Situation 3
Michael, the golf pro at U-Drive-It Golf Range, claims that when he hits the
ball from the lower level tee, the height h of the ball after t seconds is:
h = 80t – 16t 2.

Michael also claims that when he hits the ball from the elevated tee, the ball
reaches the following height in t seconds: h = 20 + 80t – 16t 2.

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Analyzing Graphs Lesson 14

Focus Student Activity 14.1

NAME DATE

For each equation family below, record the following on separate

paper:

a) your predictions about the graphs of the 4 equations,

b) your observations about calculator graphs of the equations,

c) the characteristic(s) that you think make the equations a family,

d) two additional equations that would fit in the family,

e) similarities and differences among Algebra Piece representations

of the 4 equations.

1 I y = –3x + 5 5 I y = (x – 3)(x – 4)
II y = –3x – 5 II y = x 2 – 7x + 12
III y = –3x + 2 III y = (x + 2)(x + 3)
IV y = –3x – 2 IV y = (x + 1)(x – 2)

2 I y = x2 – 6 6 I y = (x – 2)(x – 5)
II y = x2 + 6 II y = 2(x – 2)(x – 5)
III y = –x 2 – 6 III y = –(x – 2)(x – 5)
IV y = –(x 2 – 6) IV y = –2(x 2 – 7x + 10)

3 I y = 4x 2 7 I 28x + 8y = 0
II y = ( 1⁄ 4 )x 2 II 7x + 2y = 6
III y = –3x 2 – 6 III 14x + 4y = 4
IV y = (– 3 ⁄ 4)x 2 IV 21x + 6y = –12

4 I y = x(x – 3) 8 I y = –5x + 2⁄ 3
II y = x 2 – 2x II 3y = –15x + 2
III y = x 2 + 2x III 0 = –5x – y + 2 ⁄ 3
IV y = x(x + 3) IV –2 = –15x – 3y

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 14 Analyzing Graphs

Focus Student Activity 14.2

NAME DATE

For each pair of equations given in a)-g):

i) Sketch and label counting piece arrangements to represent y1 for

x = –3, –2, –1, 0, 1, 2, and 3, and sketch an Algebra Piece representa-
tion of the xth arrangement of y1. Repeat for y2.

ii) Make a table that shows the corresponding values of x, y1, and y2
for the arrangements formed in i).

iii) Predict how you think the graphs of y1 and y2 will look in com-
parison to the graph of y = |x|. Then, on the same coordinate axes,
sketch a graph of y1, y2, and y = |x| over the domain of real numbers
such that –10 ≤ x ≤ 10. Label the coordinates of the points from the
table in ii).

iv) On the same coordinate axes of the graphing calculator, graph

y1, y2, and y = |x| over the domain given in iii).

v) Write 3 additional equations that form a family with y1, and y2,
and explain the relationship that makes the 5 equations a family.

vi) Record conjectures and generalizations based on your observa-

tions from i)-v).

a) y1 = |x| – 3 y2 = |x| + 4

b) y1 = |x – 5| y2 = |x + 1⁄ 2|

c) y1 = |2x| y2 = |–2x|

d) y1 = 5|x| y2 = –5|x|

e) y1 = |x – 2x| y2 = |3x + 2|

f ) y1 = |x| – |2x| y2 = |3x| + |2|

g) y1 = 1 ⁄ x y2 = 3 ⁄ x

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Analyzing Graphs Lesson 14

Follow-up Student Activity 14.3

NAME DATE

1␣ ␣ For each of the following families of 3 equations, graph the equa-

tions on 1 coordinate axis, and list the characteristics that make the
equations a family. Then create and graph 2 or more additional
equations that have those characteristics. Label each graph with its
equation.

a) y = 4x – 1 c) y = x2 + 3 e) y = 1⁄ x + 5
y = 4x + 2 y = –2x2 + 3 y = 1⁄ x – 4
2
y = 4x – 5 y = x ⁄4 + 3 y = 1⁄ x + 3

b) y = 3x – 2 d) y = |x| + 2 f) y = 4(x – 2)(x + 5)

y = x⁄ 5 – 2 y = –3|x| y = –3(x – 2)(x + 5)
y = –6x – 2 y + 2|x| – 3 y = (x – 2)(x + 5)

2␣ ␣ For each of the following systems of equations: i) show or de-

scribe how you solve the system; ii) sketch a graph of the system on
coordinate grid paper; and iii) label the coordinates to the nearest
tenth of all points of intersection.

a) 6x + 3y = 5 c) y = 2⁄ x + 3 e) y = x2 – 3x – 2
2y – 3x = 12 y = x2 + 4 x2 + 3y – 18 = 0
2
b) y = x2 – 8x + 18 d) y = x ⁄ 2 – x ⁄ 2 + 3 f) y = –x2 – x – 2
2x + y = 7 y = –x2 – 3x + 5 y = (x + 1)(x – 2)

3␣ ␣ Verify your solutions to Problems 2a) and 2b) by solving each

using another method. Show your thinking and reasoning.

4␣ ␣ Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of using the graphing

calculator to solve equations. Give examples to illustrate your ideas.

(Continued on back.)

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 14 Analyzing Graphs
Follow-up Student Activity (cont.)

5␣ ␣ Write a mathematical statement involving equalities or inequali-

ties to describe each graph. Tell whether the graph represents a
function; if it does, tell the domain and range of the function.

a) y b) y c) y

x x x

d) y e) y f) y

x x x

6␣ ␣ During the summer Patty rents an ice cream truck and sells ice
cream; she pays $200 per month to rent the truck; she sells ice-
cream bars for $1.50 each; and she pays 25 cents for each bar.

a) Write an equation for y1, Patty’s expenses per month, if she sells
x ice cream bars per month.

b) Write an equation for y2, Patty’s monthly income (before she

pays her expenses) for selling x ice cream bars per month.

c) Graph the two equations in a) and b) and label the coordinates

of the intersection of the graphs. Explain how you determine these
coordinates and how they relate to the given situation.

d) What is the minimum number of ice cream bars Patty must sell
in one month in order for her income to be greater than her ex-
penses. Explain your reasoning.

e) If Patty sells 300 ice cream bars in one month, how much profit
will she make? Explain your reasoning.

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Data—Variability and Spread
Data—Variability & Spread Lesson 15 Lesson 15

.
.
.
.
THE BIG IDEA .. CONNECTOR
.
. OVERVIEW MATERIALS FOR TEACHER ACTIVITY
Histograms, stem and .
.
. Students form stem and ✔ Connector Student Activ-
leaf plots, line plots, .
. leaf plots and line plots of ity 15.1, 1 copy per stu-
and box plots are visual .. the intervals of time be- dent and 1 transparency.
.
tween eruptions of Old
representations of one- ..
. Faithful, and they compute
.
variable data, while . the mean, median, mode,
.
and range of these times.
scatter plots are repre- ..
. They make predictions from
.
sentation of two- . these graphs and data.
.
.
variable data. These .
.
.
plots reveal informa- .
.
tion about the distribu- .. FOCUS
.
.
tion, variability, and . OVERVIEW MATERIALS FOR TEACHER ACTIVITY
.
spread of data and can .. Students form stem and ✔ Focus Student Activity ✔ 1-cm grid paper, 1 sheet
. leaf plots, histograms, line 15.2, 1 copy per group per student and 1 trans-
.
be used for making . plots, box and whisker and 1 transparency. parency.
.
. plots, and scatter plots of ✔ Focus Student Activities ✔ Graphing calculators, 1
predictions. .
. the time intervals between 15.3-15.7, 1 copy per stu- per student.
.
. eruptions and durations of dent and 1 transparency
. ✔ Graphing calculator for
. eruptions of Old Faithful. of each.
. the overhead (optional).
. Students compare these
. ✔ Focus Masters A and B, ✔ Straightedges, 1 per stu-
. graphs and use them as a
. 1 transparency of each. dent.
. basis for making predic-
. ✔ Focus Masters C and D,
. tions.
. 1 copy of each per stu-
.
. dent and 1 transparency
.
. of each.
.
.
.
.
.
.
. FOLLOW-UP
.
.
. OVERVIEW MATERIALS FOR STUDENT ACTIVITY
.
. Students examine data ✔ Student Activity 15.8,
.
. from eruptions of Kilauea. 1 copy per student.
.
. They form line plots, stem
. ✔ 1 ⁄ 4 " grid paper, 1 sheet
. and leaf plots, histograms,
. per student.
. box and whisker plots, and
.
. scatter plots to compare
.
. changes in lengths of erup-
.
. tions and intervals between
.
. eruptions over a 60-year
.
. period.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

Math Alive! Course III / 397

Lesson 15 Data—Variability and Spread

LESSON IDEAS TEACHER NOTES:

. .
. QUOTE . that often are inherently
. .
. Collecting, organizing, de- . interesting, represent sig-
. .
. scribing, displaying, and . nificant applications of
. .
. interpreting data, as well . mathematics to practical
. .
. as making decisions and . questions, and offer rich
. .
. predictions on the basis of . opportunities for math-
. .
. that information, are skills . ematical inquiry. The
. .
. that are increasingly im- . study of statistics and
. .
. portant in a society based . probability highlights the
. .
. on technology and com- . importance of question-
. .
. munication. These pro- . ing, conjecturing, and
. .
. cesses are particularly ap- . searching for relationships
. .
. propriate for young . when formulating and
. .
. children because they can . solving real-world prob-
. .
. be used to solve problems . lems.
.
. NCTM Standards

SELECTED ANSWERS

1. Line plot of 21 Eruptions of Kilauea from 1923 to 1963. Possible observations: Large gap from 1930’s to 1950’s
X shows a quiet period for Kilauea; cluster on line plot in
X early 1960’s shows frequent outbreaks; histogram and
X X X X
XX X XXX X X XX XXXXX stem and leaf plot shows that durations of 1 to 10 days
1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970
were the most common durations; the box plot shows that
Years approximately 25% of the durations were 2 or less days,
50% were 11 days or less, 25% lasted more than 27.5 days.
Stem & Leaf Plot Since the duration of 136 days is more than 1.5 times the
of Durations in Days Histogram interquartile range above the upper quartile (136 > 1.5 ×
10 25.5 + 27.5), this duration is an outlier. By the same test,
13 6
the duration of 88 days is also an outlier.
Frequency of Eruptions

12
11
10 3. A median-fit line for the scatter plot will show the length
9 5 of time before the next eruption to be between 1.4 and 1.8
8 8 years.
7
6
4. a) The histogram for the 1964-82 period shows there
5
4 were more durations of less than 10 days and four large
0 40 80 120 140 durations of more than 200 days. The box plot for the
3 3,6,6
Durations of Eruptions in Days
2 2 1964-82 data shows that 50% of the durations were less
1 1,3,4,7,9 than 5 days, as compared to 11 days for the box plot in 1.
0 1,1,1,2,2,2,3,3,4,7
b) There were 21 eruptions of Kilauea during the 40-
year period from 1923 to 1963, and the next 21 erup-
Box & Whisker Plot tions occurred in less than 20 years. The eruptions are
2 11 27.5 136 occurring more frequently. The largest gap is 3 years as
compared to a gap of 17 years for the 1923-63 period.
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Duration of Eruptions in Days c) The eruptions are occurring more frequently and
there is wider variation in the durations of eruptions.

398 / Math Alive! Course III

Data—Variability and Spread Lesson 15

Connector Teacher Activity

OVERVIEW & PURPOSE MATERIALS
Students form stem and leaf plots and line plots of the inter- ✔ Connector Student Activity 15.1, 1 copy per student
vals of time between eruptions of Old Faithful, and they and 1 transparency.
compute the mean, median, mode, and range of these times.
They make predictions from these graphs and data.

ACTIONS COMMENTS

1␣ ␣ Arrange the students in groups. Invite them to tell 1␣ ␣ Old Faithful is a geyser in Yellowstone National Park
what they know about the geyser, Old Faithful. Discuss. in the state of Wyoming. Throughout this lesson, stu-
Then give each student a copy of Connector Student dents will examine data about Old Faithful and use that
Activity 15.1 and point out that the data listed was data to make predictions about the geyser’s eruptions.
gathered, in the order listed, during the working hours Some students may enjoy exploring the Internet and
of a 3-day period at Old Faithful. Ask the students to other resources for information and photographs of Old
record several I notice… and several I wonder… state- Faithful.
ments about the data. Then ask them to do a round
robin share in their groups and to pick the group’s 3 Students may observe variability in the data—that short
favorite I notice… and 3 favorite I wonder… statements to and long time intervals seem to alternate. They may
share with the class. Discuss. calculate some statistics such as the mean, median, or
the range. They may wonder: Why do the lengths of the
time intervals alternate? Is this typical?
Data—Variability and Spread Lesson 15

Connector Student Activity 15.1 Note: throughout this lesson, the students will use all
activity sheets and masters distributed during the Con-
NAME DATE
nector and Focus activities. It may be helpful to provide
Period 1—Length of Time in Minutes Between Eruptions of Old Faithful
groups or individual students each a file folder for stor-
57, 87, 73, 94, 52, 88, 72, 88, 62, 87, 57, 94, 51, 98, 59 ing these sheets.

Regarding the above data,

I notice…

2␣ ␣ Ask the groups to create a stem and leaf plot of the Old 2␣ ␣ Stem and leaf plots were introduced in Lesson 17 of
Faithful data listed on Connector Student Activity 15.1. Math Alive! Course II. For this set of data, the digits from
Invite volunteers to demonstrate their methods at the the tens place of each number comprise the stem, and
overhead. Clarify as needed, and ask the students to the units digits are the leaves. For example, the stem of 5
make observations regarding information revealed by and the leaves of 1, 2, 7, 7, and 9 represent the numbers
the plot. 51, 52, 57, 57, and 59.

Stem and Leaf Plot

Old Faithful Period 1 Data

Stem Leaves
5 1,2,7,7,9
6 2
7 2,3
8 7,7,8,8
9 4,4,8

(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 399

Lesson 15 Data—Variability and Spread
Connector Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

2 (continued.)
It is helpful to order the data before or while making a
stem and leaf plot, although one could first make a plot
with an ordered stem and unordered leaves, and then
make another plot with the leaves ordered. A stem and
leaf plot is particularly useful for organizing a large
number of data entries; the shape and spread (i.e., the
bumps, gaps, clusters, etc.) of the plot can reveal infor-
mation about the data. However, note that when data is
ordered numerically, any information related to the
original order is lost. For example, once the Old Faithful
data is ordered, one can no longer “see” that the lengths
of time intervals seem to alternate between long and
short.

3␣ ␣ Ask the students to create a line plot of the Old Faith- 3␣ ␣ Students were introduced to the use of line plots in
ful period 1 data. Invite volunteers to show their meth- Math Alive! Course II, Lesson 17. You might refer to that
ods and results. Discuss the students’ observations about lesson for additional discussion ideas. Here is a line plot
information revealed by the line plot. of the Old Faithful period 1 data :

X X X X
X X X X X X X X X X X

50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100

In a line plot the horizontal baseline shows the values of

the data and the number of X’s in a column indicate the
frequency (i.e., the actual count) of each value. Notice in
this data set there is little repetition of exact time inter-
vals, and the line plot shows that intervals tend to be
either “short” or “long.” Some students may comment
that the stem and leaf plot is more convenient to con-
struct than the line plot because of the wide spread of
this data.

4␣ ␣ Ask the groups to reach agreement on the meanings 4␣ ␣ One way to determine the mean of a set of numbers
of the terms mean, median, mode, maximum, minimum, is to “level off” the numbers by subtracting from some
and range. Discuss. Then ask the groups to compute each numbers and adding the amounts subtracted to others.
of these statistics for the Old Faithful period 1 data and Students may relate this to prior experiences (see Math
to relate those values to their stem and leaf plots and Alive! Course II, Lesson 17) in which they represented
line plots. Discuss, clarifying as needed. each number in a data set as the height of a single col-
umn of cubes, moving cubes from one column to an-
other until all of the columns are equal in height. The
leveled-off height of the columns is the mean of the
numbers. Or, one could find the leveled-off height by
combining all of the original columns into a single
column and then dividing that column into as many
equal columns as the original number of columns. This
is equivalent to adding the numbers together and divid-
ing by the number of numbers.

400 / Math Alive! Course III

Data—Variability and Spread Lesson 15
Connector Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

Both of the above methods could be used to find the

leveled-off, or mean, interval between eruptions of Old
Faithful. Or, another method is to note that all of the
data entries are greater than 40. Hence, one could find
the mean of the differences between 40 and each data
entry, and then the mean of the data is 40 plus the
mean of these differences. Using each of these methods,
the mean interval between eruptions of Old Faithful is
74.6 minutes.

Note: the mean of a set of numbers is often referred to as

the average of the numbers; it is important to note that
the median and mode are also types of averages. An
average (mean, median, or mode) of a set of numerical
data is also referred to as a center of the data.

The mode is the most frequently occurring data entry in

a data set. If all of the data entries occur only once, then
there is no mode. If two or more different numbers each
repeat the same number of times and no other numbers
repeat more often, then those numbers are each called a
mode. For example, in the Old Faithful period 1 data,
57, 87, 88, and 94 each repeat twice and no other num-
bers repeat as many or more times; hence, 57, 87, 88,
and 94 are all modes of the data set. That is, the modal
intervals between eruptions are 57 minutes, 87 minutes,
88 minutes, and 94 minutes.

Ordered Old Faithful Period 1 Data: The median is the middle of a set of numerical data that
has been ordered from smallest to largest. The median of
51 52 57 57 59 62 72 73 87 87 88 88 94 94 98 the Old Faithful period 1 data is 73 minutes as indicated
↑ in the ordered listing of the data shown at the left.
Median
The median can be easily located in a line or stem and
leaf plot by counting simultaneously from both ends of
the data (after it has been arranged in numerical order)
Stem & Leaf Plot
until the middle of the data is reached. If there is an odd
Old Faithful Period 1 Data
number of data entries, the median is the center entry. If
there is an even number of data entries, the median is
5 1,2,7,7,9
the mean of the center 2 entries. For example, if the data
6 2
for Old Faithful were 60, 63, 70, 75, 81, and 86, the
7 2,3 Median
median of these 6 data entries would be the mean of the
8 7,7,8,8
3rd and 4th pieces of data in the ordered list, or (70+75)
9 4,4,8 2
= 72.5. Another method of locating the median is to
count the total number of data entries in the data set
number of data entries = 15 and then find the middle of that number of entries (e.g.,
modes = 57, 87, 88, and 94 for the Old Faithful period 1 data, the middle entry is
median = 73 the 8th in a set of 15 entries). This is an efficient way of
mean = 74.6 finding the median when there is a large number of
entries in a data set.

(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 401

Lesson 15 Data—Variability and Spread
Connector Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

4 (continued.)
The range of a set of numbers is the difference between
the maximum and minimum. For the Old Faithful
period 1 data, the range is 98 – 51 = 47 minutes. The
minimum and maximum are the first and last data
entries, respectively, after the data has been ordered
numerically from least to greatest. The maximum, mini-
mum, distribution, and range of a set of numerical data
reveal the “spread” of the data, and can prompt predic-
tions about general patterns.

The statistical terms discussed here were all explored in

Lesson 17 of Math Alive! Course II. Refer to that lesson for
other discussion ideas.

5␣ ␣ Ask the groups to use the Old Faithful period 1 data 5␣ ␣ To promote thought you might ask the students to
as a basis for predicting Old Faithful data for the work- make predictions such as: What are the shortest and the
ing hours of another day, i.e., Is there anything about longest intervals between eruptions? What percentage of
Old Faithful that seems “faithful?” Discuss their predic- the time does Old Faithful take between 60 and 70
tions, reasoning, and confidence levels. minutes to erupt? What is the next time interval after
the 51 minute interval? Notice, for example, each short
time interval was followed by a considerably longer time
interval.

Some students may point out that it is difficult to pre-

dict because this data sample is so small. This is a valid
point; however, it is also the case that students can
begin to make hypotheses based on patterns they see in
the data and then test those hypotheses as they get
additional data.

402 / Math Alive! Course III

Data—Variability and Spread Lesson 15

Focus Teacher Activity

OVERVIEW & PURPOSE MATERIALS
Students form stem and leaf plots, histograms, line plots, box ✔ Focus Student Activity 15.2, 1 copy per group and
and whisker plots, and scatter plots of the time intervals 1 transparency.
between eruptions and durations of eruptions of Old Faithful. ✔ Focus Student Activities 15.3-15.7, 1 copy per student
Students compare these graphs and use them as a basis for and 1 transparency of each.
making predictions.
✔ Focus Masters A and B, 1 transparency of each.
✔ Focus Masters C and D, 1 copy of each per student
and 1 transparency of each.
✔ 1-cm grid paper, 1 sheet per student and 1 transpar-
ency.
✔ Graphing calculators, 1 per student.
✔ Graphing calculator for the overhead (optional).
✔ Straightedges, 1 per student.

ACTIONS COMMENTS

1␣ ␣ Arrange the students in groups and give each group a 1␣ ␣ The graph shown on Focus Student Activity 15.2 is a
copy of Focus Student Activity 15.2. Have the groups box and whisker plot, sometimes called a box plot, of the
write the period 1 data in numerical order and then ask given Old Faithful period 1 data. This may be many
them to make observations and conjectures about how students’ first introduction to a box and whisker plot.
they think the box and whisker plot is constructed and Part of the detective work of data analysis is making
what it reveals about the period 1 data. Discuss, clarify- sense out of graphs created by others, so allow plenty of
ing as needed. Use students’ observations as a context time for the students to examine this graph before you
for introducing the terms upper, lower, and middle reveal information about it.
quartile.
The shaded rectangle is the box; this box encloses ap-
proximately the middle 50% of the data. The whiskers
Data—Variability and Spread Lesson 15
are the line segments extending from each end of the
Focus Student Activity 15.2 box. They extend across approximately the lower 25%
and approximately the upper 25% of the data. Notice
NAME DATE

that the length of the plot, from the end of one whisker
Period 1—Length of Time in Minutes Between Eruptions of Old Faithful.
to the end of the other, shows the total range of the
Data in order collected: data, from 51 to 98. The vertical mark inside the box
57, 87, 73, 94, 52, 88, 72, 88, 62, 87, 57, 94, 51, 98, 59 indicates the median of the data, and the two ends of
the box, 57 and 88, show the 1 ⁄ 4 - and 3 ⁄ 4 -marks of the
Data in numerical order:
ordered data. The 1 ⁄ 4 - and 3 ⁄ 4 -marks are the medians of
the lower and upper halves of the data, and are called
the lower quartile and the upper quartile, respectively.
Box and Whisker Plot Sometimes the median is called the middle quartile. If,
during their examination of the plot, students don’t
40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
notice that the ends of the boxes are at the 1 ⁄ 4 - and 3⁄ 4 -
Minutes Between Eruptions
marks in the data, or that these are the medians of the
Observations: upper and lower halves of the data, you might prompt
such discoveries by asking the students to determine
how they think the location of the endpoints of the box
relates to the data and how the length of the box might
be determined.

(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 403

Lesson 15 Data—Variability and Spread
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

1 (continued.)
In this data set, the median is the 8th of 15 data entries.
Thus, there are 7 data entries in each of the 2 halves
above and below the median. The lower quartile is 57
(written LQ = 57), the median of the lower 7 data en-
tries. The upper quartile (UQ) is 88, the median of the
upper 7 data entries.

whisker median whisker

lower quartile upper quartile
minimum maximum

40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100

Note: this type of box plot is also called a 50% box plot
because approximately 50% of the data occurs on or
between the ends of the box. Because both 57 and 88
repeat in the period 1 data set, there is more than 50%
of the data contained by the box. In general, for a 50%
box plot, the ends of the box are always at the upper
and lower quartiles. However, there may be more than
50% of the data inside the box if 2 or more data values
equal the upper and/or lower quartiles. In Lesson 17
students also explore 90% box plots.

2␣ ␣ Give each student a copy of Focus Student Activity 2␣ ␣ While students may have had experience with a
15.3. Ask them to make observations and conjectures standard bar graph, they may be less familiar with the
about how the histogram was constructed and what it use of histograms. Hence, allow plenty of time for them
reveals about the period 1 data. Discuss. Then ask each to make and test conjectures about ways this graph is
group to discuss and compare the information revealed formed.
by the line plot, stem and leaf plot, box and whisker
plot, and histogram, recording their observations at the A histogram is a bar graph in which the heights of the
bottom of Focus Student Activity 15.3. Discuss the bars represent the frequency, or count, of the data en-
groups’ ideas and list these ideas on a poster. tries that fall within that interval. The width of each bar
on the histogram of the Old Faithful data represents an
interval of time in minutes, and the height of the bar
tells the number of data entries within that time inter-
val. For example, there are 2 entries for 50 through 54
minutes, and there are 3 entries for 55 through 59 min-
utes, 7 entries for 60 through 64 minutes, 0 entries for
65 through 69 minutes, 2 entries for 70 through 74
minutes, etc. It is common practice on a histogram for
the interval represented by the width of a bar to include
the number marking the left edge of the bar but not the
number marking the right edge. For example, the time
intervals of 50 through 54 minutes are counted in the
first bar, and intervals of 55 through 59 minutes are
counted in the second bar. A gap between bars indicates
there is no data in that interval.
404 / Math Alive! Course III
Data—Variability and Spread Lesson 15
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

In making comparisons of the graphs, students should

Lesson 15 Data—Variability and Spread
notice that each type of plot highlights different features
Focus Student Activity 15.3 of the data. Some examples of observations students
have made include the following (it is not necessary that
NAME DATE

all of these observations surface now).

Period 1—Length of Time in Minutes Between Eruptions of Old Faithful.

Data in order collected:

Gaps in the time intervals show up in the histogram better
57, 87, 73, 94, 52, 88, 72, 88, 62, 87, 57, 94, 51, 98, 59
than on the stem and leaf plot. We think this is partly
Data in numerical order:
because the stems are groups of 10 minutes and the histo-
51, 52, 57, 57, 59, 62, 72, 73, 87, 87, 88, 88, 94, 94, 98
gram has intervals of 5 minutes.
Box and Whisker Plot

We think the data is too spread out and varies too much for
40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75
Minutes Between Eruptions
80 85 90 95 100
a line plot to be very useful. The stem and leaf plot is more
Stem and Leaf Plot Histogram compact and works better than the line plot when data is
5 1,2,7,7,9 4 spread out.
6 2 3
Frequency

7 2,3 2
8 7,7,8,8
9 4,4,8
1
The line plot shows all gaps, small or large, because every
0
50 60 70 80

Minutes Between Eruptions

90 100
piece of data is shown. The histogram lumps several pieces of
data into one bar.
Line Plot
X X X X
X X X X X X X X X X X

50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
Both the stem plot and the histogram show two peaks in the
Observations: Average deviation(s):
data. The peaks don’t show in the box plot.

Method(s):
We think making the stem and leaf plot is a fast way to
order the numbers from smallest to largest. And we can see
all of the actual data in this plot.

You can’t see the numerical ordering of the data in the box
and whisker plot or the histogram. You have to have the data
ordered before you can make your box and whisker plot or
histogram.

On the histogram and stem and leaf plot the shape of the
data helps us see how the data is distributed.

We can see the maximum, minimum, range, and median in

the box plot, line plot, and stem plot, but not the histogram.
In the line and stem plots, we can see the mode and we could
compute the mean from the data in the plots. We can ap-
proximate the range from the histogram.

The box plot seems more complicated to construct. We think

it would help to make a stem and leaf or line plot of the data
first and find the median, lower quartile, and upper quartile
before forming the box plot.

Small gaps aren’t as obvious on the stem plot as on the line plot.

The box plot and the histogram are summaries of the data
and don’t show as many details as the line and stem and
leaf plots, but the box plot focuses attention on the median,
maximum, minimum, and quartiles.

Math Alive! Course III / 405

Lesson 15 Data—Variability and Spread
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

3␣ ␣ Ask the groups to make some predictions regarding 3␣ ␣ Many may respond that they still don’t have enough
what might be a set of 15 data entries collected during information to predict with confidence. However, based
another 3-day period, based on their examination of the on the information revealed by the various plots, stu-
plots on Focus Student Activity 15.3. Discuss. dents may feel increased or decreased confidence in
their earlier predictions. Some students may compute
the average of the short-time intervals between erup-
tions and the average of the long-time intervals, and
predict those averages as approximations for alternating
short and long intervals during another period of 15
entries. You might remind the students to keep their
copies of all Focus Student Activities used during this
lesson.

4␣ ␣ Give each student a copy of Focus Student Activity 4␣ ␣ Procedural questions regarding how to construct
15.4 and a straightedge. Ask them to make and label, in these graphs may surface. If so, you might suggest that
the spaces provided, a line plot, stem and leaf plot, box groups pose questions to the class for clarification. Then,
and whisker plot, and histogram of the Old Faithful if additional clarification is needed, you could provide
period 2 data. Discuss and compare their results, encour- it. To save time at the overhead, you might ask volun-
aging students to describe information revealed by one teers to sketch their groups’ graphs on a blank transpar-
graph but not by others, and information that repeats ency prior to coming to the overhead.
from graph to graph.
Some groups may choose different scales for the graphs
Data—Variability and Spread Lesson 15
and, hence, have difficulty comparing them. Such a
situation could prompt a meaningful class discussion.
Focus Student Activity 15.4
NAME DATE
Completed graphs of the period 2 data are shown below:
Period 2—Length of Time in Minutes Between Eruptions of Old Faithful.

Data in order collected:

Data—Variability and Spread Lesson 15
93, 86, 70, 63, 91, 82, 58, 97, 59, 70, 58, 98, 55, 107, 61

Data in numerical order:

Focus Student Activity 15.4
NAME DATE

Box and Whisker Plot

Period 2 - Length of Time in Minutes Between Eruptions of Old Faithful.

Data in order collected:

93, 86, 70, 63, 91, 82, 58, 97, 59, 70, 58, 98, 55, 107, 61

Stem and Leaf Plot Histogram Data in numerical order:

55, 58, 58, 59, 61, 63, 70, 70, 82, 86, 91, 93, 97, 98, 107

Box and Whisker Plot

40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110

Minutes Between Eruptions

Line Plot Stem and Leaf Plot Histogram

5 5,8,8,9 4
6 1,3 3
Frequency

7 0,0 2
8 2,6
Observations: Average deviation(s): 1
9 1,3,7,8
10 7 0
50 60 70 80 90 100 110
Method(s): Minutes Between Eruptions

Line Plot

X X
X X X X X X X X X X X X X

55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110

Observations: Average deviation(s):

Method(s):

406 / Math Alive! Course III

Data—Variability and Spread Lesson 15
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

5␣ ␣ Give each student a copy of Focus Student Activity 5␣ ␣ You may find a transparency of Focus Master A,
15.5 (see completed activity below) and repeat Action 4 shown below, useful for discussing the 3 box plots
for this activity. Discuss the students’ results. Ask them simultaneously.
to compare the graphs for periods 1, 2, and 3. What
clues do the graphs give about the behavior of Old
Data—Variability and Spread Lesson 15
Faithful? Focus Master A

Lesson 15 Data—Variability and Spread Old Faithful Data

Focus Student Activity 15.5 Period 1

NAME DATE Period 2

Period 3—Length of Time in Minutes Between Eruptions of Old Faithful. Period 3

Data in order collected:

40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110
Minutes Between Eruptions
82, 91, 65, 97, 52, 94, 60, 94, 63, 91, 83, 84, 71, 83, 70

Data in numerical order:

52, 60, 63, 65, 70, 71, 82, 83, 83, 84, 91, 91, 94, 94, 97
Notice that the median for the period 3 data is greater
Box and Whisker Plot than the medians for periods 1 and 2. This shows that,
in general, many of the time intervals between eruptions
40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75
Minutes Between Eruptions
80 85 90 95 100
for the upper 50% of period 3 are greater than the time
Stem and Leaf Plot Histogram intervals for the upper 50% of periods 1 and 2. Notice
5 2 4
also that the lower quartile for the period 3 data is near
6 0,3,5 3
Frequency

7 0,1 2 the median for the period 2 data; this shows that almost
8 2,3,3,4
9 1,1,4,4,7
1

0
50% of the time intervals for period 2 are comparable to
50 60 70 80 90 100

Minutes Between Eruptions

the lower 25% of the time intervals for period 3.

Line Plot
X X X
Notice also that box and whisker plots can have boxes
X X X X XX X X X X X X

50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
that are relatively symmetric about the median, like
Observations: Average deviation(s):
period 1, or very asymmetric, like periods 2 and 3,
depending on the data. The whiskers can be long in one
Method(s):
direction and short in the other, such as periods 2 and 3,
or they can be more balanced, such as period 1. There
may also be situations for which there are no whiskers
in a box plot. For example, if the data were 65, 65, 65,
65, 65, 65, 65, 65, 75, 75, 75, 75, 75, 75, 75, 75, 75 a
50% box plot would look like the one shown below. The
lower quartile is 65, which is also the minimum. The
median, upper quartile, and maximum all occur at 75.

minimum and maximum, upper

lower quartile quartile, and median

40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95
Time in Minutes

(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 407

Lesson 15 Data—Variability and Spread
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

5 (continued.)
Some of the student observations listed in Comment 6
may come up here. Following are stem and leaf plots
and histograms for the 3 periods.

Period 1 Period 2 Period 3

5 1,2,7,7,9 5 5,8,8,9 5 2
6 2 6 1,3 6 0,3,5
7 2,3 7 0,0 7 0,1
8 7,7,8,8 8 2,6 8 2,3,3,4
9 4,4,8 9 1,3,7,8 9 1,1,4,4,7
10 7

4 4 4
3 3 3
Frequency

Frequency

Frequency
2 2 2

1 1 1

0 0 0
50 60 70 80 90 100 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 50 60 70 80 90 100

Minutes Between Eruptions Minutes Between Eruptions Minutes Between Eruptions

6␣ ␣ Ask the groups to discuss any new ideas they have 6␣ ␣ Students may have changed their minds about some
regarding the advantages and disadvantages of the of their earlier statements, or they may wish to clarify
various graphing techniques explored so far. Add their some statements. Statements listed in Comment 2 that
ideas to the class poster started in Action 2. didn’t surface at that time, may be suggested by students
now. Here are some additional statements that students
have given at this point:

Box and whisker plots show the median and the range of the
data, and how stretched out the data is, in one or both
directions. Quick visual comparisons across several data
samples are convenient with box and whisker plots. However,
except for the maximum and minimum, the individual data
values are not shown.

A stem and leaf plot keeps a record of each actual data value,
and it shows the shape of the data.

Histograms show the number of times that values in a

certain interval occur. They show gaps in the data, and they
are useful in comparing several sets of data. However, the
histogram only summarizes the data, and the actual data
values can’t be seen.

A box and whisker plot could be used to compare data sets

with unequal numbers of data entries. This would be much
harder to do with the other plots (unless we changed the
height of the histogram to show the percentage of the data
entries in each bar rather than the number of entries).

408 / Math Alive! Course III

Data—Variability and Spread Lesson 15
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

7␣ ␣ Point out the fact that the range of a data set (i.e., the 7␣ ␣ To locate outliers on a box plot, determine the length
distance between the endpoints of the whiskers) pro- of the box, also called the interquartile range (IQR); an
vides a measure of variability in the data. Outliers, values outlier is any data value that is more than 1.5 inter-
that are uncharacteristic of most values in the data set, quartile ranges outside the box; i.e., (1.5 × IQR) greater
provide additional information about variability within than the upper quartile or (1.5 × IQR) less than the
the data set. lower quartile).

Explain to the students the common practice of comput- For example, the maximum data value for period 2 is 107
ing 1.5 times the interquartile range to locate outliers. minutes. The interquartile range for period 2 is 93 – 59 =
Then ask them to use this method to determine whether 34, and 1.5 × 34 = 51. Since 107 is not greater than the
there are any outliers in the Old Faithful data for period upper quartile (93) plus 51, the time interval of 107 min-
1. Have them mark the location of any outliers on their utes is not an outlier. Students may point out that all of
box and whisker plots. Discuss. Repeat for periods 2 and the whiskers on the box plots of the periods 1, 2, and 3
3. data are shorter than their corresponding boxes. Hence,
since outliers are on the whiskers of a box and whisker
plot are 1.5 or more box lengths from the end of the
box, there are no outliers for the period 1, 2, and 3 data.

Note that since the upper and lower quartiles can also be
located on a line plot and on a stem and leaf plot, it is also
possible to use the method of calculating 1.5 times the
inter-quartile range to determine outliers on those plots.

8␣ ␣ Write the following statement on the overhead: 8␣ ␣ One way to examine the distribution of data about
the center (i.e., mean, median, or mode) of a data set is
Another measure of the variability and spread to compute the difference between each data entry and
of data is the distribution of the data around its the data center, and finally compute the mean differ-
center(s). ence. This average difference is called the average devia-
tion from the center. Students may determine the center
Allow time for the groups to speculate about and record of the data as the mean, median, or mode—all are ap-
ways this idea could apply to the Old Faithful data. propriate, although the mean and the median are more
Then, use their ideas as a context for introducing the use relevant to the Old Faithful data.
of average deviation from the center of a data set as a
measure of how data is dispersed. As an example, the average deviation from the median
of the period 2 data is determined by first computing
the difference between 70 (the period 2 median) and
each data entry, e.g., 70 – 55 = 15, 70 – 58 = 12, 70 – 58 =
12, 70 – 59 = 11, etc. (The fact that some data entries are
greater than the median, and some are less, is not im-
portant; when computing the differences, only positive
values are used.) These differences, in numerical order,
are: 0, 0, 7, 9, 11, 12, 12, 12, 15, 16, 21, 23, 27, 28, and
37 minutes.

Next, determine the average (mean) of the differences to

be 15.3 minutes. Hence, for period 2 we say that 15.3
minutes is the average deviation from the center (median).

In general, if the average deviation from the center is

small, then the spread or dispersion of the data is small;
if the average deviation is great, the spread is also.

Math Alive! Course III / 409

Lesson 15 Data—Variability and Spread
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

9␣ ␣ Ask the students to determine average deviations for 9␣ ␣ Students may compute average deviations from
each of periods 1-3 and to record this information and different centers (mean, median, or mode) and, hence,
their methods in the spaces provided on Focus Student their results may vary. Encourage discussion of their
Activities 15.3, 15.4, and 15.5. Discuss their results and rationale for using a particular center rather than an-
the implications of this information regarding the other. Do they feel one gives a more representative
“faithfulness” of Old Faithful. picture of the dispersion of the Old Faithful data than
another?

Period 1 differences between the median (73) and each

data entry are: 0, 1, 11, 14, 14, 14, 15, 15, 16, 16, 21, 21,
21, 22, and 25 minutes. The mean of these differences,
i.e., the average deviation for period 1, is 15.1 minutes
to the nearest tenth.

As discussed in Action 8, the period 2 differences are: 0,

0, 7, 9, 11, 12, 12, 12, 15, 16, 21, 23, 27, 28, and 37
minutes and the mean of these differences is 15.3 min-
utes.

Period 3 differences between the median (83) and each

data entry are: 0, 0, 1, 1, 8, 8, 11, 11, 12, 13, 14, 18, 20,
23, and 31 minutes, and the mean of these differences is
11.4 minutes.

Notice the average deviation from the median of the

period 1 data and the average deviation from the me-
dian of the period 2 data (see Comment 8) are each
approximately 15 minutes, while the average deviation
for the period 3 data is 11.4 minutes. So the average
deviation from the median is greater for the period 1
data and the period 2 data than for the period 3 data.
This is one way to indicate that the data for periods 1
and 2 are more widely dispersed (i.e., spread out) than
the data for period 3. However, in spite of the smaller
deviation for the period 3 data, many students may feel
the average deviations for the 3 sets of data are reason-
ably close and provide an indication of the “faithful-
ness” of Old Faithful.

10␣ ␣ Distribute a copy of Focus Student Activity 15.6 10␣ ␣ Students were introduced to scatter plots in Lesson
and a sheet of 1-cm grid paper to each student, and ask 18 of Math Alive! Course II. A completed scatter plot of
them to complete Problem 1. Discuss their observations. the Problem 1 data from Focus Student Activity 15.6 is
shown on Focus Master B. A transparency of this master
may be useful during class discussion.

410 / Math Alive! Course III

Data—Variability and Spread Lesson 15
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

Data—Variability and Spread Lesson 15 Lesson 15 Data—Variability and Spread

Focus Master B
Focus Student Activity 15.6
NAME DATE

1␣ ␣ The following data about Old Faithful was recorded, in order, in Eruptions of Old Faithful—April 1997
April 1997. Form a scatter plot of this data by placing the duration of
eruptions along the horizontal axis and the time interval before the
next eruption along the vertical axis. Record your observations.
Time Interval
Duration of Eruption Before Next Eruption

4 min 24 sec 81 min 120

2 min 00 sec 60 min 115
4 min 43 sec 91 min
110
1 min 55 sec 51 min
105

Minutes Before Next Eruption

4 min 14 sec 85 min
1 min 34 sec 55 min 100
1 min 34 sec 98 min 95
2 min 8 sec 49 min 90
4 min 30 sec 85 min 85
1 min 43 sec 65 min 80
4 min 27 sec 102 min 75
1 min 51 sec 56 min
70
4 min 35 sec 86 min
65
1 min 44 sec 62 min
4 min 35 sec 91 min 60
55
2␣ ␣ Following are the starting time and durations of 11 different erup- 50
tions randomly selected from a 2-day period in May 1997 (not listed 45
in order). Use your scatter plot from Problem 1 to predict the time 40
interval before the next eruption and the time of the next eruption.
Explain your methods.
Starting Predicted Interval Predicted Time
Time Duration Before Next Eruption of Next Eruption .5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5
11:22 am 1 min 50 sec _________________ _________________ Duration of Eruption in Minutes
7:16 am 4 min 19 sec _________________ _________________
2:11 pm 1 min 50 sec _________________ _________________
8:53 am 1 min 55 sec _________________ _________________
12:20 pm 4 min 46 sec _________________ _________________
8:30 am 4 min 26 sec _________________ _________________
11:18 am 4 min 35 sec _________________ _________________
12:40 pm 3 min 46 sec _________________ _________________
9:52 am 4 min 35 sec _________________ _________________
10:17 am 1 min 45 sec _________________ _________________
7:35 am 1 min 55 sec _________________ _________________

A scatter plot provides a visual description of data with

two different types of measurements; such data is called
two-variable data. Line plots, stem and leaf plots, histo-
gram, and box and whisker plots provide descriptions of
one-variable data. For example, the above scatter plot of
Old Faithful data suggests that if the duration of the
eruption is short, then the time interval before the next
eruption is short; and if the duration of the eruption is
long, then the time interval before the next eruption is
long. The one point of the plot which is an exception to
this has coordinates (1.6,98) and this point appears to be
an outlier [note: in Math Alive! Course IV students will
investigate statistical procedures for determining outliers
on scatter plots; such procedures verify (1.6,98) is an
outlier].

Some students may suggest drawing a “line of best fit”

for making predictions. Notice that, in Action 12, stu-
dents learn strategies for constructing such a line.

Math Alive! Course III / 411

Lesson 15 Data—Variability and Spread
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

11␣ ␣ Ask the students to complete Problem 2 from Focus 11␣ ␣ One method of predicting a time interval before
Student Activity 15.6. Discuss their methods and reason- the next eruption is to locate (on the horizontal axis of
ing. the scatter plot) the duration of eruption that is closest
to the given duration in Problem 2; then locate the
corresponding time interval before next eruption. If
there are 2 or more time intervals on the plot for a given
duration, their mean could be computed to predict the
time interval. Students may invent a variety of other
methods of predicting.

Another method is to use a line of best fit—also called a

median-fit line, fitted line, med-med line, or trend line—
which is introduced in the next action. Students may
devise other strategies.

12␣ ␣ Give each student a copy of Focus Master C. Place a 12␣ ␣ Note: the sample of data in this example is not
transparency of Focus Master C on the overhead and related to the Old Faithful data. The purpose here is only
introduce the method of constructing a median-fit line to introduce students to the method of constructing a
by demonstrating the steps listed below. median-fit line. In Action 13, students will apply this
method to the Old Faithful scatter plot.

Data—Variability and Spread Lesson 15 Step 1. If possible, the first and last sections should have
Focus Master C
the same number of points. In the 3 sections shown at
the left there are 5, 6, and 6 points; placing 6 points in
Constructing a Median-Fit Line the first section was inconvenient for this data because
of the proximity of the 6th and 7th data points.

Steps 2-3. It helps to slide a straightedge horizontally

and vertically to count and locate the median point for
each section. Clear plastic rulers work well for this.

Notice that moving horizontally to find the middle

point locates the median of the x-coordinates of the
points in the section and moving vertically locates the
median of the y-coordinates of the points.

Step 1. Count the number of points in the plot and Step 5. The line formed in this step is called the median-
draw two vertical lines so that there are approximately fit line for the given data. Emphasis here is on the stan-
the same number of points in each section of the plot. dard procedure for constructing a median-fit line; the
purpose in forming such a line is to aid in the analysis
and interpretation of the data in a scatter plot. In the
remaining actions of this activity students use median-
fit lines (and other lines of best fit) to make predictions
and identify relationships between the variables, dura-
tion of eruption and intervals between eruptions.

Section I Section II Section III

412 / Math Alive! Course III

Data—Variability and Spread Lesson 15
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

Step 2. Locate the “middle” of the points in Section I as

follows: move horizontally from left to right to the hori-
zontal middle of the 5 data points (in this case the 3rd
point) and draw a dashed vertical line through it. Then
move vertically from bottom to top to the 3rd point and
draw a horizontal dashed line through it. The intersec-
tion of the dashed lines is the median point of Section I.

Section I Section II Section III

Step 3. Repeat Step 2 to locate the median points for

Sections II and III. Since there are 6 points in each of
these sections the dashed lines are half way between the
3rd and 4th points.

Section I Section II Section III

Step 4. Place a straightedge on the median points of

Sections I and III (see diagonal line formed by long
dashes).

Section I Section II Section III

Step 5. Slide the straightedge approximately 1 ⁄ 3 of the

distance from the line formed in Step 4 toward the
median point of Section II. The line drawn along this
edge of the ruler produces a median-fit line (see solid line
below).

Section I Section II Section III

Math Alive! Course III / 413

Lesson 15 Data—Variability and Spread
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

13␣ ␣ Ask the students to use the methods from Action 13␣ ␣ a) A median-fit line for this scatter plot is sketched
12 to draw a median-fit line on their scatter plots from on the copy of Focus Master B at the left. There will be
Action 10. Then: slight variations in the median-fit lines which students
form. This is due to variations in selecting the 3 sections
a) Have the students use the median-fit line as the basis for grouping the points from the scatter plot.
for evaluating their predictions for Problem 2 on Focus
Student Activity 15.6 (see Action 11) and/or for deter- If students need help using their median-fit lines to
mining whether/how to adjust their predictions. Discuss make predictions, it may be helpful to ask specific ques-
the students’ methods and reasoning. tions for interpretation from their graphs, such as: For
an eruption that lasts 2.5 minutes, what is the time in-
b) Discuss the students’ ideas regarding possibilities for terval before the next eruption? To use the median-fit
other lines of best fit for their scatter plots, and any line to answer this question, first locate the point on the
adjustments in the students’ predictions prompted by median-fit line with the horizontal coordinate 2.5. The
these lines. corresponding vertical coordinate, ≈ 68, is the median-
fit line predicted number of minutes before the next
Lesson 15 Data—Variability and Spread
eruption.
Focus Master B

b) Following are examples of strategies students may

suggest for constructing other lines of best fit: find the
Eruptions of Old Faithful—April 1998
median point of each of the 2 data “clusters” and form
the line that connects those 2 points; construct the
mean-fit line; construct the mean-fit line without the
120 point (1.6,98); etc. You might have the students draw
115 such lines of best fit and the median-fit line on a trans-
110
105 parency of Focus Master B, and then discuss the stu-
Minutes Before Next Eruption

100
95
dents’ ideas regarding which line best fits the data and
90
85
why. For example: For which line is more of the data
80 closer to the line? Is there something important appar-
75
70 ent about the data that shows in one line but not an-
65
60
other?
55
50
45 You might also encourage discussion regarding why the
40
students think the median-fit line is constructed as it is,
and/or conditions for which it may be more appropriate
.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 to use a line constructed in a different way. In Math
Duration of Eruption in Minutes
Alive! Course IV students examine line-fitting in more
depth and, since there is not a line of best fit for all
scatter plots, extend this idea to curve-fitting.

414 / Math Alive! Course III

Data—Variability and Spread Lesson 15
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

14␣ ␣ Ask the students to determine the slope, the y- 14␣ ␣ Due to slight variations in the locations of the
intercept, and the equation of their median-fit lines students’ median-fit lines, the slopes and intercepts and,
from Action 13. Invite volunteers to show their meth- hence, the equations for these lines will vary.
ods. Then have them explore ways to use their equation
to answer the following questions: The following example refers to the median-fit line from
Comment 13. Notice this line passes through points
a) What is the interval in minutes before the next erup- (1.5,60) and (3.25,75); hence, its slope is (75 − 60) , or
(3.25 − 1.5)
1.75 ≈ 8.6.
15
tion if the duration of the current eruption is 4 minutes?

b) What is the duration of an eruption in minutes, if the 80

interval following the eruption is 58 minutes? 75
70
c) (Optional) How do the results for a) and b) above 15
65
compare to results that are based on equations for other 60
lines of best fit formed in Action 13b)? 1.75
55
50
45

.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5

The y-intercept of this median-fit line is ≈ 47. That is, if

the line is extended it intersects the vertical axis at about
(0,47). So, the equation of this line is y = 8.6x + 47.
Based on this equation, the answers to a) and b) are: a)
8.6(4) + 47 = 81.4 minutes; b) 8.6x + 47 = 58 minutes, so
x ≈ 1.3 minutes. To answer c) students need to write
equations for other lines of best fit constructed during
Action 13b).

15␣ ␣ Distribute graphing calculators if the students do 15␣ ␣ A computer printout from a TI-83 scatter plot and
not have them. Introduce students to the use of graph- median-fit line is shown below at the left. (Note: on the
ing calculators to form scatter plots and median-fit lines. TI-83, the median-fit line is called the med-med line.) The
Have the students compare their predictions from Prob- equation of this median-fit line is 11x + 38.7 (slope and
lem 2 of Focus Student Activity 15.6 (see Action 10) y-intercept are to the nearest tenth). Notice the differ-
which were based on their handmade graphs to predic- ence in this equation and the one from Comment 14;
tions based on the calculator graphs. Have them record variations are due to the way the graphing calculator is
adjusted predictions, if they feel adjustments are needed. programmed and the way the points of the scatter plot
Discuss. are grouped in by-hand methods.

To obtain a scatter plot and median-fit line on a TI-83,

press STAT ENTER to obtain the lists for entering data; enter
the Duration of Eruption Times into one list and the
Minutes Before Next Eruption into a second list; turn on
Plot 1 from the STAT PLOT menu and select the scatter plot
option; press GRAPH. To obtain an equation for a median-
fit line, press STAT and choose the “med-med” function
under the CALC menu (choosing “med-med” requires
putting the cursor on “med-med” and pressing enter

(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 415

Lesson 15 Data—Variability and Spread
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

15 (continued.)
twice); then press Y = and enter the equation; finally,
adjust the WINDOW and press GRAPH to see the scatter plot
and median-fit (med-med) line on the screen.

TI-83 TI-83 The chart at the left shows predicted

Median-Fit Line Median-Fit Line intervals for Problem 2 from Focus
Predicted Interval Predicted Time Student Activity 15.6 that were obtained
Starting Time Duration Before Next Eruption of Next Eruption by tracing the TI-83 median-fit line
11:22 am 1 min 50 sec 59 12:21 pm shown above. Students may wish to
7:16 am 4 min 19 sec 86 8:42 am
2:11 pm 1 min 50 sec 59 3:10 pm record calculator-generated predictions
8:53 am 1 min 55 sec 60 9:53 am next to their predictions from Actions
12:20 pm 4 min 46 sec 91 1:51 pm 10 and 13, or they may adjust their
8:30 am 4 min 26 sec 87 9:57 am earlier predictions based on calculator
11:18 am 4 min 35 sec 89 12:47 pm results.
12:40 pm 3 min 46 sec 80 2:00 pm
9:52 am 4 min 35 sec 89 11:21 am
10:17 am 1 min 45 sec 58 11:15 am
7:35 am 1 min 55 sec 60 8:35 am

16␣ ␣ Distribute a copy of Focus Student Activity 15.7 to 16␣ ␣ The JASON Project is an educational project that, in
each student and ask them to complete Problem 1. 1997, produced research on geysers and disseminated
Discuss their methods of comparing the actual starting data and information for use by teachers and students.
times of next eruptions to the starting times predicted See their website at [Link]
by the JASON Project.
Students may invent several ways to rate the JASON
Project predictions. One method is to select a time
Lesson 15 Data—Variability and Spread
interval that seems to be a reasonable margin of error,
Focus Student Activity 15.7 such as 10 minutes; next compute the difference be-
tween each actual time of eruption and the predicted
NAME DATE

The predicted starting times of next eruptions of Old Faithful in col- time of eruption by the JASON Project; and then deter-
umn (4) below were obtained by the JASON Project in May 1997.
mine which JASON Project predictions are less than or
1␣ ␣ Compare the actual starting times of the next eruptions from col- equal to 10 minutes. Computing these differences shows
umn (2) in the table below to the JASON Project predicted starting
times in column (4). How do you rate the JASON Project predictions?
Support your rating with reasoning based on statistical evidence.
that 8 of the JASON Project’s 11 predictions satisfy this
2␣ ␣ Complete column (3) of the table below by filling in each of your
requirement. This can be used as the basis for assigning
predicted starting times of next eruptions from Focus Student Activity a rating to the predictions.
15.6 (notice that data in Column (1) is ordered according to its
occurence—be sure to enter your data accordingly). Then use at least 2
different statistical methods to compare your predictions in column
(3) to those by the JASON Project in column (4) and to the actual Another method is to compute the mean of the differ-
starting times of next eruptions in column (2). Use your comparisons
as the basis for rating the quality of your predictions, and provide ences between the actual times of eruption and the
convincing statistical evidence to support your rating.
predicted times of the JASON Project, and then consider
(1) (2) (3) (4) a prediction to be acceptable if its difference is less than
Actual My Predicted JASON Project’s
Starting Time Starting Time Starting Time of Predicted Start or equal to this mean. The differences in minutes be-
of Eruption of Next Eruption Next Eruption of Next Eruption
(from Student Activity 15.6)
tween the actual times of the next eruptions and the
7:16 am 8:53 am _______________ 8:41 am
times predicted by the JASON Project are 12, 4, 1, 5, 6, 0,
8:53 am 9:52 am _______________ 9:48 am
9:52 am 11:22 am _______________ 11:21 am 18, 6, 7, 12, and 10. The mean of these differences is 7.4
11:22 am
12:20 pm
12:20 pm
1:58 pm
_______________
_______________
12:15 pm
1:52 pm
to the nearest tenth, and 7 of the JASON Project predic-
7:35 am 8:30 am _______________ 8:30 am tions satisfy this requirement, i.e., are less than this
8:30 am 10:17 am _______________ 9:59 am
10:17 am 11:18 am _______________ 11:12 am
mean.
11:18 am 12:40 pm _______________ 12:47 pm
12:40 pm 2:11 pm _______________ 1:59 pm
2:11 pm 3:16 pm _______________ 3:06 pm

416 / Math Alive! Course III

Data—Variability and Spread Lesson 15
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

17␣ ␣ Ask the students to complete Problem 2 on Focus 17␣ ␣ Students may devise a variety of strategies for
Student Activity 15.7. Discuss the students’ methods of comparing and evaluating predictions. As an example
comparing their predictions of the starting times of (students will use their own predictions), Michael pre-
eruptions to the actual starting times and their methods dicted the following starting times (in order) for column
of comparing their predictions to those of the JASON 3 from the chart on Focus Student Activity 15.7:
Project.
8:42 am; 9:53 am; 11:21 am; 12:21 pm; 1:51 pm; 8:35
am; 9:57 am; 11:15 am; 12:47 pm; 2:00 pm; 3:10 pm.

To compare his predicted starting times to the actual

starting times of next eruptions, Michael computed the
differences between his predictions and the actual start-
ing times: 11, 1, 1, 1, 7, 5, 20, 3, 7,11, and 6 minutes.
Then he computed the mean of these differences as 6.6
minutes, to the nearest tenth. Michael stated,

I think that predictions that are off by 7 or fewer minutes are

“good” predictions. Since, on the average, my predicted
starting times differ from the actual starting times by fewer
than 7 minutes, and since 7 out of my 11 predicted starting
times are off by 7 or fewer minutes , I rate my predictions as
“good.”

To compare his predictions to the JASON Project predic-

tions, Michael computed the differences between the
JASON Project predicted starting times and the actual
starting times. These differences are: 12, 4, 1, 5, 6, 0, 18,
6, 7, 12, and 10 minutes, with a mean difference of 7.4
minutes to the nearest tenth. Based on the fact that his
predictions differed from the actual times by an average
of 6.6 minutes, and the JASON Project predictions dif-
fered from the actual times by an average of 7.4 min-
utes, Michael stated that his predictions were “better
than the JASON Project predictions.”

As a second method of comparing his predictions to the

JASON Project predictions, Michael computed the differ-
ences between the JASON project differences (12, 4, 1, 5,
6, 0, 18, 6, 7, 12, and 10 minutes) and his differences
(11, 1, 1, 1, 7, 5, 20, 3, 7, 11, and 6 minutes) to get 1, 3,
0, 4, 1, 5, 2, 3, 0, 1, and 4 minutes. The mean of these
differences, to the nearest tenth, is 2.2 minutes. This
lead Michael to conclude that his predictions were
“close to the JASON Project predictions.”

Math Alive! Course III / 417

Lesson 15 Data—Variability and Spread
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

18␣ ␣ One method of comparing predicted starting times 18␣ ␣ The upper box plot at the left is for the set of differ-
of eruptions to actual starting times is to form a box plot ences between the actual starting times and Michael’s
of the differences between predicted and actual times predictions (i.e., for 11, 1, 1, 1, 7, 5, 20, 3, 7, 11, and 6
(see differences in Comment 17). If it hasn’t come up, minutes; see example in Comment 17). The lower box
ask the students to use this method to compare their plot is for the set of differences between the actual
differences to the JASON project differences. Discuss. starting times and the JASON Project’s predictions (i.e.,
for 12, 4, 1, 5, 6, 0, 18, 6, 7, 12, and 10 minutes). These
sets of differences each have a median of 6, and the
right hand whiskers show that the maximum difference
Michael’s Differences between the predicted starting time and the actual
starting time is greater for Michael’s data than for the
JASON Project Differences JASON Project’s data. However, the middle 50% of both
sets of data (the boxes) show that Michael’s data has
more lower values than the JASON Project, and this
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
agrees with mean of the differences for Michael’s data
Difference between actual and being 6.6 as compared to the mean of the differences for
predicted starting times. the JASON Project data of 7.4 (see Comment 17). Notice
that there is no whisker on the lower end of the box for
Michael’s data because the lower 25% of the data each
equal the minimum difference, 1.

19␣ ␣ If it didn’t come up in Action 18, discuss the use of 19␣ ␣ As examples, the plots shown below are print-outs
the graphing calculator to graph box plots. Ask the of a TI-83 box-plot of the differences between Michael’s
students to compare their by-hand box plots to calcula- predicted starting times and the actual starting times
tor box plots. Discuss. (see example in Comment 17) and the differences be-
tween the JASON Project predicted times and the actual
times.

Note: To obtain box-plots on the TI-83, students may:

(1) enter the differences between their own predictions
and the actual starting times in List 1, and the differ-
ences between the JASON Project predictions and the
actual times in List 2; (2) turn on plots 1 and 2 from the
STAT PLOT menu and select the “box plot” option; (3)
press GRAPH; (4) TRACE the box plots to identify the mini-
mums, maximums, medians, and quartiles for these
plots.

418 / Math Alive! Course III

Data—Variability and Spread Lesson 15
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

20␣ ␣ Place a transparency of Focus Master D on the 20␣ ␣ Focus Master D contains 3 types of data for 4 re-
overhead and give a copy to each student. Ask the gions of the United States. This action could be used to
groups to formulate a list of “We notice… We won- provide further opportunities for students to form plots
der…” statements about the given information. Invite and analyze data, and/or to assess students’ understand-
volunteers to share a few of their group’s statements ing of statistical methods.
with the class. Then ask each student, or each group of
students, to: Prior to beginning this project you might provide, or
have the class create, an assessment guide for the project
a) Formulate a question or set of related questions about (see Starting Points for ideas). You might require specific
the data, noting that this question may change or statistical graphs (e.g., histograms and line, box, stem
evolve as students complete part b) and through input and leaf, and scatter plots) and specific statistical sum-
from classmates and you. maries (e.g., mean, median, mode, average deviation,
median-fit lines, quartiles, etc.). You could ask the stu-
b) Investigate the given data and complete a statistical dents to relate the variability they see in the data to
analysis of the data in order to answer the question or their conclusions. Reports should give evidence that the
questions formed in a). students know a wide range of statistical methods (both
by hand and by calculator), how to use the methods
c) Report the details and reasoning behind their meth- appropriately, and how to communicate convincingly.
ods, conjectures and conclusions, supporting all conclu- You might also include specific requirements regarding
sions with sound statistical evidence. the presentation of the students’ reasoning and results.

Each of the 3 types of data on Focus Master D can be

Lesson 15 Data—Variability and Spread analyzed separately as one-variable data by constructing
Focus Master D
stem and leaf plots, histograms, and/or box plots of each
U.S. Data* Percentage of Population Average Amount of Money Percentage of Population
Not High School Graduates
(1994, to nearest percent)
Spent for Education Per Student
(1993, in thousands of dollars)
Below Poverty Level
(1993, to tenth of a percent)
type of data, or as two-variable by forming scatter plots
Northeast, Mid-Atlantic
Maine 21 6.1 15.4 and median-fit lines based on 2 types of data. For ex-
New Hampshire 18 5.6 9.9
Vermont
Massachusetts
19
20
6.7
6.6
10.0
10.7
ample, 4 box and whisker plots of the percentages of the
Rhode Island
Connecticut
28
21
6.6
8.2
11.2
8.5 population from each of the 4 U.S. regions that are not
New York 25 8.8 16.4
New Jersey
Pennsylvania
23
25
9.5
6.9
10.9
13.2
high school graduates could provide the basis for a one-
Delaware 23 6.4 10.2
Maryland
District of Columbia
22
27
6.4
8.0
9.7
26.4
variable analysis. Or, a scatter plot comparing 2 of the 3
West Virginia
Midwest
34 5.7 22.2
types of data could provide the basis of a two-variable
Ohio 24 5.3 13.3
Indiana
Illinois
24
24
5.4
5.4
12.2
13.6
analysis.
Michigan 23 6.4 15.4
Wisconsin 21 6.5 12.6
Minnesota 18 5.6 11.6
Iowa
Missouri
20
26
5.2
4.5
10.3
16.1
Questions such as the following may help students
North Dakota 23 4.9 11.2
South Dakota
Nebraska
23
18
4.4
4.9
14.2
10.3
develop their own questions about the data: How do the
Kansas
South
19 5.5 13.1
Midwest states compare with the Northeast Mid-Atlantic
Virginia 25 5.3 9.7
North Carolina
South Carolina
30
32
4.9
4.7
14.4
18.7
states in the amounts of money spent on education per
Georgia
Florida
29
26
4.7
5.3
13.5
17.8 student? If a scatter plot is formed of the two variables,
Kentucky 35 4.9 20.4
Tennessee
Alabama
33
33
4.0
3.8
19.6
17.4
Percentage of Population Not High School Graduates,
Mississippi 36 3.4 24.7
Arkansas
Louisiana
34
32
3.8
4.3
20.0
26.4
and Average Amount of Money Spent for Education per
Oklahoma
Texas
25
28
4.1
4.9
19.9
17.4 Student, what predictions can be made from a median-
West
Montana
Idaho
19
20
5.5
4.0
14.9
13.1
fit line?
Wyoming 17 5.8 13.3
Colorado 16 5.1 9.9
New Mexico 25 4.6 17.4
Arizona 21 4.1 15.4
Utah 15 3.2 10.7
Nevada 21 4.9 9.8
Washington 16 5.5 12.1
Oregon 19 6.1 11.8
California 24 4.6 18.2
Alaska 13 9.3 9.1
Hawaii 20 5.8 8.0

*Statistical Abstract of the United States, 115th ed. (Washington: Bureau of the Census, 1995), pp.159, 168, 461, 482.

Math Alive! Course III / 419

Lesson 15 Data—Variability and Spread

TEACHER NOTES:

420 / Math Alive! Course III

Data—Variability and Spread Lesson 15

Follow-up Student Activity 15.8

NAME DATE

Construct all graphs by hand or by a graphing calculator. Show

labeled sketches of all graphs you construct.

1␣ ␣ This table shows the starting dates of all eruptions of the Hawai-
ian volcano, Kilauea, from 1923 to 1963, the duration in days of
each eruption, and the time in years before the next eruption. Form
a line plot of the eruption dates by year, and form a stem and leaf
plot, histogram, and box plot of the Duration in Days data. Next to
each plot, write your observations, conjectures, and/or generaliza-
tions based on mathematical relationships in the plot. What can
you see/conclude from one plot that another doesn’t show?

Eruptions of Kilauea on Hawaii from 1923 to 1963

Time Interval Before

Starting Dates Duration in Days Next Eruption in Years

August 25, 1923 1 .7

May 10, 1924 17 .2
July 19, 1924 11 3.0
July 7, 1927 13 1.6
February 20, 1929 2 .4
July 25, 1929 4 1.4
November 19, 1930 19 1.1
December 23, 1931 14 1.7
September 6, 1934 33 18.6
June 27, 1952 136 1.9
May 31, 1954 3 .7
February 28, 1955 88 4.7
November 14, 1959 36 .2
January 13, 1960 36 1.1
February 24, 1961 1 .2
March 3, 1961 22 .4
July 10, 1961 7 .2
September 22, 1961 3 1.2
December 7, 1962 2 .7
August 21, 1963 2 .1
October 5, 1963 1 1.4

(Continued on back.)
Math Alive! Course III / 421
Lesson 15 Data—Variability and Spread
Follow-up Student Activity (cont.)

2␣ ␣ Form a line, stem and leaf, and box plot for the Time Interval
Before Next Eruption data. State several observations, conjectures,
and/or generalizations. Compare these plots with those from Prob-
lem 1. Describe the similarities and differences in the graphs and
how these similarities and differences may relate to the data.

3␣ ␣ On 1 ⁄ 4" grid paper, form a scatter plot of the eruptions of Kilauea

with the Duration of Eruptions along the horizontal axis and the
Time Interval Before Next Eruption along the vertical axis. Sketch a
median-fit line for this plot. Suppose that in November of 1963
another eruption occurred and it lasted 30 days. Use your plot and
median-fit line to predict the length of time before the next erup-
tion of Kilauea.

4␣ ␣ The dates of outbreaks of eruptions at Kilauea from 1964 to 1982

and the duration in days of these eruptions are listed here: March 5,
1964, 10 days; December 14, 1965, < 1 day; November 5, 1967, 251
days; August 22, 1968, 5 days; October 7, 1968, 15 days; February
22, 1969, 6 days; May 24, 1969, 867 days; August 14, 1971, < 1 day;
September 24, 1971, 5 days; February 4, 1972, 454 days; May 5,
1973, < 1 day; November 10, 1973, 30 days; December 12, 1973, 203
days; July 19, 1974, 3 days; September 19, 1974, < 1 day; December
31, 1974, < 1 day; November 29, 1975, < 1 day; September 13, 1977,
18 days; November 16, 1979, 1 day; April 31, 1982, < 1 day; Septem-
ber 5, 1982, < 1 day. Note: < stands for “less than.”

a) Form a histogram and a box plot for the Eruption Duration in

Days data for the years 1964 to 1982. Compare these to the histo-
gram and box plot for Problem 1 and state a few observations.

b) Form a line plot of the dates of eruptions by year for 1964-82.

Compare this to the line plot from Problem 1. What do these plots
show about the differences in data for these 2 periods?

c) Since January 3, 1983, Kilauea has erupted continuously. This is

the longest period of a volcanic eruption in Hawaii in historical
times. Comparing the data and graphs from 1923-63 to the data
from 1964-82, what clues can you find that might have indicated a
drastic change for the years following 1983? Discuss your observa-
tions and reasoning.

422 / Math Alive! Course III

Data—Variability and Spread Lesson 15

Connector Student Activity 15.1

NAME DATE

Period 1—Length of Time in Minutes Between Eruptions of Old Faithful

57, 87, 73, 94, 52, 88, 72, 88, 62, 87, 57, 94, 51, 98, 59

Regarding the above data,

I notice…

I wonder…

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 15 Data—Variability and Spread

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Data—Variability and Spread Lesson 15
Focus Master A

Old Faithful Data

Period 1

Period 2

Period 3

40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110

Minutes Between Eruptions

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 15 Data—Variability and Spread
Focus Master B

Eruptions of Old Faithful—April 1997

120
115
110
105
Minutes Before Next Eruption

100
95
90
85
80
75
70
65
60
55
50
45
40

.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5

Duration of Eruption in Minutes

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Data—Variability and Spread Lesson 15
Focus Master C

Constructing a Median-Fit Line

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 15 Data—Variability and Spread
Focus Master D

U.S. Data* Percentage of Population Average Amount of Money Percentage of Population

Not High School Graduates Spent for Education Per Student Below Poverty Level
(1994, to nearest percent) (1993, in thousands of dollars) (1993, to tenth of a percent)
Northeast, Mid-Atlantic
Maine 21 6.1 15.4
New Hampshire 18 5.6 9.9
Vermont 19 6.7 10.0
Massachusetts 20 6.6 10.7
Rhode Island 28 6.6 11.2
Connecticut 21 8.2 8.5
New York 25 8.8 16.4
New Jersey 23 9.5 10.9
Pennsylvania 25 6.9 13.2
Delaware 23 6.4 10.2
Maryland 22 6.4 9.7
District of Columbia 27 8.0 26.4
West Virginia 34 5.7 22.2
Midwest
Ohio 24 5.3 13.3
Indiana 24 5.4 12.2
Illinois 24 5.4 13.6
Michigan 23 6.4 15.4
Wisconsin 21 6.5 12.6
Minnesota 18 5.6 11.6
Iowa 20 5.2 10.3
Missouri 26 4.5 16.1
North Dakota 23 4.9 11.2
South Dakota 23 4.4 14.2
Nebraska 18 4.9 10.3
Kansas 19 5.5 13.1
South
Virginia 25 5.3 9.7
North Carolina 30 4.9 14.4
South Carolina 32 4.7 18.7
Georgia 29 4.7 13.5
Florida 26 5.3 17.8
Kentucky 35 4.9 20.4
Tennessee 33 4.0 19.6
Alabama 33 3.8 17.4
Mississippi 36 3.4 24.7
Arkansas 34 3.8 20.0
Louisiana 32 4.3 26.4
Oklahoma 25 4.1 19.9
Texas 28 4.9 17.4
West
Montana 19 5.5 14.9
Idaho 20 4.0 13.1
Wyoming 17 5.8 13.3
Colorado 16 5.1 9.9
New Mexico 25 4.6 17.4
Arizona 21 4.1 15.4
Utah 15 3.2 10.7
Nevada 21 4.9 9.8
Washington 16 5.5 12.1
Oregon 19 6.1 11.8
California 24 4.6 18.2
Alaska 13 9.3 9.1
Hawaii 20 5.8 8.0

*Statistical Abstract of the United States, 115th ed. (Washington: Bureau of the Census, 1995), pp.159, 168, 461, 482.

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Data—Variability and Spread Lesson 15

Focus Student Activity 15.2

NAME DATE

Period 1—Length of Time in Minutes Between Eruptions of Old Faithful

Data in order collected:

57, 87, 73, 94, 52, 88, 72, 88, 62, 87, 57, 94, 51, 98, 59

Data in numerical order:

Box and Whisker Plot

40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
Minutes Between Eruptions

Observations:

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 15 Data—Variability and Spread

Focus Student Activity 15.3

NAME DATE

Period 1—Length of Time in Minutes Between Eruptions of Old Faithful

Data in order collected:

57, 87, 73, 94, 52, 88, 72, 88, 62, 87, 57, 94, 51, 98, 59

Data in numerical order:

51, 52, 57, 57, 59, 62, 72, 73, 87, 87, 88, 88, 94, 94, 98

Box and Whisker Plot

40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
Minutes Between Eruptions

Stem and Leaf Plot Histogram

5 1,2,7,7,9 4
6 2 3
Frequency

7 2,3 2
8 7,7,8,8
1
9 4,4,8
0
50 60 70 80 90 100

Minutes Between Eruptions

Line Plot
X X X X
X X X X X X X X X X X

50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100

Observations: Average deviation(s):

Method(s):

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Data—Variability and Spread Lesson 15

Focus Student Activity 15.4

NAME DATE

Period 2—Length of Time in Minutes Between Eruptions of Old Faithful

Data in order collected:

93, 86, 70, 63, 91, 82, 58, 97, 59, 70, 58, 98, 55, 107, 61

Data in numerical order:

Box and Whisker Plot

Stem and Leaf Plot Histogram

Line Plot

Observations: Average deviation(s):

Method(s):

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 15 Data—Variability and Spread

Focus Student Activity 15.5

NAME DATE

Period 3—Length of Time in Minutes Between Eruptions of Old Faithful

Data in order collected:

82, 91, 65, 97, 52, 94, 60, 94, 63, 91, 83, 84, 71, 83, 70

Data in numerical order:

Box and Whisker Plot

Stem and Leaf Plot Histogram

Line Plot

Observations: Average deviation(s):

Method(s):

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Data—Variability and Spread Lesson 15

Focus Student Activity 15.6

NAME DATE

1␣ ␣ The following data about Old Faithful was recorded, in order, in

April 1997. Form a scatter plot of this data by placing the duration of
eruptions along the horizontal axis and the time interval before the
next eruption along the vertical axis. Record your observations.
Time Interval
Duration of Eruption Before Next Eruption

4 min 24 sec 81 min

2 min 00 sec 60 min
4 min 43 sec 91 min
1 min 55 sec 51 min
4 min 14 sec 85 min
1 min 34 sec 55 min
1 min 34 sec 98 min
2 min 8 sec 49 min
4 min 30 sec 85 min
1 min 43 sec 65 min
4 min 27 sec 102 min
1 min 51 sec 56 min
4 min 35 sec 86 min
1 min 44 sec 62 min
4 min 35 sec 91 min

2␣ ␣ Following are the starting time and durations of 11 different erup-

tions randomly selected from a 2-day period in May 1997 (not listed
in order). Use your scatter plot from Problem 1 to predict the time
interval before the next eruption and the time of the next eruption.
Explain your methods.
Starting Predicted Interval Predicted Time
Time Duration Before Next Eruption of Next Eruption
11:22 am 1 min 50 sec _________________ _________________
7:16 am 4 min 19 sec _________________ _________________
2:11 pm 1 min 50 sec _________________ _________________
8:53 am 1 min 55 sec _________________ _________________
12:20 pm 4 min 46 sec _________________ _________________
8:30 am 4 min 26 sec _________________ _________________
11:18 am 4 min 35 sec _________________ _________________
12:40 pm 3 min 46 sec _________________ _________________
9:52 am 4 min 35 sec _________________ _________________
10:17 am 1 min 45 sec _________________ _________________
7:35 am 1 min 55 sec _________________ _________________

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 15 Data—Variability and Spread

Focus Student Activity 15.7

NAME DATE

The predicted starting times of next eruptions of Old Faithful in col-

umn (4) below were obtained by the JASON Project in May 1997.

1␣ ␣ Compare the actual starting times of the next eruptions from col-
umn (2) in the table below to the JASON Project predicted starting
times in column (4). How do you rate the JASON Project predictions?
Support your rating with reasoning based on statistical evidence.

2␣ ␣ Complete column (3) of the table below by filling in each of your

predicted starting times of next eruptions from Focus Student Activity
15.6 (notice that data in Column (1) is ordered according to its
occurence—be sure to enter your data accordingly). Then use at least 2
different statistical methods to compare your predictions in column
(3) to those by the JASON Project in column (4) and to the actual
starting times of next eruptions in column (2). Use your comparisons
as the basis for rating the quality of your predictions, and provide
convincing statistical evidence to support your rating.

(1) (2) (3) (4)

Actual My Predicted JASON Project’s
Starting Time Starting Time Starting Time of Predicted Start
of Eruption of Next Eruption Next Eruption of Next Eruption
(from Student Activity 15.6)
7:16 am 8:53 am _______________ 8:41 am
8:53 am 9:52 am _______________ 9:48 am
9:52 am 11:22 am _______________ 11:21 am
11:22 am 12:20 pm _______________ 12:15 pm
12:20 pm 1:58 pm _______________ 1:52 pm
7:35 am 8:30 am _______________ 8:30 am
8:30 am 10:17 am _______________ 9:59 am
10:17 am 11:18 am _______________ 11:12 am
11:18 am 12:40 pm _______________ 12:47 pm
12:40 pm 2:11 pm _______________ 1:59 pm
2:11 pm 3:16 pm _______________ 3:06 pm

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Data—Variability and Spread Lesson 15

Follow-up Student Activity 15.8

NAME DATE

Construct all graphs by hand or by a graphing calculator. Show

labeled sketches of all graphs you construct.

1␣ ␣ This table shows the starting dates of all eruptions of the Hawai-
ian volcano, Kilauea, from 1923 to 1963, the duration in days of
each eruption, and the time in years before the next eruption. Form
a line plot of the eruption dates by year, and form a stem and leaf
plot, histogram, and box plot of the Duration in Days data. Next to
each plot, write your observations, conjectures, and/or generaliza-
tions based on mathematical relationships in the plot. What can
you see/conclude from one plot that another doesn’t show?

Eruptions of Kilauea on Hawaii from 1923 to 1963

Time Interval Before

Starting Dates Duration in Days Next Eruption in Years

August 25, 1923 1 .7

May 10, 1924 17 .2
July 19, 1924 11 3.0
July 7, 1927 13 1.6
February 20, 1929 2 .4
July 25, 1929 4 1.4
November 19, 1930 19 1.1
December 23, 1931 14 1.7
September 6, 1934 33 18.6
June 27, 1952 136 1.9
May 31, 1954 3 .7
February 28, 1955 88 4.7
November 14, 1959 36 .2
January 13, 1960 36 1.1
February 24, 1961 1 .2
March 3, 1961 22 .4
July 10, 1961 7 .2
September 22, 1961 3 1.2
December 7, 1962 2 .7
August 21, 1963 2 .1
October 5, 1963 1 1.4

(Continued on back.)

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 15 Data—Variability and Spread
Follow-up Student Activity (cont.)

2␣ ␣ Form a line, stem and leaf, and box plot for the Time Interval
Before Next Eruption data. State several observations, conjectures,
and/or generalizations. Compare these plots with those from Prob-
lem 1. Describe the similarities and differences in the graphs and
how these similarities and differences may relate to the data.

3␣ ␣ On 1 ⁄ 4" grid paper, form a scatter plot of the eruptions of Kilauea

with the Duration of Eruptions along the horizontal axis and the
Time Interval Before Next Eruption along the vertical axis. Sketch a
median-fit line for this plot. Suppose that in November of 1963
another eruption occurred and it lasted 30 days. Use your plot and
median-fit line to predict the length of time before the next erup-
tion of Kilauea.

4␣ ␣ The dates of outbreaks of eruptions at Kilauea from 1964 to 1982

and the duration in days of these eruptions are listed here: March 5,
1964, 10 days; December 14, 1965, < 1 day; November 5, 1967, 251
days; August 22, 1968, 5 days; October 7, 1968, 15 days; February
22, 1969, 6 days; May 24, 1969, 867 days; August 14, 1971, < 1 day;
September 24, 1971, 5 days; February 4, 1972, 454 days; May 5,
1973, < 1 day; November 10, 1973, 30 days; December 12, 1973, 203
days; July 19, 1974, 3 days; September 19, 1974, < 1 day; December
31, 1974, < 1 day; November 29, 1975, < 1 day; September 13, 1977,
18 days; November 16, 1979, 1 day; April 31, 1982, < 1 day; Septem-
ber 5, 1982, < 1 day. Note: < stands for “less than.”

a) Form a histogram and a box plot for the Eruption Duration in

Days data for the years 1964 to 1982. Compare these to the histo-
gram and box plot for Problem 1 and state a few observations.

b) Form a line plot of the dates of eruptions by year for 1964-82.

Compare this to the line plot from Problem 1. What do these plots
show about the differences in data for these 2 periods?

c) Since January 3, 1983, Kilauea has erupted continuously. This is

the longest period of a volcanic eruption in Hawaii in historical
times. Comparing the data and graphs from 1923-63 to the data
from 1964-82, what clues can you find that might have indicated a
drastic change for the years following 1983? Discuss your observa-
tions and reasoning.

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Counting and Probability Diagrams
Counting & Probability Diagrams Lesson 16 Lesson 16

.
.
.
.
THE BIG IDEA .. CONNECTOR
.
. OVERVIEW MATERIALS FOR TEACHER ACTIVITY
The fundamental .
.
. Students use colored link- ✔ Colored linking cubes ✔ Connector Student Activ-
counting principle is a .
. ing cubes and tree and rect- (e.g., Hex-a-links), 40 ity 16.1, 1 copy per pair
.
powerful counting . angular diagrams to solve or more per pair of of students and 1 trans-
.
counting problems. These students. parency.
technique used in place ..
. models and diagrams illus- ✔ Connector Masters A, B, ✔ An overhead pen or
of one-by-one counting. .. trate the fundamental and C, 1 transparency of masking tape for each
.
. counting principle. each. pair of students.
Investigations using .
.
.
concrete models, tree .
.
.
diagrams, and rect- .
. FOCUS
angle diagrams to orga- ..
. OVERVIEW MATERIALS FOR TEACHER ACTIVITY
.
nize and represent .
. Students develop strate- ✔ Colored linking cubes ✔ An overhead pen or
.
situations involving . gies for solving counting (e.g., Hex-a-links), 80 or masking tape for each
.
. problems involving permu- more for each group of group.
counting prompt in- .
. tations and combinations. students.
.
sights about this prin- . They compute the prob-
. ✔ Focus Student Activities
. abilities of outcomes which 16.2-16.4, 1 copy of each
ciple. When such .
. require these strategies. per student and 1 trans-
.
investigations empha- . Rectangles and probability
. parency of each.
size combinatorial rea- .. trees are introduced as
. methods of determining
soning and probability, .. sample spaces and for
.
. computing probabilities.
important conjectures .
.
.
about permutations, .
.
.
combinations, and the .
. FOLLOW-UP
probabilities of certain ..
. OVERVIEW MATERIALS FOR STUDENT ACTIVITY
outcomes also emerge. ..
. Students use diagrams and ✔ Student Activity 16.5,
.
. the fundamental counting 1 copy per student.
.
. principal to solve counting
.
. and probability problems,
.
. and provide explanations
.
. for their conclusions.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

Math Alive! Course III / 423

Lesson 16 Counting and Probability Diagrams

LESSON IDEAS
. .
. QUOTE . the application of analytic PURPOSE
. .
. In grades K-8, counting . formulas for permutations The primary purpose of this
. .
. typically involves match- . and combinations. lesson is to engage students
. .
. ing the elements of a set . NCTM Standards in thinking and conjecturing
.
. with a finite subset of the about the concepts of count-
.
. natural numbers. But real- ASSESSMENT ing rather than mastering
.
. world problems that can You might provide class formulas and definitions.
.
. be simplified to the form time for brainstorming con- Although many teacher
.
. “How many different sub- tent ideas and/or evaluation comments include formulas
.
. sets of size k can be se- standards for the letters stu- and definitions, these are
.
. lected from the members dents produce for Problem provided for teacher back-
.
. of a set having n distinct 6 on the Follow-up. This ground and for comparison
.
. members?” require an letter could be used as a to generalizations that stu-
.
. entirely different method portfolio entry. dents may offer.
.
. of counting. To develop
.
. students’ abilities to solve
.
. problems with this struc-
.
. ture, instruction should
.
. emphasize combinatorial
.
. reasoning as opposed to

SELECTED ANSWERS

1. a) 20 5. In the following probability tree, H represents heads and

b) 120 T represents tails. This tree shows that 8 of the 16 out-
c) 800 comes have 2 or more heads in a row, so the probability
d) 324. The first house can be any one of 4 different col- of this happening is 8 ⁄ 16 = 1 ⁄ 2 .
ors and then each remaining house can be any one of 3
colors (4 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3). First Second Third Fourth Outcomes
e) 720. The 6 remaining positions can be filled in 6 × 5 × Toss Toss Toss Toss
4 × 3 × 2 × 1 ways. 1
__
H 2 HHHH
f) 8, since 7 × 7 × 7 is less than 365 and 8 × 8 × 8 is 1
__
2 T 1
__ HHHT
H 2
greater than 365.
1
g) 50,000, since the digit in the ones place must be even 1
T 1
__ H
__
2 HHTH
__ 2
2
(0, 2, 4, 6, or 8) there are 10 × 10 × 10 × 10 × 5 possible H T 1
__
2
HHTT
zip codes. 1
__
T 1
H 2 HTHH
h) 495 __
2
1
__
2 T 1
__ HTHT
H 2
1
__
1
2. a) 1 ⁄ 4 × 1 ⁄ 8 = 1 ⁄ 32 b) 1 ⁄ 8 × 1 ⁄ 12 = 1 ⁄ 96
2 T 1
__ H
__
2 HTTH
2
H
c) 1 ⁄ 4 × 1 ⁄ 4 × 1 ⁄ 6 = 1 ⁄ 96 d) 3 ⁄ 8 × 1⁄ 3 = 1 ⁄ 8 T 1
__
2
HTTT
1
__
H 2 THHH
3. a) 2⁄3 × 1⁄4 = 2 ⁄ 12
= 1⁄6 b) 1⁄3 × 1⁄ 2= 1⁄6 T 1
__
2 T 1
__ THHT
1
H
c) 1 ⁄ 3 × 3 ⁄ 4 = 1 ⁄ 4 d) 1 ⁄ 3 × 1⁄ 2 = 1 ⁄ 6
__ 2
2
1
1
T 1
__ H
__
2 THTH
__ 2
2
4. The probability of the 1st gumball being red is 2⁄ 6,
and if H T 1
__
2
THTT
the 1st gumball is red, the probability of the 2nd being 1
__
T H 2 TTHH
red is 1 ⁄ 5. So, the probability that both are red is 2 ⁄ 6 × 1 ⁄ 5 1
__
2
1
__
2 T 1
__ TTHT
H 2
= 1 ⁄ 15 .
1
T 1
__ H
__
2 TTTH
2
T 1
__
2
TTTT

424 / Math Alive! Course III

Counting and Probability Diagrams Lesson 16

Connector Teacher Activity

OVERVIEW & PURPOSE MATERIALS
Students use colored linking cubes and tree and rectangular ✔ Colored linking cubes (e.g., Hex-a-links), 40 or more
diagrams to solve counting problems. These models and per pair of students.
diagrams illustrate the fundamental counting principle. ✔ Connector Masters A, B, and C, 1 transparency of
each.
✔ Connector Student Activity 16.1, 1 copy per pair of
students and 1 transparency.
✔ An overhead pen or masking tape for each pair of
students.

ACTIONS COMMENTS

1␣␣Arrange the students in pairs and distribute colored 1␣␣Some students may draw a “map” showing the 4
linking cubes and an overhead pen or some masking paths from Marcia’s home to the post office and then
tape to each pair. Place a transparency of Connector draw the 3 paths from the post office to the school. Such
Master A on the overhead and ask the pairs to draw a a drawing may be labeled with details such as streets,
diagram or build a model that shows Marcia’s situation river, home, post office, school, etc. The 12 possible
and helps determine the number of routes possible. different routes can be traced on the map.
Invite volunteers to show their diagrams or models at
the overhead. If they aren’t suggested by a student, Students’ diagrams may resemble a tree diagram—a
introduce a tree diagram and a rectangle diagram as possi- schematic diagram of the various paths, as illustrated on
bilities. Connector Master B. A transparency of this master may
be useful for introducing students to this method.

Counting and Probability Trees Lesson 16

Connector Master A
Lesson 16 Counting and Probability Diagrams
Connector Master B

Marcia’s Routes to School Tree Diagram

Each morning before school Marcia walks to the

Outcomes
post office to mail letters for her parents, and then (Routes)
she continues on to school. Marcia has 4 different
routes she can walk from her home to the post of- river, river
r
rive
fice: along the river; through the park; by the new athletic fields
mall river, athletic fields
housing development; or on the highway. When
river, mall
she leaves the post office, there are 3 different
routes that she can walk to school; along the river;
park, river
across the athletic fields; or by the mall. How many rive
r
er

different routes can Marcia take on her trips to

riv

athletic fields park, athletic fields

mall
school? rk
pa park, mall
house ho
usi
ng
dev development, river
elo r
pm rive
ent
hi

athletic fields
gh

mall development, athletic fields

wa
y

development, mall

highway, river
r
rive
athletic fields highway, athletic fields
mall

highway, mall

(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 425

Lesson 16 Counting and Probability Diagrams
Connector Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

1 (continued.)
Students who use the linking cubes to form a model of
this situation may use masking tape or an overhead pen
R R R R to label the cubes. For example, they might label some
R P D H
F F F F cubes with R for river, P for park, D for housing develop-
R P D H ment, and H for highway and then label other cubes
M M M M with R for river, F for athletic fields, and M for mall. A
R P D H
way of placing the cubes to illustrate the 12 routes is
shown at the left.

A rectangle diagram can also be used to determine the

Counting and Probability Diagrams Lesson 16 number of routes, as shown at the left on Connector
Connector Master C
Master C. The letters R, P, D, H, F, and M denote the
routes as on the cubes above. The 4 parts of the first
rectangle represent the 4 routes to the post office. Then
Routes from home Routes from home via each of these 4 parts is divided into 3 parts to represent
to post office post office to school the routes from the post office to the school; the second
RR PR DR HR rectangle shows the 12 different routes from home to
R P D H RF PF DF HF
school. A transparency of Connector Master C may be
useful for illustrating a rectangle diagram of Marcia’s
RM PM DM HM
routes.

2␣␣Give each pair of students a copy of Connector 2␣␣You may wish to have the pairs solve selected prob-
Student Activity 16.1 and ask them to complete Problem lems, and then assign the remaining problems as home-
1. Discuss their reasoning and methods. If it isn’t sug- work.
gested by a student, ask the class to make a tree and/or
rectangle diagram to illustrate the possibilities. Repeat One possible diagram and/or explanation for each
for Problems 2-10. problem is provided below. The students may find it is
not necessary to draw all the branches of a tree diagram
Windows Doors Outcomes
or all the subdivisions of a rectangle or to form all the
D1 W1D1
D2 W1D2
possible linking cube arrangements to reach a correct
D3 W1D3 solution. That is, they may construct a partial diagram
W1 D1 W2D1 or model and “see” in it a pattern that can be general-
D2 W2D2
D3 W2D3
ized to solve a problem.
W2
D1 W3D1
D2 W3D2 1) There are 27 ways, as shown by the tree diagram at
D3 W3D3
W3 the left, where W1 through W9 represent the 9 windows
D1 W4D1 and D1, D2, and D3 represent the 3 doors.
D2 W4D2
W4 D3 W4D3

D1 W5D1
Notice that, for every window the burglar enters, there
W5 D2 W5D2 are 3 doors he could exit. Hence, there are 9 × 3 = 27
D3 W5D3
routes for the burglar.
W6 D1 W6D1
D2 W6D2
D3 W6D3 2) A tree diagram begins with 6 branches for the exterior
W7
D1 W7D1 colors, then each of the 6 branches has 5 branches for
W8
D2 W7D2 the interiors, and each of the 5 branches has 3 branches
D3 W7D3
for the trims. Similarly, a rectangle can be divided into 6
D1 W8D1
W9 D2 W8D2 parts to represent the 6 exterior colors; each of these can
D3 W8D3 be divided into 5 parts to represent the 5 interior colors;
D1 W9D1
D2 W9D2
D3 W9D3

426 / Math Alive! Course III

Counting and Probability Diagrams Lesson 16
Connector Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

and each of these into 3 parts to represent the trim

colors. Thus, there are 6 × 5 × 3 = 90 different color-trim
Counting and Probability Diagrams Lesson 16

Connector Student Activity 16.1 schemes.

NAME DATE

3) The rectangle diagram below begins with 3 parts, 1

Solve each problem and show a diagram or write a brief explanation
of your reasoning. for each type of juice. Then each part is divided into 2
1␣␣A house has 3 doors to the outside and 9 windows. In how many parts, 1 for each type of cereal. Finally, each of the 6
ways can a burglar enter the house through a window and leave
through a door? parts is divided into 3 parts, 1 for each type of pastry.
The 18 parts in the last rectangle represent the 18 differ-
2␣␣A car manufacturer provides 6 different exterior colors, 5 interior ent breakfast possibilities. The letters in these rectangles
colors, and 3 different trims. How many different exterior color/
interior color/trim schemes are available? are the first letters of each type of juice, cereal, and
pastry.
3␣␣For breakfast Henry always chooses one of the following drinks:
orange juice, tomato juice, or apple juice. For cereal he chooses ei-
ther corn flakes or bran flakes. For pastry he has either a doughnut,
a glazed muffin, or an apple tart. What are all the different possibili- OCD TCD ACD
ties for Henry’s breakfasts if he always has cereal, a drink, and a
pastry? OC TC AC OCM TCM ACM
OCT TCT ACT
4␣␣A teenager posed the following problem: How many different
O T A OBD TBD ABD
outfits can she wear if she has 2 skirts with different patterns, 3 dif-
ferent colored blouses and 2 different types of shoes? OB TB AB OBM TBM ABM
OBT TBT ABT
5␣␣Each student at Athey Creek Middle School has a 4-digit locker
number. If the 1st digit of each 7th grader’s locker number is a 7
and each of the other 3 digits is one of the digits from 0 through 9,
how many different 4-digit numbers are available for the 7th grad-
ers? Note: digits can be repeated any number of times in a locker
Note that some students may form 18 arrangements of
number. linking cubes labeled as shown in the 3rd rectangle
above.
6␣␣A school cafeteria offers a selection of 2 types of meat, 3 types of
fish, 4 different vegetables, and 3 desserts. In how many ways can a
student select 1 vegetable, 1 dessert, and either 1 type of meat or 1
type of fish? 4) A tree diagram first has 2 branches, then each of these
has 3 branches, and then each of these has 2 branches.
Lesson 16 Counting and Probability Diagrams So, there are 2 × 3 × 2 = 12 different outfits.
Connector Student Activity 16.1 (cont.)

7␣␣A building developer may choose from 4 different roofing sub-

5) Since the 1st digit must be a 7, there is only 1 choice
contractors, 5 different electrical subcontractors, 3 different plumb- for the 1st digit, but each of the remaining 3 digits can
ing subcontractors, 2 different carpenters, and 6 different painters.
In how many ways can he select 1 of each? be any one of the digits from 0 through 9. A tree dia-
gram begins with 1 branch for the 1st digit; this branch
8␣␣The Tigers and the Wildcats are to play a 3-game series in soccer.
The first team to win 2 games wins the series. Find all the possible has 10 branches (0-9). Each of these 10 branches has 10
outcomes for the 3 games.
branches (0-9), and each of these 10 branches has 10
9␣␣The annual Fourth of July raft race in Centerville has 7 entries. If branches (0-9). Hence, there are 1 × 10 × 10 × 10 = 1000
a different prize is offered for each of the following categories; fast-
est raft, slowest raft, and most original raft, in how many ways is it different 4-digit numbers.
possible to award the prizes?

10␣␣A store carries 5 styles of backpacks in 4 different sizes. The

6) Since either 1 of the 2 meats or 1 of the 3 types of fish
customer also has a choice of 2 different kinds of material for 3 of
the styles, and only 1 material for the other styles. How many differ-
can be chosen, a tree diagram begins with 5 branches.
ent types of backpacks are there to choose from? If Larry is only Then each of these branches has 4 branches for the
interested in the 2 largest backpacks, how many different backpacks
does he have to choose from? different types of vegetables, and each of the branches
for the vegetables has 3 branches for desserts. So, there
are 5 × 4 × 3 = 60 ways.

7) A tree diagram begins with 4 branches; each of the 4

branches has 5 branches; each of the 5 branches has 3
branches; each of the 3 branches has 2 branches; and
each of the 2 branches has 6 branches. So, there are 4 ×
5 × 3 × 2 × 6 = 720 different ways the building developer
can select one of each.

(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 427

Lesson 16 Counting and Probability Diagrams
Connector Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS
Game 1 Game 2 Game 3 Outcomes 2 (continued.)
T TT 8) In contrast to the previous problems, not all out-
T comes in the tree diagram for this problem have the
TWT
W same number of branches. In the diagram at the left, T
T W TWW represents Tiger and W represents Wildcat. The diagram
shows there are 6 possible outcomes: TT, TWT, TWW,
T WTT WTT, WTW, and WW. In 2 outcomes the series ends in
W
T 2 games and in 4 outcomes the series requires 3 games.
W WTW A similar result is shown below in the rectangle diagram
W WW for this problem.

Possibilities for Possibilities for Possibilities for

Game 1 Games 1 and 2 Games 1, 2, and 3

TT WT TT WTT WTW
T W
TW WW TWT TWW WW

Most
Fastest Slowest Original Outcomes 9) In the tree diagram on the left, R1 through R7 desig-
nate the 7 rafts. The diagram is incomplete—it only
R1 R4R1R1
R2 R4R1R2 shows all of the branches when R4 has the fastest time.
R1 R3 R4R1R3 Note that if R4 has the fastest time, it cannot have the
R4 R4R1R4
R5 R4R1R5 slowest time. However, any of the rafts, including the
R6 R4R1R6 fastest and the slowest, can be judged the most original.
R7 R4R1R7
R1 If R4 is the fastest, there are 6 × 7 = 42 ways in which the
R1 R4R2R1
R2 R4R2R2 prizes can be awarded. Similarly, if any of the other rafts
R2 R3 R4R2R3 is fastest, there are 42 ways the prizes can be awarded.
R4 R4R2R4
R5 R4R2R5 Hence, there are 7 × 42 = 294 different ways in which
R2 R6 R4R2R6 the prizes can be awarded.
R7 R4R2R7
R3
R1 R4R3R1
R2 R4R3R2
R3 R4R3R3
R4 R4R3R4
R3 R5 R4R3R5
R6 R4R3R6
R4 R7 R4R3R7

R1 R4R5R1
R5 R2 R4R5R2
R3 R4R5R3
R4 R4R5R4
R5 R5 R4R5R5
R6 R6 R4R5R6
R7 R4R5R7
R6 R1 R4R6R1
R2 R4R6R2
R7 R3 R4R6R3
R4 R4R6R4
R5 R4R6R5
R7 R6 R4R6R6
R7 R4R6R7
R1 R4R7R1
R2 R4R7R2
R3 R4R7R3
R4 R4R7R4
R5 R4R7R5
R6 R4R7R6
R7 R4R7R7

428 / Math Alive! Course III

Counting and Probability Diagrams Lesson 16
Connector Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS
Styles Sizes Materials Outcomes 10) In the tree diagram shown at the left, B1 through B5
M1 B1S1M1
S1 M2 B1S1M2 represent the 5 styles of backpacks, S1 through S4 repre-
S2 M1 B1S2M1 sent the 4 sizes, and M1 and M2 represent the 2 types of
M2 B1S2M2
S3
M1 B1S3M1 material. Two types of material are available for styles
S4 M2 B1S3M2 B1, B2, and B3. The end points of the diagram show that
M1 B1S4M1
M2 B1S4M2 there are (3 × 8) + (2 × 4) = 32 different types of back-
M1 B2S1M1 packs to choose from. Regardless which 2 of the 4 sizes,
S1 M2 B2S1M2
B1 S2 M1 B2S2M1 S1, S2, S3, or S4 are chosen for the 2 largest sizes, Larry
S3
M2 B2S2M2 will have a choice of 16 different types of backpacks.
M1 B2S3M1
S4 M2 B2S3M2
M1 B2S4M1
B2 M2 B2S4M2
M1 B3S1M1
S1 M2 B3S1M2
S2 M1 B3S2M1
B3 S3
M2 B3S2M2
M1 B3S3M1
S4 M2 B3S3M2
M1 B3S4M1
B4
M2 B3S4M2

B4S1
S1
B5
S2 B4S2
S3
S4 B4S3

B4S4

B5S1
S1
S2 B5S2
S3
S4 B5S3

B5S4

3␣␣Ask the students to discuss with their groupmates 3␣␣Notice that in each problem there are 2 or more types
their ideas about similarities and differences among the of activities that can be carried out in several ways. For
problems on Connector Student Activity 16.1. Ask them example, in Problem 1) there are 2 types of activities:
to list their observations, conjectures, questions, and entering through windows and leaving through doors,
generalizations. Discuss as a large group. Use this as a and these are represented by 9 branches and 3 branches
context for discussing use of the Fundamental Counting (or 9 × 3 parts of a rectangle), respectively. In Problem 2)
Principal to determine the outcomes of a compound event. there are 3 types of activities: choosing exterior colors;
choosing interior colors, and choosing trim. These are
represented by 6, 5, and 3 branches (or 6 × 5 × 3 parts of
a rectangle), respectively. An activity that is composed
of 2 or more activities is called a compound event. A
simple event involves only 1 activity (e.g., toss 1 coin, or
choose 1 of 3 colors, or spin a spinner once).

In general, the total number of ways in which 1 activity

can be followed by another is the product of the number
of ways each activity can be carried out. That is, if 1
activity can be done in m ways, and another can be
done in n ways, then there are m × n ways of doing both

(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 429

Lesson 16 Counting and Probability Diagrams
Connector Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

3 (continued.)
activities. This is called the Fundamental Counting Prin-
ciple. Each problem on Connector Student Activity 16.1
involves a compound event with several possible out-
comes. Notice, for example, that in Problem 1) the
number of routes a burglar can take is 9 × 3, and in
Problem 2), the number of color/trim combinations is
6 × 5 × 3.

430 / Math Alive! Course III

Counting and Probability Diagrams Lesson 16

Focus Teacher Activity

OVERVIEW & PURPOSE MATERIALS
Students develop strategies for solving counting problems ✔ Colored linking cubes (e.g., Hex-a-links), 80 or more
involving permutations and combinations. They compute the for each group of students.
probabilities of outcomes which require these strategies. ✔ Focus Student Activities 16.2-16.4, 1 copy of each per
Rectangles and probability trees are introduced as methods of student and 1 transparency of each.
determining sample spaces and for computing probabilities.
✔ An overhead pen or masking tape for each group.

ACTIONS COMMENTS

1␣␣Arrange the students in groups and give each group a 1␣␣If all of the students’ diagrams are similar, you might
set of colored linking cubes and an overhead pen or show other possibilities; doing so may prompt ideas for
some masking tape (for labeling cubes). Place a red cube, subsequent actions.
a blue cube, and a green cube in a row on the overhead
or a table and ask the students to determine all the Shown below are the 6 different ways the cubes can be
possible ways in which these 3 cubes can be arranged in arranged in a row. Notice that if a red cube is placed
a row. Ask them to sketch a diagram that illustrates their first, for example, there are 2 ways to place the remain-
results and reasoning. ing blue and green cubes; if blue is placed first, there are
2 ways to place the remaining red and green; and if
green is placed first, there are 2 ways to place the blue
and red. So, there are 3 × 2 rows.
G
B Green
R Blue
B
G
Red R
B
G
R
G
R
B
R
G
B
B
R
G
R
B
G

Students may use a tree diagram or rectangle diagram,

such as shown here:
Outcomes
G RBG 1st 1st and 2nd 1st, 2nd, and
B Position Positions 3rd Positions
G B RGB
R
R G BRG RB BR GR RBG BRG GRB
B
G R BGR
G R B G
R B GRB
RG BG GB RGB BGR GBR
B R GBR

Math Alive! Course III / 431

Lesson 16 Counting and Probability Diagrams
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

2␣␣Repeat Action 1, but this time with 4 different col- 2␣␣There are 24 ways of arranging 4 different colored
ored cubes; then for 5 different colored cubes; and cubes in a row (i.e., 24 permutations of 4 different col-
finally for 6 different colored cubes. Introduce the term ors) as denoted by the following sequences of letters,
permutations to indicate the different ordered arrange- where y stands for yellow, b for blue, r for red, and g for
ments of the items in a set. green:

yrbg rybg bryg grby

yrgb rygb brgy gryb
ybrg rbyg byrg gbry
Y R B G ybgr rbgy bygr gbyr
ygrb rgyb bgry gyrb
ygbr rgby bgyr gybr
Post a blank “We conjecture… We Wonder…” poster
and distribute butcher paper strips and marking pens. Creating models or diagrams that show all the permuta-
Have the groups add ideas to the poster as they come up tions of more than 3 different colored cubes can be
now and throughout the lesson. Encourage any attempts tedious. Hence, many students may generalize from
to generalize and suggest that students will have oppor- partial diagrams or models, or they may reason based on
tunities to test and refine their conjectures during subse- their observations about 3 colored cubes. For example,
quent actions. students might reason, using the results of Action 1, that
for 4 colors, whatever color is in the 1st position, there
are 6 possible arrangements of the remaining 3 colors.
Since any 1 of 4 colors can occupy the 1st position,
there are 4 × 6 or 4 × 3 × 2 permutations of 4 different
g colored cubes. A tree diagram for the 4 colors is shown
b yrbg
b
r g yrgb
r
g at the left. One way of computing the number of ways 5
b ybrg
r
g g ybgr colors can be arranged in a row is to multiply 5 times
b
r
r
ygrb
the number of ways for 4 colors, or 5 × (4 × 3 × 2 × 1).
b ygbr
b g rybg Similarly, the number of permutations of 6 colors is 6
y b
times the number of ways for 5 colors, or 6 × (5 × 4 × 3 ×
y g rygb
y g rbyg
b
g g
y
rbgy 2 × 1).
r y b rgyb
y
b rgby
b
y g
y
bryg Some students may reason that, analagous to a tree dia-
r g brgy
r g gram for 4 colors beginning with 4 branches, a tree dia-
y byrg
r
g g g bygr gram for 6 colors begins with 6 branches, each of which
r y bgry
r has 5 branches, each of these 4 branches, and so forth,
y bgyr
b y grby so that the number of ways of arranging 6 colors in a
b
r y
r y
gryb
row, i.e., the number of permutations of 6 colors is 6 × 5 ×
b gbry
y y
r
gbyr 4 × 3 × 2 × 1. Or, the students may reason that for 6 col-
r b gyrb
r ors, any 1 of the 6 colors can be placed in the 1st posi-
b gybr
tion of the row, then any one of the 5 remaining colors
can be placed in the 2nd position, etc.

Some students may conjecture about the number of

ways that n colors can be arranged in a row. If so, rather
than affirming or correcting students’ conjectures, you
might suggest they test and refine them during upcom-
ing actions. Notice that, in Action 4, students are asked
to generalize about the number of permutations of n
different items arranged in row.

432 / Math Alive! Course III

Counting and Probability Diagrams Lesson 16
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

3␣␣Give each student a copy of Focus Student Activity 3␣␣Students may sketch partial diagrams, or reason
16.2 and ask the groups to solve Problems 1 and 2. based on their observations from Actions 1 and 2.
Invite volunteers to show their group’s methods and
reasoning and to list conjectures and generalizations on 1) Some students may relate this to the problem of
the class poster. arranging 6 different colored cubes in a row. Hence, the
number of permutations of 6 people in a line is 6 × 5 × 4
× 3 × 2 × 1 = 720.
Counting and Probability Diagrams Lesson 16

Focus Student Activity 16.2 2) The number of permuations of 8 people seated in a

row is 8 × 7 × 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 40,320.
NAME DATE

Show how to use a diagram or model to solve each of the following

problems. Note: It is okay to generalize from a partial diagram or Note that students complete Focus Student Activity 16.2
model without showing all the parts. If you do so, be sure to show
your reasoning. during Action 6.
1␣␣In how many ways can 6 people line up to purchase tickets for a
concert?

2␣␣In how many ways can 8 students be seated in a row for a school
photo?

4␣␣If the students haven’t already done so, ask them to 4␣␣Some students’ generalizations may be verbal and
use their experiences and observations from Actions 1-3 others may be symbolic; both are appropriate, as long as
as the basis for predicting the number of ways any num- they are based on understanding.
ber of different items can be arranged in a row, i.e., for
predicting the number of permutations of n different To arrange a set of n items in a row, there are n possibili-
items placed in a row. Discuss the students’ ideas. ties for the 1st position. The number of possibilities left
for the 2nd position is (n – 1) because one of the items
has been used to fill the 1st position. Based on the
Fundamental Counting Principal (see Connector Action
3), the number of ways of filling the 1st 2 positions is
n(n – 1).

The number of possibilities for the 3rd position is (n – 2),

since this is the number of items remaining. The num-
ber of ways of filling the first 3 positions is, therefore,
n(n – 1)(n – 2). Continuing in this manner, the number
of possibilities for each position is 1 less than the num-
ber of possibilities for the previous position, until there
is only 1 item left and 1 position for it. Hence, in gen-
eral, the number of ways that n different items can be
arranged in a row is:

n × (n – 1) × (n – 2) × … 3 × 2 × 1

This product is denoted by n! (read “n factorial”). For

example, 6! = 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1. Some calculators have
a factorial function. For example, on the TI-83, the
factorial function is under the “PRB” menu in the MATH
menu.

Math Alive! Course III / 433

Lesson 16 Counting and Probability Diagrams
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

5␣␣Ask the groups to determine the number of possible 5␣␣If there are 4 different colored cubes and a row has 2
arrangements of 4 different colored cubes when placed positions, there are 4 × 3 = 12 possible arrangements,
in a row that contains only 2 positions, and the number since any of the 4 colors can be used in the 1st position,
of possible arrangements of 4 different colored cubes in and any of the 3 remaining colors in the 2nd position.
a row with only 3 positions. Discuss. This is illustrated below for the colors red (R), blue (B),
green (G), and yellow (Y).

The 12 arrangements are shown here:

B G R
R B Y
R B Y
B G R

R B Y
G Y G
G Y G
g
rbg
R B Y
y
b rby
g b rgb
y
y rgy
b ryb
g Similarly, if there are 4 colors and 3 positions in a row,
4 × 3 × 2 = 24 different arrangements are possible.
ryg
g
brg
r y
r bry
g r bgr
y
y
bgy Some students may use a tree diagram, such as the one
b r byr
g shown at the left, which shows the number of different
byg
b grb arrangements of 4 colors in rows with 3 positions per
g y
r gry row. Others may use a rectangle diagram (see below)
b r gbr
y y
y
gby which shows the 1st rectangle with 4 parts, a 2nd rect-
r gyr
b gyb
angle obtained by dividing each of the 1st 4 parts into 3
b yrb parts, and a 3rd rectangle obtained by dividing each of
g
r yrg the 12 parts of the 2nd rectangle into 2 parts.
r ybr
b g
g ybg
r ygr
b ygb

1st 1st and 2nd 1st, 2nd, and

Position Positions 3rd Positions
rbg brg grb yrb
rb br gr yr
rby bry gry yrg
rgb bgr gbr ybr
r b g y rg bg gb yb
rgy bgy gby ybg
ryb byr gyr ygr
ry by gy yg
ryg byg gyb ygb

Students may conjecture about the general case for

situations in which there are more items than positions
in the row. If so, you might encourage them to test their
conjectures during Action 6.

434 / Math Alive! Course III

Counting and Probability Diagrams Lesson 16
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

6␣␣Ask the groups to solve Problems 3-10 (or selected 6␣␣Notice that Action 7 addresses the general case for
problems) from Focus Student Activity 16.2. Discuss arranging objects when there are more objects than
their results and reasoning. Remind them to list conjec- places in the row.
tures and generalizations on the class poster.
The diagrams or models students use to determine the
Counting and Probability Diagrams Lesson 16
following products will vary.

Focus Student Activity 16.2 3) 20 × 19 × 18 × 17 × 16 = 1,860,480

NAME DATE

Show how to use a diagram or model to solve each of the following

4) 4 × 7 × 2 = 56
problems. Note: It is okay to generalize from a partial diagram or
model without showing all the parts. If you do so, be sure to show
your reasoning. 5) 10 × 9 × 8 = 720
1␣␣In how many ways can 6 people line up to purchase tickets for a
concert?
6) 7 × 6 × 5 × 4 = 840
2␣␣In how many ways can 8 students be seated in a row for a school
7) 26 × 25 × 24 = 15,600
photo?

3␣␣A sportswriter makes a preseason prediction about the order of

the top 5 teams from among 20 teams in the Women’s National
Basketball Association. How many different possibilities are there? 8) 4 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 × 3 = 972

4␣␣An agricultural scientist wants to test different combinations of 4

types of soybeans with 7 types of fertilizer and 2 types of insecti-
9) 8 × 7 × 6 = 336
cides. How many experimental plots are needed?

5␣␣A club of 10 people plans to elect 3 people for the offices of presi-
10) There will definitely be students who have the same
dent, vice president, and secretary. In how many ways can these 3 first and last initials because there are only 26 × 26 = 676
offices be filled?
different possible pairs of letters.
6␣␣Seven cross-country runners are competing for 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and
4th places. How many different possible outcomes are there for
these 4 places?

7␣␣How many 3-letter code words can be formed from the alphabet
if the code word can not contain a repeated letter?

Lesson 16 Counting and Probability Diagrams

(Continued
Focus on back.)16.2 (cont.)
Student Activity

8␣␣A contractor wishes to paint 6 houses in a row each with 1 of the

colors red, blue, green, and yellow, with the requirement that if 2
houses are side by side they are to have different colors. In how
many ways can the houses be painted?

9␣␣Eight members of a fire department are being considered for 3

special awards. In how many ways can 3 of 8 people be selected if
no one wins more than 1 award?

10␣␣A school has 683 students. Are there possibly/definitely/definitely

not (circle one) any students who have the same pair of initials for
their first and last names?

7␣␣If it hasn’t already come up, pose the following 7␣␣The intent here is for students to reason inductively
problem for the groups to investigate: from their experiences and observations during Actions
5 and 6. Again, verbal or symbolic statements about
In general, in how many different ways can n general relationships are appropriate. Some students
different items be arranged in a row if there are may be very challenged by the counting problems in
more items than positions in the row? this lesson and need to rely on diagrams and lists for
each problem, while other students may be ready to
Discuss the groups’ conclusions and reasoning. write formulas about products that represent diagrams
they can imagine. It is not expected that students

(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 435

Lesson 16 Counting and Probability Diagrams
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

7 (continued.)
memorize formulas or use formal notation. It is impor-
tant to use student comfort with counting concepts as
the basis for determining the extent to which symbols
and formulas are appropriate.

In general, if there are n colors and k positions in a row,

the number of different ways of arranging the colors is
given by the following product:

n × (n – 1) × (n – 2) × … × (n – k + 1)

Notice that, for n items there are n! different ways of

arranging the items in a row with n positions. When the
number of positions is limited to k, for k < n, the num-
ber of arrangements, n!, is reduced by a factor of (n – k)!
For example, for 6 colors and 4 positions per row (i.e., n
= 6 and k = 4), the number of ways of arranging the
colors in rows is:

6 ×5×4 ×3×2×1 6! 6!
6×5×4 ×3 = = =
2×1 (6−4)! 2!

For, n = 9 and k = 3, the number of ways is:

9× 8 × 7× 6 ×5× 4 × 3×2×1 9! 9!
9×8×7= = =
6 ×5× 4 × 3×2×1 (9 − 3)! 6!

If students invent verbal or symbolic generalizations,

they may be interested in discussing the following
standard formula for the number of permutations of a
row of k different items selected from n different items.
Note: nPk reads “a permutation of n items taken k at a
time.”
= n(n −1)(n − 2)…(n − k + 1) = n!
nPk (n −k )!

8␣␣Pose the following problem for the students to 8␣␣You may need to clarify the meaning of distinguish-
investigate: able arrangements. For example, while there are 3! = 6
ways of arranging 3 cubes in a row, if the 3 cubes are
In how many distinguishable ways can colored cubes be identical, the 6 arrangements are not distinguishable.
arranged in a row when there are several identical
cubes? For example, suppose there are: a) There are 4 distinguishable ways of arranging 3 identi-
cal red cubes and 1 blue cube in a row:
a) 3 identical red cubes and 1 blue,

b) 4 identical red and 1 blue,

c) 3 identical red and 2 identical blue, B

R
R R
R B
d) 4 identical red and 3 identical blue, R R
R R
B R
e) (optional) n identical red cubes and k identical blue R R
cubes. R
B

436 / Math Alive! Course III

Counting and Probability Diagrams Lesson 16
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

b) For 4 identical red cubes and 1 blue cube there are 5

distinguishable arrangements:

RRRRB RRRBR RRBRR RBRRR BRRRR

c) If there are 3 identical red cubes and 2 identical blue

cubes, the situation is more complicated. One way to
proceed is to first label the cubes so they are distinguish-
able, and then arrange them in rows and determine how
many of these arrangements appear the same if the
labels are removed.

Suppose, for example, that the red cubes are labeled 1, 2,

and 3 and the blue cubes are labeled 1 and 2. Then since
all 5 cubes are now different, the number of distinguish-
able ways they can be arranged in a row is 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 ×
1 = 5! = 120. However, if the labels are removed, these
cubes are no longer all distinguishable. For example,
both of the arrangements R1 R3 B2 R2 B1 and R2 R1 B1
R3 B2 become RRBRB. As a matter of fact, there are 3 × 2
× 1 × 2 × 1 = 3! × 2! = 12 arrangements which become
RRBRB, since the first R can be labeled in 3 ways, and
then the second R in 2 ways, the third R in 1 way, the
first B in 2 ways, and the second B in 1 way. Thus, once
the labels are removed, the 120 distinguishable arrange-
ments form groups of 12 nondistinguishable arrange-
ments. Hence, with the labels removed, there are only
120 ÷ 12, or 10, distinguishable arrangements.

d) If there are 4 identical red cubes and 3 identical blue

cubes, labeling them so all 7 cubes are distinguishable
results in 7! = 5040 different ways of arranging them in a
row. However, if the labels are removed, these arrange-
ments form groups of 4! × 3! = 144 nondistinguishable
arrangements. Thus, with labels removed, there are only
5040 ÷ 144, or 35, distinguishable arrangements.

e) Again, keep emphasis on informal observations and

generalizations. Depending on your students’ readiness,
you might show them the following formulas which are
typically used by mathematicians, and ask the groups to
develop arguments to show: why the formulas work;
what relationships led the mathematicians to use addi-
tion, subtraction, multilplication or division as they did;
etc.

In general, if r identical red cubes and k identical blue

cubes are arranged in a row, the number of distinguish-
able arrangements is (rr+!kk!)! .

(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 437

Lesson 16 Counting and Probability Diagrams
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

8 (continued.)
Stated differently, if there are n total items made up of 2
groups of k identical and (n – k) identical items, there are
n!
k !(n – k )! different arrangements of the items.

9␣␣Read aloud the following situation: 9␣␣a) Some students may solve this problem by listing
combinations. The beginning of such a list is shown
Seven students are on the school Science Olym- below. The 7 names are hypothetical student team
pics team. Four of these students will represent members. The underlines indicate the 4 students being
the school at the state competition. selected from each set of 7 students.

Ask the groups to explore a) below. Discuss their solu- Jo Lu Sue Tim Ke Ray Fey
tions and reasoning. Repeat for b). Jo Lu Sue Tim Ke Ray Fey
Jo Lu Sue Tim Ke Ray Fey
a) How many different teams of 4 students are possible? Jo Lu Sue Tim Ke Ray Fey

b) Suppose that, as the 4 students are selected, they are

assigned 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th positions on the team, to Such a list produces 35 teams of 4 students.
indicate the order in which they will answer questions
at the state competition. Under these conditions, in how Other students may view Problem a) as a variation of

…
many different ways can the team of 4 students be Problem d) from Action 8 in which 4 red and 3 blue
formed? cubes are placed in a row: suppose that each student is
identified with 1 of 7 positions in a row and that placing
Discuss the students’ approaches and solutions. a red cube in a position means the student in that posi-
tion is selected to represent the school; placing a blue
cube means the student is not selected. For example, if
the students are positioned as above, then the arrange-
ment RBBRRBR means Jo, Tim, Ke, and Fey are selected.
The number of different ways a team of 4 can be chosen
to represent the school is then the number of distin-
guishable ways 4 identical red cubes and 3 identical blue
cubes can be placed in a row, which, in Comment 8d), is
determined to be 35.

b) This problem can be solved by counting the number

of ways the students can be selected and ordered, as
contrasted to the above solution in which the represen-
tatives are chosen but not ordered. There are 7 ways of
selecting a student to be the 1st to answer a question;
then there are 6 ways of selecting a student to be 2nd,
then 5 ways to be 3rd, and 4 ways to be 4th. Hence,
there are 7 × 6 × 5 × 4 = 840 ways of selecting and order-
ing 4 students.

Another strategy for solving Problem b) is to note that,

since there are 35 different combinations of 4 students,
and for any group of 4 students, there are 4! ways the
students can be ordered 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th, then
there are 35 × 4! = 35 × 24 = 840 ways of selecting and
ordering 4 students from a group of 7 students.

438 / Math Alive! Course III

Counting and Probability Diagrams Lesson 16
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

Problems a) and b) illustrate 2 different types of count-

ing problems: combinations and permutations. Problem a)
is an example of a combination—the students are not
ordered and Problem b) is an example of a permutation—
the students are ordered. The 2 problems illustrate the
difference in counting the ways in which a selection can
be made if, on the one hand, ordering the selection is
immaterial and, on the other hand, ordering the selec-
tion must be taken into account.

10␣␣Give a copy of Focus Student Activity 16.3 to each 10␣␣All or part of these problems could be assigned as
student and ask the groups to complete Problem 1. homework. However, since some of these problems may
Discuss their results and reasoning. Then repeat for 4 or be particularly challenging to some students, you might
more of the remaining problems. have the students each select only 5-7 problems to solve,
and have them classify the problems by difficulty. To aid
in problem solving, you might encourage students to:
Counting and Probability Diagrams Lesson 16 create similar problems involving smaller numbers; ask
Focus Student Activity 16.3 the class for clues (not answers); and/or share their
“stuck points” with each other.
NAME DATE

For each of the following problems, communicate your methods

and reasoning so that it is clear how and why your methods and
Following are solutions to the problems on Focus Stu-
answers work. dent Activity 16.3. Note that it is not expected that
students use formulas to solve these problems; however,
1␣␣How many different code words with 11 letters can be formed by
using the letters in “achievement”? some students may do so, and some may invent formu-
las as they work on these problems.
2␣␣A coin is tossed 5 times and the sequence of heads and tails is
recorded for each toss.

a) How many different sequences are possible? 1) Students may view this situation by imagining 11
b) In how many ways are 3 heads and 2 tails possible? colored cubes—3 of one color (representing the e’s in
the word achievement) and 8 each of different colors
3␣␣The 5 starting players of a basketball team are to be introduced (representing the remaining letters). There are 11! ways
before the game. In how many orders can they be introduced?
of arranging 11 different colored cubes. However, the 3
4␣␣One method of signaling on boats is to arrange 3 flags of differ-
ent colors vertically on a flagpole. If a boat has flags of 6 different
identically colored cubes are nondistinguishable, and
colors, how many different 3-flag signals are possible? there are 3! ways of arranging those 3 cubes; thus, the
11! arrangements of 11 cubes form groups of 3!
5␣␣For the Lincoln High School jazz band concert, the jazz band will
play 5 traditional jazz compositions and 3 original compositions. If nondistinguishable arrangements. Hence, there are 11! ⁄ 3!
= 11 × 10 × 9 × 8 × 7 × 6 × 5 × 4 = 6,652,800 distinguish-
the concert begins with any 1 of the traditional compositions, in
how many ways can the 8 compositions be arranged on the pro-
gram?
able arrangements of the letters in achievement.
6␣␣From a group of 12 smokers, a researcher wants to randomly
select 8 people for a study. How many different combinations of 8
smokers are possible? 2a) Students may model this using (or sketching) rows of
5 coins to represent the possible sequences of outcomes
(Continued on back.)
from 5 tosses of a coin. Or, they may represent the
possible sequences of tosses using red cubes to represent
heads and blue cubes to represent tails. Since there are 2
possibilities for each of the 5 tosses, there are 2 × 2 × 2 ×
2 × 2 = 32 different sequences of red and/or blue cubes.

2b) If all of the cubes were different colored, there would

be 5! different arrangements of 5 cubes. However, since
the 3 red cubes (3 heads) are nondistinguishable, and

(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 439

Lesson 16 Counting and Probability Diagrams
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

10 (continued.)
Lesson 16 Counting and Probability Diagrams
Focus Student Activity 16.3 (cont.)
the 2 blue cubes are nondistinguishable, the 5! arrange-
ments form 3!2! nondistinguishable groups. Hence,
7␣␣A club of 7 students decides to send 2 of their members to the there are 5! ⁄ 3!2! = 10 distinguishable sequences of 3 heads
principal to request a field trip to an art museum.
and 2 tails.
a) In how many ways can the 2 students be chosen?

b) If the president of the club is to be one of the students, in how

many ways can the group of 2 be chosen? 3) This solution could be modeled using a different
colored cube to represent each player and determining
8␣␣A state lottery requires that you pick 6 different numbers from 1
to 99. If you pick all 6 winning numbers, you win $1,000,000. the number of different arrangements of the 5 different
a) How many ways are there to choose 6 numbers if the order of colored cubes in a row. Since there are 5 choices for the
the numbers is not important? For example, 1,2,3,4,5,6 is the same
combination as 2,1,3,4,5,6.
1st position, 4 choices for the 2nd, 3 for the 3rd, 2 for
b) How many ways are there to choose 6 numbers if order is impor-
the 4th, and 1 for the 5th, there are 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 =
tant? 120 arrangements. This product is a result of the Funda-
mental Counting Principal (see Connector activity).
9␣␣Two children are allowed to select from 7 baseball cards. The
younger child is to select first and can select 2 cards. Then the older
child is to select 3 cards from the remaining 5. The older child com-
plains that this is not fair and says that the younger child has more 4) Any one of the 6 colors may be placed in the top
choices. What do you think?
position; then one of the 5 remaining colors in the 2nd
position; and finally any one of the 4 remaining colors
in the lower position. Hence, there are 6 × 5 × 4 = 120
possible arrangements.

5) Since the 1st piece is traditional, there are 4 tradi-

tional and 3 original pieces to be placed in the remain-
ing 7 spots of the program. These can be represented by
4 red cubes and 3 blue cubes. Since there are 7! ways of
arranging 7 distinguishable cubes (i.e., if the cubes were
all of different colors) and there are 4! nondistinguish-
able arrangements of the 4 red cubes and 3! nondistin-
guishable arrangements of the 3 blue cubes, there are
7! ⁄ 4!3! = 35 distinguishable arrangements of traditional

and original pieces. Note: this assumes there is no par-

ticular order required for the traditional or the original
pieces.

6) In terms of colored cubes, consider the number of

distinguishable arrangements of 12 cubes that can be
formed using 8 red cubes for the 8 chosen smokers, and
4 blue cubes for the 4 smokers not chosen. Since the 8
red cubes are nondistinguishable and the 4 blue cubes
are nondistinguishable, the number of distinguishable
arrangements is 12! ⁄ 8!4! = 495. Note: this assumes the
order in which the smokers are selected does not matter.

7a) Since there are 7 ways the first student can be cho-
sen and 6 ways the 2nd student can be chosen, there are
7 × 6 = 42 ways of choosing 2 students. However, since
the order of the students is not important (i.e., choosing
Student A and then Student B forms the same pair of
students as choosing Student B and then Student A),
there are (7 × 6) ⁄ 2 different combinations of 2 students.
Notice this is equivalent to 7! ⁄ 2!5!, or the number of ways

440 / Math Alive! Course III

Counting and Probability Diagrams Lesson 16
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

of arranging 7 items in a row with only 2 positions in

the row, where the order of items does not matter.

7b) If the president is to be one of the 2 students, then

there are only 6 ways to choose the other member. So,
there are only 6 different ways of choosing 2 students.

8a) If order is not important there are 99!⁄6!93! =

1,120,529,256 different ways to choose 6 numbers.

8b) If order is important there are 99 × 98 × 97 × 96 × 95

× 94 different ways to choose 6 numbers.

9) The younger child has 7!⁄2!5! = 21 different pairs as pos-

sible choices. From the remaining 5 cards, the older child
has 5!⁄3!2! = 10 different sets of cards as choices. So, the
younger child has more choices but the older child will
have 3 cards compared to the 2 for the younger child.

11␣␣Pose the following problem for groups to solve. 11␣␣Some students may suggest computing the experi-
Discuss the groups’ reasoning and conclusions. Intro- mental probability by randomly selecting from sacks
duce the use of probability trees and probability rectangles. containing 1 green and 2 red cubes. You might have
sacks available in the event the class decides to conduct
Two red cubes and 1 green cube are placed in a an experiment as the basis for computing the probability.
sack. One cube is randomly selected, its color is
recorded, and it is returned to the sack. Then 1 One erroneous method of reasoning theoretically that
cube is selected again and its color is recorded. may come up is to list RR, GR, RG, and GG as the 4
What is the probability of getting 2 red cubes? possible outcomes for the 2 choices and assume that the
probability of each is equally likely. This leads to the
incorrect conclusion that the probability of getting 2 red
cubes is 1 ⁄ 4 . However, since the cube is returned to the
R R sack after the first draw, there are 3 possibilities for the
G 1st draw and 3 possibilities for the 2nd draw. Hence,
there are 3 × 3 = 9 equally likely outcomes. Since there
are 4 of these outcomes in which both cubes are red (see
diagram at the left), the probability of getting 2 red
cubes is 4 ⁄ 9 . Students may determine this by labeling
cubes and forming all possible pairs.
1st 2nd Outcome Probability
A probability tree can be sketched, as shown at the left, to
Selection Selection
list the theoretical outcomes. The probability of each
1
R
__
3
RR 1⁄ 9 outcome is written on each branch of the tree. The 9
R 1
__
3 RR 1⁄ 9 outcomes show there are 4 in which both cubes are red.
1
__ G 1
__ RG 1⁄ 9 So, the probability of choosing 2 red cubes is 4⁄9. Notice
3 3
R 1
__
that the probability at the end of each path of the tree is
R 3
RR 1⁄ 9 the product of the probabilities in the branches which
R 1
__
R 1
__ 1⁄ 9
3 3 RR comprise that path. The sum of the probabilities for all 9
G RG 1⁄ 9
1
__
3
paths is 1.
G 1
1 __
__
R 3 1⁄ 9
3
GR
R 1
__
3 GR 1⁄ 9

G 1
__ GG 1⁄ 9 (Continued next page.)
3

Math Alive! Course III / 441

Lesson 16 Counting and Probability Diagrams
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

11 (continued.)
Results of Results of 1st and Similarly, a probability rectangle, which is a rectangle
1st Selection 2nd Selections diagram whose parts are labeled with the probabilities
1
__ 1
__ 1
__ associated with a given situation, shows that there are 4
RR 9 RR 9 GR 9 parts with RR (2 red cubes) and each part occurs with
1 1 1 probability 1 ⁄ 9 , as shown at the left. So, the probability of
R R G RR __ __ __
9 RR 9 GR 9 2 red cubes is 4 ⁄ 9 . Notice that this probability rectangle
1
__ 1
__ 1
__ 1 1 1 contains 9 parts of equal area and provides an area
3 3 3 RG __ __ __
9 RG 9 GG 9 model for probability.

1st 2nd Outcome Probability

Selection Selection
2
__
R 3
RR 4
__
9 Some students may reason that there is a 2 ⁄ 3 chance of
2
__
3 2
__
obtaining a red cube on each selection, as illustrated by
R G 1 RG
__
3
9 the probability tree shown at the left, so the probability
2
__
2
__ of selecting 2 red cubes is 2 ⁄ 3 × 2 ⁄ 3 = 4 ⁄ 9.
G R 3
GR 9
1
__
3

1
__
G 1
__ GG 9
3

A probability rectangle based on this line of reasoning

Results of Results of 1st and has parts of different sizes, as shown at the left. In the
1st Selection 2nd Selections first rectangle, the part representing R has an area that is
2 ⁄ 3 the area of the rectangle and the part representing G
2
4 GR __ is 1⁄ 3 of the area. These areas correspond to the 2⁄ 3 prob-
RR __
9
9

×2
2 __
__ ×1
2 __
__ ability of a red cube on the first selection and a 1 ⁄ 3 prob-
2
__ 1
__ 3 3 3 3
R 3
G 3 ability of a green cube on the first selection. The second
2 1 rectangle has 4 parts and the area of the part represent-
RG __ ×2
1 __
__
GG __
9 3 3 9 ing 2 red cubes is 2 ⁄ 3 × 2 ⁄ 3 = 4 ⁄ 9 , which is the probability
×1
1 __
__ of 2 red cubes in the 2 selections.
3 3

12␣␣Ask the students to determine the probability of 12␣␣In this case, a cube is selected, the color recorded,
selecting 2 red cubes from a sack that contains 2 red and and then, without replacing the first cube, another cube
1 green, if the 1st cube selected is not replaced for the is selected and its color recorded.
2nd selection. Discuss the students conclusions and
reasoning. As in Action 11, there is a 2 ⁄ 3 chance of obtaining a red
cube on the 1st selection. However, if a red cube is
chosen on the 1st selection, and not replaced, then on
the 2nd selection there is only a 1 ⁄ 2 chance of obtaining
a red cube. So, the probability of selecting 2 red cubes is
2 ⁄ 3 × 1 ⁄ 2 = 1 ⁄ 3 . This is illustrated by the following probabil-

ity rectangle and probability tree.

Results of Results of 1st and

1st Selection 2nd Selections
2
RR
__ __
3 2
×1
2 __
6 1
2
R __ 1
G __ GR __
3
3 3
2 ×1 ×
RG __
2 __
__ 1
__
6 3 2 3 1

442 / Math Alive! Course III

Counting and Probability Diagrams Lesson 16
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS
1st 2nd Outcome Probability The lower branch of the probability tree shown at the
Selection Selection left may need some discussion. If a green cube is chosen
1
__
1
__ on the 1st selection, then the probability of obtaining a
R 2
RR 3 red cube on the 2nd selection is 1, because this is certain
2
__

R
3
RG
1
__ to happen, and the probability of obtaining a green on
G 1
__
3
2
the 2nd selection is 0, because this cannot happen.
R 1 Notice that the GG outcome is not shown in the prob-
1
__
G 1
GR 3
__
3 ability rectangle since it corresponds to an area of zero.
G 0 GG 0

13␣␣Give each student a copy of Focus Student Activity 13␣␣Answers and possibilities for diagrams are shown
16.4 and ask the groups to complete Problems 1 and 2. below.
Discuss. Then repeat for Problems 3-7 (or selected prob-
lems). 1) 3 ⁄ 10 × 3 ⁄ 10 = 9 ⁄ 100. In the following probability tree, B,
Y, and R represent blue, yellow, and red, respectively.
Counting and Probability Diagrams Lesson 16 1st 2nd Outcome Probability
Focus Student Activity 16.4 Selection Selection
2
__
NAME DATE B 10
BB 4 ⁄ 100

Show your methods and reasoning for each problem. Y 3

__
10 BY 6 ⁄ 100

1␣␣A sack contains 2 blue cubes, 3 yellow cubes, and 5 red cubes. If 2
__ R 5
__ BR 10 ⁄ 100
10 10
1 cube is randomly se1lected and then placed back in the sack and
a 2nd cube is selected, what is the probability that both of the
B 2
__
cubes will be yellow? B 10
YB 6 ⁄ 100
Y 3
__
10 Y 3
__
10 YY 9 ⁄ 100
2␣␣Solve Problem 1, but this time assume that the 1st cube selected
is not placed back in the sack. R 5
__ YR 15 ⁄ 100
10
R 2
5
__ __
3␣␣There are 2 sacks with cubes and 1 cube will be randomly se- 10 B 10
RB 10 ⁄ 100
lected out of each. Sack 1 contains 3 red cubes and 2 blue, and Sack
2 contains 2 yellow, 1 green, and 2 red. What is the probability of Y 3
__
10 RY 15 ⁄ 100
selecting 2 red cubes? What is the probability of not selecting 2 red
cubes? What is the probability of not selecting any red cubes? R 5
__ RR 25 ⁄ 100
10

4␣␣The 2 spinners shown at the right are

2) 3 ⁄ 10 × 2 ⁄ 9 = 6 ⁄ 90 = 1 ⁄ 15
Purple
Orange Pink
each to be spun once. Determine the prob-
abilities of obtaining the following colors: Green
Orange
orange on both spins; pink on one spin and Pink Blue
green on the other; blue on one spin and
either purple or green on the other. Spinner I Spinner II 1st 2nd Outcome Probability
Selection Selection
5␣␣A family has 4 children. Assuming that the chances of having a
boy or a girl on each birth are equally likely, determine the prob- 1
__
ability that the children were born in either the order boy, girl, boy, B 9
BB 2 ⁄ 90
girl or the order girl, boy, girl, boy.
Y 3
__
9 BY 6 ⁄ 90
2
__ R 5 BR 10 ⁄ 90
6␣␣Assuming that each branch point in the 10
__
9
maze at the right is equally likely to be cho-
sen, determine the probability of entering Start A B
B 2
__
room A. B 9
YB 6 ⁄ 90
Y 3
__
10 Y 2
__
9 YY 6 ⁄ 90
(Continued on back.)
R 5
__ YR 15 ⁄ 90
9
R 2
5 __
__
10 B 9
RB 10 ⁄ 90
Lesson 16 Counting and Probability Diagrams Y 3
__
9 RY 15 ⁄ 90
Focus Student Activity 16.4 (cont.)
R 4
__ RR 20 ⁄ 90
9

7␣␣A game is to be played in which 1 player holds a sack that con-

tains 5 blue cubes and 5 yellow cubes, and a 2nd player selects 2
cubes from the sack. The player who selects wins the game if 2 cubes 3) The probability of selecting 2 red cubes is 6 ⁄ 25. So, the
of the same color are obtained, and otherwise the player holding the
sack wins. Which player has the better chance of winning and what
probability of not selecting 2 red cubes is 1 – 6 ⁄ 25 = 19 ⁄ 25
is this player’s probability of winning?
which can also be determined by adding the appropriate
probabilities from the tree below: 6 ⁄ 25 + 3 ⁄ 25 + 4 ⁄ 25 + 2 ⁄ 25 +
4⁄25.

(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 443

Lesson 16 Counting and Probability Diagrams
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

13 (continued.)
The probability of not selecting any red cubes is 4 ⁄ 25 + 2 ⁄ 25
= 6 ⁄ 25 , as also can be seen in the following probability
tree.

Sack 1 Sack 2 Outcome Probability

2
__
Y 5
RY 6⁄25

3
__ G 1
__
5 RG 3⁄25
5
R R 2
__ RR 6⁄25
5

2
__
Y 5
BY 4⁄25
B 2
__
5
G 1
__
5 BG 2⁄25
R 2
__ BR 4⁄25
5

Results of Results of Both 4) The letters in the probability rectangle at the left and
1st Spinner Spinners the probability tree shown below represent the spinner
1 1 1 1
colors whose names begin with those letters. The prob-
__ __ __ __
OP 12 PP 12 PP 12 BP 12 abilities are: orange on both spins, 1⁄12; pink on one
1 1 1 1 1
__ 1
__ 1
__ 1
__ spinner and green on the other, 1⁄6; blue on one and
O __
4 P __
4 P __
4 B __
4 OG12 PG 12 PG 12 BG 12 purple or green on the other, 1⁄12 + 1⁄12 = 1⁄6. Notice that
1
__ 1
__ 1
__ 1
__ the outcomes for the condition “blue on one and purple
OO 12 PO 12 PO 12 BO 12
or green on the other” have been circled on the prob-
ability tree.

Spinner 1 Spinner 2 Outcome Probability

1
__
P 3
OP 1 ⁄ 12
G 1
__
3 OG 1 ⁄ 12
1
__ O 1
__ OO 1 ⁄ 12
4 3
O 1
__
P 3
PP 1⁄6

1st 2nd 3rd 4th Outcome Probability P 1

__
2 G 1
__
3 PG 1⁄6

1 O 1
__ PO 1⁄6
G
__
2 GGGG 1⁄ 1 6 3
1 B
__
2 B 1
__ GGGB 1⁄ 1 6 1
__ 1
__
1 ⁄ 12
G 2 4 P 3
BP
B 1 G 1
__
BG 1 ⁄ 12
1
__ G
__
2 GGBG 1⁄ 1 6 3
1
__ 2
2
1⁄ 1 6 O 1
__ BO 1 ⁄ 12
G B 1
__
2
GGBB 3

1
B G
__
2 GBGG 1⁄ 1 6
1
__ 1
2
__
2 B 1
__ GBGB 1⁄ 1 6
G 2
5) The probability of BGBG is 1 ⁄ 16 and the probability of
1
__
2 B 1
__
2
G
1
__
2 GBBG 1⁄ 1 6 GBGB is 1⁄ 16 . So, the probability of either order is 1⁄ 16 + 1 ⁄ 16
G B 1
__ GBBB 1⁄ 1 6 = 2 ⁄ 16 = 1 ⁄ 8 , as shown by the probability tree at the left.
2

1
__
G 2 BGGG 1⁄ 1 6
B 1
__
2 B 1
__ BGGB 1⁄ 1 6
1
__
2 G 2

1
1
B 1
__ G
__
2 BGBG 1⁄ 1 6
__ 2
2
B 1
__ BGBB 1⁄ 1 6
G 2

1
__
B G 2 BBGG 1⁄ 1 6
1
__ 1
2
__
2 B 1
__ BBGB 1⁄ 1 6
G 2

1
B 1
__ G
__
2 BBBG 1⁄ 1 6
2
B 1
__ BBBB 1⁄ 1 6
2

444 / Math Alive! Course III

Counting and Probability Diagrams Lesson 16
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

6) The probability tree below shows that the probability

of entering room A is 1 ⁄ 6 + 1 ⁄ 6 = 1 ⁄ 3.

Outcome Probability
B 1⁄ 3

1
__
3 1
__ B 1⁄ 6
2
1
__
3
1
__
2 A 1⁄ 6
1
__
3
1
__ A 1⁄ 6
2

1
__
2 B 1⁄ 6

Some students may use a probability rectangle to deter-

mine the probability of entering room A. In this case,
since each of the 3 paths is equally likely to be chosen at
the beginning, the rectangle is first divided into 3 equal
parts, as shown in Figure I below. Then, in Figure II the
upper path remains 1 ⁄ 3 of the rectangle since it goes
directly to room B, while for the middle path there are 2
equally likely choices: go left to room B or straight to
room A. Likewise, there are 2 equally likely choices for
the lower path. Hence, the 3 sections formed in Figure I
are subdivided as shown in Figure II. The fraction of the
rectangle’s area that is occupied by region A is 1 ⁄ 6 + 1 ⁄ 6 =
1 ⁄ 3 and this is the probability of entering room A.

1
Upper Upper B __3
1 1
Middle Middle B __6 A __6
Lower Lower A __16 1
B __6
Figure I Figure II

7) The player who selects cubes has a 40 ⁄ 90 or 4 ⁄ 9 chance

of obtaining 2 cubes of the same color, so the player
who holds the sack has 5⁄ 9 chance of winning, as shown
in the following probability tree.

Outcome Probability
4
__
9 BB 20⁄90
B
5
__
B 10
Y 5
__
BY 25 ⁄ 9 0
9
5
__
YB 25 ⁄ 9 0
Y 5
__ B 9
10

Y 4
__
YY 20⁄90
9

Alternatively, the methods of Action 6 can be used to

determine the outcomes. The number of ways of select-
ing 2 blue cubes from a group of 5 blue cubes is 5!⁄2!3! = 10.
(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 445

Lesson 16 Counting and Probability Diagrams
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

13 (continued.)
Similarly, the number of ways of selecting 2 yellow
cubes from a group of 5 yellow cubes is 10. Hence, the
number of ways of selecting 2 cubes of the same color is
20. Since the total number of ways of selecting 2 objects
from a set of 10 objects is 10! ⁄ 2!8! = 45, the probability of
selecting 2 cubes of the same color is 20⁄45 = 4 ⁄ 9.

446 / Math Alive! Course III

Counting and Probability Diagrams Lesson 16

Follow-up Student Activity 16.5

NAME DATE

1␣ For each of the following problems, communicate your methods

and reasoning so that it is clear how and why your methods and
answers work.

a) On a sandwich menu, there are 5 choices of bread (French, sour-

dough, onion, rye, or wheat) and 4 choices of filling (turkey, tuna,
egg salad, or beef). How many different sandwiches are possible
from these choices?

b) An art gallery has 5 special paintings to display, but space to

hang only 4 of them in a row. How many different arrangements of
paintings are possible in this row?

c) An area code is a 3-digit number where the 1st digit cannot be 0

or 1. How many different area codes are possible?

d) Five houses in a row are each to be painted with 1 of the colors

red, green, blue, or yellow. If no 2 adjacent houses can have the
same color, in how many ways can the houses be painted?

e) A little league team is to be formed from 9 children of whom

only 1 can be the catcher, only 1 can play 1st base, and only 1 can
be the pitcher. The other players can play any of the remaining 6
positions. How many different lineups are possible?

f) A girl dresses each day in a blouse, a skirt, and shoes. She always
wears white socks. She wants to wear a different combination on
every day of the year. If she has the same number of blouses, skirts,
and pairs of shoes, how many of each would she need to have a
different combination every day?

g) How many 5-digit ZIP codes are possible in which the ZIP code is
an even number?

h) A Girl Scout troop has 12 members. In how many different ways

can the scoutmaster appoint 4 members to clean up the camp?

(Continued on back.)
Math Alive! Course III / 447
Lesson 16 Counting and Probability Diagrams
Follow-up Student Activity (cont.)

2␣ Use these spinners to determine the probabilities of the out-

comes listed below.

Red
Blue Red Green Red Yellow
Blue
Green
Blue
Purple
Green Yellow Yellow
Orange

Spinner A Spinner B Spinner C

a) blue from Spinner A and red from Spinner B,

b) blue from Spinner B and green from Spinner C,
c) yellow from Spinner A, green from Spinner B, and red from Spin-
ner C,
d) either green or red from Spinner B and either red or yellow from
Spinner C.

3␣ Use these 2 bowls of marbles to determine

the probabilities of selecting the following:

a) a red from I and a red from II,

Bowl I Bowl II
b) a blue from I and a yellow from II,
c) 1 marble from each bowl and no red marble,
d) 1 marble from each bowl, no red or green marbles.

4␣␣A gumball machine contains 2 red and 4 white gumballs and no

others. If each gumball has an equal chance of being released and 2
are purchased, what is the probability of getting 2 red gumballs?

5␣ A coin will be tossed 4 times. What is the probability of obtain-

ing 2 or more heads in a row?

6␣ Write a letter to an adult explaining the “big ideas” from this

lesson about counting concepts and strategies and their role in com-
puting probabilities. Be detailed and include examples that help the
adult see why ideas work. Next, have an adult read your letter and
write comments about what is clear and unclear. Then edit your
letter to clarify as needed. Turn in the original letter with the adult’s
comments and turn in your edited version.

448 / Math Alive! Course III

Counting and Probability Diagrams Lesson 16
Connector Master A

Marcia’s Routes to School

Each morning before school Marcia walks to the

post office to mail letters for her parents, and then
she continues on to school. Marcia has 4 different
routes she can walk from her home to the post of-
fice: along the river; through the park; by the new
housing development; or on the highway. When
she leaves the post office, there are 3 different
routes that she can walk to school; along the river;
across the athletic fields; or by the mall. How many
different routes can Marcia take on her trips to
school?

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 16 Counting and Probability Diagrams
Connector Master B

Tree Diagram

Outcomes
(Routes)

river, river
r
rive
athletic fields river, athletic fields
mal
l
river, mall

park, river
r
rive
er
riv

athletic fields park, athletic fields

mal
l
rk
pa park, mall
house ho
usi
ng
dev development, river
elo r
pm rive
ent
hi

athletic fields
gh

mal development, athletic fields

wa

l
y

development, mall

highway, river
r
rive
athletic fields highway, athletic fields
mal
l
highway, mall

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Counting and Probability Diagrams Lesson 16
Connector Master C

Routes from home Routes from home via

to post office post office to school

RR PR DR HR
R P D H RF PF DF HF
RM PM DM HM

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 16 Counting and Probability Diagrams

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Counting and Probability Diagrams Lesson 16

Connector Student Activity 16.1

NAME DATE

Solve each problem and show a diagram or write a brief explanation

of your reasoning.

1␣ ␣ A house has 3 doors to the outside and 9 windows. In how many

ways can a burglar enter the house through a window and leave
through a door?

2␣ ␣ A car manufacturer provides 6 different exterior colors, 5 interior

colors, and 3 different trims. How many different exterior color/
interior color/trim schemes are available?

3␣ ␣ For breakfast Henry always chooses one of the following drinks:

orange juice, tomato juice, or apple juice. For cereal he chooses ei-
ther corn flakes or bran flakes. For pastry he has either a doughnut,
a glazed muffin, or an apple tart. What are all the different possibili-
ties for Henry’s breakfasts if he always has cereal, a drink, and a
pastry?

4␣ ␣ A teenager posed the following problem: How many different

outfits can she wear if she has 2 skirts with different patterns, 3 dif-
ferent colored blouses and 2 different types of shoes?

5␣ ␣ Each student at Athey Creek Middle School has a 4-digit locker

number. If the 1st digit of each 7th grader’s locker number is a 7
and each of the other 3 digits is one of the digits from 0 through 9,
how many different 4-digit numbers are available for the 7th grad-
ers? Note: digits can be repeated any number of times in a locker
number.

6␣ ␣ A school cafeteria offers a selection of 2 types of meat, 3 types of

fish, 4 different vegetables, and 3 desserts. In how many ways can a
student select 1 vegetable, 1 dessert, and either 1 type of meat or 1
type of fish?

(Continued on back.)

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 16 Counting and Probability Diagrams
Connector Student Activity 16.1 (cont.)

7␣ ␣ A building developer may choose from 4 different roofing sub-

contractors, 5 different electrical subcontractors, 3 different plumb-
ing subcontractors, 2 different carpenters, and 6 different painters.
In how many ways can he select 1 of each?

8␣ ␣ The Tigers and the Wildcats are to play a 3-game series in soccer.
The first team to win 2 games wins the series. Find all the possible
outcomes for the 3 games.

9␣ ␣ The annual Fourth of July raft race in Centerville has 7 entries. If

a different prize is offered for each of the following categories; fast-
est raft, slowest raft, and most original raft, in how many ways is it
possible to award the prizes?

10␣ ␣ A store carries 5 styles of backpacks in 4 different sizes. The

customer also has a choice of 2 different kinds of material for 3 of
the styles, and only 1 material for the other styles. How many differ-
ent types of backpacks are there to choose from? If Larry is only
interested in the 2 largest backpacks, how many different backpacks
does he have to choose from?

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Counting and Probability Diagrams Lesson 16

Focus Student Activity 16.2

NAME DATE

Show how to use a diagram or model to solve each of the following

problems. Note: It is okay to generalize from a partial diagram or
model without showing all the parts. If you do so, be sure to show
your reasoning.

1␣ ␣ In how many ways can 6 people line up to purchase tickets for a

concert?

2␣ ␣ In how many ways can 8 students be seated in a row for a school

photo?

3␣ ␣ A sportswriter makes a preseason prediction about the order of

the top 5 teams from among 20 teams in the Women’s National
Basketball Association. How many different possibilities are there?

4␣ ␣ An agricultural scientist wants to test different combinations of 4

types of soybeans with 7 types of fertilizer and 2 types of insecti-
cides. How many experimental plots are needed?

5␣ ␣ A club of 10 people plans to elect 3 people for the offices of presi-

dent, vice president, and secretary. In how many ways can these 3
offices be filled?

6␣ ␣ Seven cross-country runners are competing for 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and
4th places. How many different possible outcomes are there for
these 4 places?

7␣ ␣ How many 3-letter code words can be formed from the alphabet
if the code word can not contain a repeated letter?

(Continued on back.)

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 16 Counting and Probability Diagrams
Focus Student Activity 16.2 (cont.)

8␣ ␣ A contractor wishes to paint 6 houses in a row each with 1 of the

colors red, blue, green, and yellow, with the requirement that if 2
houses are side by side they are to have different colors. In how
many ways can the houses be painted?

9␣ ␣ Eight members of a fire department are being considered for 3

special awards. In how many ways can 3 of 8 people be selected if
no one wins more than 1 award?

10␣ ␣ A school has 683 students. Are there possibly/definitely/definitely

not (circle one) any students who have the same pair of initials for
their first and last names?

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Counting and Probability Diagrams Lesson 16

Focus Student Activity 16.3

NAME DATE

For each of the following problems, communicate your methods

and reasoning so that it is clear how and why your methods and
answers work.

1␣ ␣ How many different code words with 11 letters can be formed by

using the letters in “achievement”?

2␣ ␣ A coin is tossed 5 times and the sequence of heads and tails is

recorded for each toss.

a) How many different sequences are possible?

b) In how many ways are 3 heads and 2 tails possible?

3␣ ␣ The 5 starting players of a basketball team are to be introduced

before the game. In how many orders can they be introduced?

4␣ ␣ One method of signaling on boats is to arrange 3 flags of differ-

ent colors vertically on a flagpole. If a boat has flags of 6 different
colors, how many different 3-flag signals are possible?

5␣ ␣ For the Lincoln High School jazz band concert, the jazz band will
play 5 traditional jazz compositions and 3 original compositions. If
the concert begins with any 1 of the traditional compositions, in
how many ways can the 8 compositions be arranged on the pro-
gram?

6␣ ␣ From a group of 12 smokers, a researcher wants to randomly

select 8 people for a study. How many different combinations of 8
smokers are possible?

(Continued on back.)

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 16 Counting and Probability Diagrams
Focus Student Activity 16.3 (cont.)

7␣ ␣ A club of 7 students decides to send 2 of their members to the

principal to request a field trip to an art museum.

a) In how many ways can the 2 students be chosen?

b) If the president of the club is to be one of the students, in how

many ways can the group of 2 be chosen?

8␣ ␣ A state lottery requires that you pick 6 different numbers from 1

to 99. If you pick all 6 winning numbers, you win $1,000,000.

a) How many ways are there to choose 6 numbers if the order of

the numbers is not important? For example, 1,2,3,4,5,6 is the same
combination as 2,1,3,4,5,6.

b) How many ways are there to choose 6 numbers if order is impor-

tant?

9␣ ␣ Two children are allowed to select from 7 baseball cards. The

younger child is to select first and can select 2 cards. Then the older
child is to select 3 cards from the remaining 5. The older child com-
plains that this is not fair and says that the younger child has more
choices. What do you think?

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Counting and Probability Diagrams Lesson 16

Focus Student Activity 16.4

NAME DATE

Show your methods and reasoning for each problem.

1␣ ␣ A sack contains 2 blue cubes, 3 yellow cubes, and 5 red cubes. If

1 cube is randomly se1lected and then placed back in the sack and
a 2nd cube is selected, what is the probability that both of the
cubes will be yellow?

2␣ ␣ Solve Problem 1, but this time assume that the 1st cube selected
is not placed back in the sack.

3␣ ␣ There are 2 sacks with cubes and 1 cube will be randomly se-
lected out of each. Sack 1 contains 3 red cubes and 2 blue, and Sack
2 contains 2 yellow, 1 green, and 2 red. What is the probability of
selecting 2 red cubes? What is the probability of not selecting 2 red
cubes? What is the probability of not selecting any red cubes?

4␣ ␣ The 2 spinners shown at the right are Orange Pink

Purple
each to be spun once. Determine the prob-
abilities of obtaining the following colors: Green
Orange
orange on both spins; pink on one spin and Pink Blue
green on the other; blue on one spin and
either purple or green on the other. Spinner I Spinner II

5␣ ␣ A family has 4 children. Assuming that the chances of having a

boy or a girl on each birth are equally likely, determine the prob-
ability that the children were born in either the order boy, girl, boy,
girl or the order girl, boy, girl, boy.

6␣ ␣ Assuming that each branch point in the

maze at the right is equally likely to be cho-
sen, determine the probability of entering Start A B
room A.

(Continued on back.)

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 16 Counting and Probability Diagrams
Focus Student Activity 16.4 (cont.)

7␣ ␣ A game is to be played in which 1 player holds a sack that con-

tains 5 blue cubes and 5 yellow cubes, and a 2nd player selects 2
cubes from the sack. The player who selects wins the game if 2 cubes
of the same color are obtained, and otherwise the player holding the
sack wins. Which player has the better chance of winning and what
is this player’s probability of winning?

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Counting and Probability Diagrams Lesson 16

Follow-up Student Activity 16.5

NAME DATE

1␣ For each of the following problems, communicate your methods

and reasoning so that it is clear how and why your methods and
answers work.

a) On a sandwich menu, there are 5 choices of bread (French, sour-

dough, onion, rye, or wheat) and 4 choices of filling (turkey, tuna,
egg salad, or beef). How many different sandwiches are possible
from these choices?

b) An art gallery has 5 special paintings to display, but space to

hang only 4 of them in a row. How many different arrangements of
paintings are possible in this row?

c) An area code is a 3-digit number where the 1st digit cannot be 0

or 1. How many different area codes are possible?

d) Five houses in a row are each to be painted with 1 of the colors

red, green, blue, or yellow. If no 2 adjacent houses can have the
same color, in how many ways can the houses be painted?

e) A little league team is to be formed from 9 children of whom

only 1 can be the catcher, only 1 can play 1st base, and only 1 can
be the pitcher. The other players can play any of the remaining 6
positions. How many different lineups are possible?

f) A girl dresses each day in a blouse, a skirt, and shoes. She always
wears white socks. She wants to wear a different combination on
every day of the year. If she has the same number of blouses, skirts,
and pairs of shoes, how many of each would she need to have a
different combination every day?

g) How many 5-digit ZIP codes are possible in which the ZIP code is
an even number?

h) A Girl Scout troop has 12 members. In how many different ways

can the scoutmaster appoint 4 members to clean up the camp?

(Continued on back.)

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 16 Counting and Probability Diagrams
Follow-up Student Activity (cont.)

2␣Use these spinners to determine the probabilities of the out-

comes listed below.

Red
Blue Red Green Red Yellow
Blue
Green
Blue
Purple
Green Yellow Yellow
Orange

Spinner A Spinner B Spinner C

a) blue from Spinner A and red from Spinner B,

b) blue from Spinner B and green from Spinner C,
c) yellow from Spinner A, green from Spinner B, and red from Spin-
ner C,
d) either green or red from Spinner B and either red or yellow from
Spinner C.

3␣ Use these 2 bowls of marbles to determine

the probabilities of selecting the following:

a) a red from I and a red from II,

Bowl I Bowl II
b) a blue from I and a yellow from II,
c) 1 marble from each bowl and no red marble,
d) 1 marble from each bowl, no red or green marbles.

4␣ ␣ A gumball machine contains 2 red and 4 white gumballs, and no

others. If each gumball has an equal chance of being released and 2
are purchased, what is the probability of getting 2 red gumballs?

5␣ A coin will be tossed 4 times. What is the probability of obtain-

ing 2 or more heads in a row?

6␣ Write a letter to an adult explaining the “big ideas” from this

lesson about counting concepts and strategies and their role in com-
puting probabilities. Be detailed and include examples that help the
adult see why ideas work. Next, have an adult read your letter and
write comments about what is clear and unclear. Then edit your
letter to clarify as needed. Turn in the original letter with the adult’s
comments and turn in your edited version.

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Simulations and Probability
Simulations & Probability Lesson 17 Lesson 17

.
.
.
.
THE BIG IDEA .. CONNECTOR
.
. OVERVIEW MATERIALS FOR TEACHER ACTIVITY
Because of their math- .
.
. Students discuss the idea of ✔ Connector Masters A and ✔ Miscellaneous materials
ematical content or .
. randomness and investigate B, 1 copy of each per stu- (compasses, protractors,
complexity, theoretical .. ways to create sets of ran- dent and 1 transparency bobby pins, paper clips,
.
. dom numbers. Students use of each. dice, paper bags or other
solutions to many .
. a table of random numbers, ✔ Connector Student Activ- containers, cubes, tile,
.
probability problems . calculators, and/or comput- ity 17.1, 1 copy per group game markers, calcula-
.
. ers to generate random and 1 transparency. tors, grid paper, straight-
can be beyond the .
. numbers satisfying certain edges, marking pens,
✔ Graphing calculators,
reach of middle school .. conditions. etc.), accessible to
. 1 per student.
. groups as needed.
students. Further, ex- . ✔ Overhead graphing cal-
.
. culator (optional).
perimental solutions .
.
for many problems are ..
.
impractical to solve by .. FOCUS
.
carrying out the actual .. OVERVIEW MATERIALS FOR TEACHER ACTIVITY
.
conditions of the prob- .. Students identify key com- ✔ Connector Master A, ✔ Assorted materials (e.g.,
.
ponents of simulations, and 1 copy per group and protractors, compasses,
lems. Frequently simu- ..
. they design and carry out 1 transparency. bobby pins, straight-
.
lations make such . simulations to solve prob- ✔ Focus Masters A and C, edges, dice, game mark-
.
. ability problems whose 1 transparency of each. ers, cubes, tile, grid pa-
problems accessible, .
. theoretical solutions are per, etc.) available to
. ✔ Focus Master B, 1 copy
produce meaningful . complex and/or out of reach groups.
. per student and 1 trans-
for this grade level. The
experimental solutions, .. parency. ✔ Graphing calculators,
. graphing calculator serves 1 per student.
. ✔ Focus Student Activities
and/or lend insights . as an efficient tool for gen-
. 17.2 and 17.3, 1 copy of ✔ Overhead graphing cal-
. erating and representing
regarding theoretical . each per group and 1 culator (optional).
. data. Central tendency,
. transparency. ✔ 1 ⁄ 4 " grid paper, 1 trans-
possibilities. . range, variation, and confi-
. dence intervals provide parency.
.
.
. bases for predictions. ✔ Blank transparencies and
. overhead pens, 2 per
.
. group.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
FOLLOW-UP
.
. OVERVIEW MATERIALS FOR STUDENT ACTIVITY
.
. Students generate sets of ✔ Student Activity 17.4,
.
. random numbers that sat- 1 copy per student.
.
. isfy certain conditions. They
.
. design and carry out simu-
.
. lations to solve problems,
.
. and they write a letter out-
.
. lining the important charac-
.
. teristics of a simulation.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.

Math Alive! Course III / 449

Lesson 17 Simulations and Probability

LESSON IDEAS TEACHER NOTES:

.
. QUOTE
.
. It is also important for stu-
.
. dents to understand the
.
. difference between, and
.
. the advantages associated
.
. with, theoretical and simu-
.
. lation techniques. Even
.
. more important, students
.
. should value both ap-
.
. proaches. … What should
.
. not be taught is that only
.
. the theoretical approach
.
. yields the “right” solution.
.
. NCTM Standards

SELECTED ANSWERS

1a) Enter randInt(100,999,2) 5 times. data from the line plot. Find the average (mean, median,
or mode as deemed appropriate) of the data from the
b) Enter randInt(1,217,8) 5 times. 90% interval.

c) Enter randInt(0,360,12) 3 times. d) Enter randInt(1,6,5) for 1 trial. A trial is a success if it

contains 2 or more 3’s. Repeat for many trials and deter-
d) Enter randInt(1,100,20) 4 times. Let 1-87 represent mine the percentage of successful trials.
successful free throws and 88-100 unsuccessful free
throws. Multiply the number of successful free throws e) Enter randInt(1,6,2) to simulate 1 toss of 2 dice. Re-
in a set by 5 to compute the percentage for that set. peat until the sum for a toss is 10 or greater. As data for
1 trial, record the number of tosses required. Repeat for
many trials and make a line plot of the data; determine
2. Following is one possible strategy for each problem; the maximum of the lower 90% of the data in the line
students’ approaches may vary. plot.

a) For 1 trial, enter randInt(1,100,10). Let 1-72 represent f) Let 1 and 2 represent belt buckles and 3 represent
correct predictions and 73-100 incorrect predictions. A rings. For 1 trial, enter randInt(1,3,3). Repeat for many
trial is successful if 8 or more predictions are correct. trials and determine the percentage of trials with at least
The probability of making 8 or more correct predictions one 3 and at least one 1 or 2.
is the ratio of the number of successful trials to the total
number of trials. g) Let 1-28 represent 1-child families, and 29-100 repre-
sent not 1-child families. For 1 trial, enter randInt(1,100)
b) For 1 trial, enter randInt(1,1000,4). Let 1-293 represent repeatedly until 2 numbers from 1-28 are obtained.
“hits,” and 294-1000 represent “no hits.” A trial is suc- Record as data the number of entries in a trial. Repeat
cessful if it has 2 or more hits. Determine what percent- for many trials, and make a line plot of the data. Deter-
age of the total number of trials are successful. mine the maximum of the lower 80%, 85%, and 90% of
the data.
c) Let 0 represent a boy and 1 a girl. For 1 trial, enter
randInt(0,1) repeatedly until there is at least 1 boy and 1 h) Let the numbers 1, 2, and 3 stand for 6th graders, 4
girl. Record as data for the trial the number of entries and 5 for 7th graders, and 6 and 7 for 8th graders. For 1
required. Repeat many times. Form a line plot of the trial, enter randInt(1,7,3). A trial is successful if the 3
data and determine the maximum of the first 90% of the numbers represent 1 student from each grade.

450 / Math Alive! Course III

Simulations and Probability Lesson 17

Connector Teacher Activity

OVERVIEW & PURPOSE MATERIALS
Students discuss the idea of randomness and investigate ways ✔ Connector Masters A and B, 1 copy of each per stu-
to create sets of random numbers. Students use a table of dent and 1 transparency of each.
random numbers, calculators, and/or computers to generate ✔ Connector Student Activity 17.1, 1 copy per group
random numbers satisfying certain conditions. and 1 transparency.
✔ Graphing calculators, 1 per student.
✔ Overhead graphing calculator (optional).
✔ Miscellaneous materials (compasses, protractors,
bobby pins, paper clips, dice, paper bags or other
containers, cubes, tile, game markers, calculators, grid
paper, straightedges, marking pens, etc.), accessible to
groups as needed.

ACTIONS COMMENTS

1␣ ␣ Arrange the students in groups. Write the word 1␣ ␣ In Lessons 16, 24, and 25 of Math Alive! Course II,
random on the board or overhead and ask each group of students discussed issues related to randomness in sam-
students to write a statement to explain how they think pling (i.e., issues related to generating unbiased data
about the meaning of random and ways this word is samples). Here are a few ways students may suggest the
used. Discuss. word random is used:

• something that happens by chance;

• haphazard movement;
• something that is done without a plan or system;
• making an arbitrary or unbiased selection;
• a sampling in which all items have an equal probabil-
ity of being selected.

2␣ ␣ Write the digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 on the 2␣ You might have a variety of materials available, such
overhead or chalkboard. Invite several volunteers to as: compasses and protractors (for constructing spin-
describe possible strategies for randomly selecting one of ners); bobby pins or paper clips (for spinner pointers);
the digits. Discuss the students’ ideas regarding reasons dice; paper bags or other containers; cubes; tiles; game
these strategies are likely to produce random selections, markers; calculators; grid paper, straightedges, marking
and/or any ways such strategies could be biased. Clarify pens; etc. Notice that students have opportunity to
as needed. evaluate their results in Problem 3 of Connector Student
Activity 17.1.
Then give a copy of Connector Student Activity 17.1
(see next page) to each group of students and ask them 1) The students may suggest a variety of strategies for
to complete Problems 1 and 2, alerting the groups to a generating random digits, such as the 3 examples given
variety of materials they may wish to use for generating below. Methods that are biased cause one digit to be
random digits. Ask each group to show their line plots favored over another, whereas, when a set of random
to the class. Discuss the students’ observations. digits is generated without bias, each digit selected is
equally likely to be any one of the 10 possible digits, and
the selection of each digit is independent of all other
selections.

(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 451

Lesson 17 Simulations and Probability
Connector Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

2 (continued.)
Simulations and Probability Lesson 17
Container selections: Label 10 slips of paper, 10 tile, or
Connector Student Activity 17.1 10 game markers so that each object has a different one
of the digits 0-9 written on it. Place the objects in a
NAME DATE

container. Shake the contents, select one object, record

1␣ ␣ Discuss possible methods for creating a list of 100 random digits.
the digit, and return the object to the container.
2␣ ␣ Choose a method discussed for Problem 1 to generate a list of
100 random digits.
Spinner or 10-sided die: Spin or roll and record the
a) Describe your method of generating 100 random digits:
digits obtained. In place of a 10-sided die, 2 cubes can be
b) Record your 100 digits, in the order generated, in this table:
numbered, one with the digits 1-6 and the other with 2
__ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ blank sides and the digits 7, 8, 9, and 0 on the remain-
__ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __
__ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ ing sides.
__ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __

c) Make a line plot of your 100 digits here: Top-of-the-head: one student quickly repeats digits,
trying to choose randomly, and another student records
the digits.

Some students may discover the random number func-

tions on their graphing calculators. Notice that such
functions are introduced in Action 4.

Students’ observations may resemble those described in

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Comment 3.
3␣ ␣ Do you feel that your set of 100 digits is random? List some con-
ditions that you feel a set of digits should satisfy in order to be con-
sidered a set of random digits?

3 ␣ Ask the groups to complete Problem 3 on Connector 3 ␣ The conditions which students list for the numbers
Student Activity 17.1. Discuss. in a set to be random may vary. For example, some
students may suggest that each digit should occur about
the same number of times, so a line plot should not
have many bumps or gaps. Others may suggest that the
mean of a set of random digits should be close to 4.5
since the mean of 0-9 is 4.5.

Some students may point out that the bumps and gaps
in the shape and spread of some groups’ line plots imply
there may be bias in the selection methods. Others may
suggest that, for a given method, combining several
groups’ data might produce a more “leveled-off” line-
plot. Still others may point out that an even, or level,
distribution of the digits selected does not necessarily
imply no bias in selection techniques.

While there are statistical tests for evaluating the ran-

domness of a set of numbers (e.g., students may be
interested in looking in the library or on the Internet for
information about the chi-square test or other tests for
randomness), the intent here is to illustrate the diffi-
culty of generating sets of numbers that are truly ran-
dom. There are many ways that bias can occur in meth-

452 / Math Alive! Course III

Simulations and Probability Lesson 17
Connector Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

ods that involve actions such as spinning spinners,

rolling dice, and drawing numbers from a container.
Further, even when calculators or computers (see Action
4) are used to generate random numbers, there are
opportunities for bias in programming the calculators or
computers to generate the numbers. For the purposes of
this lesson, sets of random numbers generated by the
graphing calculator or by most common computer
programs are less likely to involve bias and are less time-
consuming to produce than by-hand methods such as
spinners and dice. In general, the nature of the situation
for which a set of random numbers is to be used should
dictate the level of sophistication needed for generating
the random numbers.

4 ␣ Give each student a copy of Connector Master A. Then: 4 ␣ a) The Table of Random Numbers shown on Connec-
tor Master A gives 540 digits randomly generated by a
a) Discuss the use of a random number table to generate computer and arranged for convenience in groups of 5
sets of random numbers. Have the groups each use this digits. One way to form a sequence of 10 random digits
method to randomly generate 10 digits from the set of is to start anywhere on the table and then select a se-
digits 0-9, and to randomly generate five 10-place deci- quence of 10 digits in a row or column.
mals that are greater than zero and less than 1. Discuss.
b) Some students may have already discovered the
b) Give each student a graphing calculator (or have the random number functions on their graphing calculators.
students get out their own calculators). Repeat a), but If so, you might ask them to demonstrate their findings
using the random number functions on a graphing to the class. Or, before class discussion you might have
calculator to generate the random numbers. the groups spend some time examining their calculator
manuals and/or calculators to determine what random
c) (Optional) Repeat a), using computers. number functions are available.

Note: Students may discover a variety of ways of using a

Simulations and Probability Lesson 17 calculator to solve problems in this lesson; only a few
Connector Master A
possibilities for using the TI-83 are offered in these
Table of Random Numbers
comments. Consult your calculator manual for details
16877 62796 31056 59269 96725 03510 19186 41672 73387 79284 45697 83702
04419
75939
47911
36554
71787
94366
71696
76143
16243
35655
94507
30214
34229
14796
64227
43156
74719
80044
92763
29719
26120
87905
26676
90690
regarding use of specific calculator functions and for
95567
76431
44275
76938
71147
15066
14808
69132
18677
24674
88968
37084
07326
86339
79537
01514
54169
01943
08392
47018
94501
43849
75642
29406 troubleshooting.
75407 87829 99305 08420 02584 07888 34234 18388 90287 10718 43386 56457
55762 77741 78263 50907 73016 04595 52029 67789 65254 15750 61520 77606
41403
59269
72567
94176
47625
30216
39432
29459
74864
70063
80303
47051
63257
23187
16798
78262
48436
02884
34737
39857
76541
79393
37816
85013
One way to generate a set of 10 random digits from the
38793 30586 26783 98341 01379 89414 59707 53130 18896 11211 59959 56900
digits 0-9 on the TI-83 is to enter the command:
44722 22398 08182 59445 18743 51183 43850 83134 34802 56327 85775 50176
76792
54146
15413
99549
21246
03892
62483
90288
85973
91541
31468
15296
84551
41359
79229
79732
23694
47707
41874
32861
53784
08284
51870
09301
randInt(0,9,10), where the function “randInt” is the 5th
13258
10017
98825
95166
01224
51510
81597
07391
92304
88433
02093
15653
92229
61773
15847
24623
93575
64493
09709
41353
08284
75811
32880
20046
function under the “PRB” menu of the MATH menu. An
59657 17253 82592 41514 35609 42019 74328 30695 38949 63331 36022 43688 alternative command for generating random digits is:
41389 56877 18323 92464 94235 63498 31954 47714 28424 04041 61545 82321
41858
19566
73549
51618
80343
19581
92251
09700
65510
24562
58671
06142
18490
29945
24278
52454
86894
25711
75956
56299
07622
57296
04836
50691
randInt(0,9); each time ENTER is pressed, a random digit is
83203 14552 64977 50767 69853 17417 99352 38352 70414 53469 41128 14907
selected and displayed.
25112 68883 84887 13802 66934 51070 93787 23816 33707 28622 45618 61966
58415 53175 87365 90811 21936 09650 72851 38107 72851 04268 69737 65574
34693 13723 45306 95760 75208 30848 35810 97002 56068 50981 84566 10941
24872
41984
90442
99543
84322
77292
68282
04579
39577
72718
22272
78427
02654
53647
32727
71794
39361
86988
60659
41346
38083
80978
65416
73041
One way to generate 10-place decimals is to locate the
75478 86379 14318 96269 44900 63619 30630 54758 23360 17874 05854 74444 function “rand,” which is the 1st command under the
30434 89355 57050 34114 21280 99919 05157 30236 54951 71782 25803 38854
68066
67782
17895
75800
99454
53994
18143
25767
53727
87501
50943
91511
95711
61128
87285
45081
16946
65661
73275
41952
85412
58406
86282
42426
“PRB” menu of the MATH menu; each time ENTER is pressed
83840 02103 43204 44410 09188 64132 21788 14714 24348 34371 44907 29912
a random 10-place decimal is selected and displayed.
39074 47327 91183 05675 20069 06647 11494 33750 57719 90226 28720 00578
11320 17425 37182 41460 58948 88640 43978 41636 59767 85239 42843 06220
20061 21591 32017 47522 15491 34360 15385 07860 29687 88036 17448 05554
54138 01873 61646 85299 58479 47410 56923 41593 51695 92199 61850 53722
03669 13358 09583 33932 59348 53359 52437 50889 99250 93626 51771 13278
(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 453

Lesson 17 Simulations and Probability
Connector Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

4 (continued.)
Note: It is also possible to activate a TI-83 function by
scrolling to locate the function by name in the CATALOG
(obtained using the 2nd function and the numeric key
0) and then pressing ENTER.

c) If you have a computer available for demonstration

and/or accessible to students, there is probably a ran-
dom number generator function built into the com-
puter. Using a computer, it is possible to quickly gener-
ate very large sets of random numbers of any size.

5 Ask the students to use the Table of Random Num- 5 ␣ Following is one way of using the Table of Random
bers (Connector Master A) to randomly generate 20 Numbers to generate whole numbers less than or equal
whole numbers from 1 through 15. Discuss their meth- to 15:
ods and results. Then repeat for the graphing calculator
and (optional) for the computer. Beginning, for example, with the 4th row of digits and
the 14th and 15th columns, by reading down, the first
15 pairs of random digits are:

47 66 05 63 25 16 83 82 46 92
24 10 92 23 43

Notice that the only numbers from the above list which
are less than or equal to 15 are 05 and 10. To produce a
set of 20 random whole numbers that are greater than 0
and less than or equal to 15, continue forming the
above list.

One way to use the TI-83, to randomly generate 20

integers that are greater than 0 and less than or equal to
15 is to enter the command randInt(1,15,20).

Another method students may suggest is to generate 10-

place decimals (see Comment 4) and consider pairs of
digits. For example, the digits in the randomly-gener-
ated 10-place decimals .6714424448 and .2216170607
can be paired as follows:

67 14 42 44 48 22 16 17 06 07

From the above 10 pairs of digits, 14, 06, and 07 are the
only whole numbers greater than zero and less than or
equal to 15. The digits from additional random 10-place
decimals can be paired to generate more such whole
numbers.

454 / Math Alive! Course III

Simulations and Probability Lesson 17
Connector Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

6 ␣ Ask the students to: 6␣ a) Entering the command randInt(0,9,100) STO→ L1

on the TI-83 generates a set of 100 random digits and
a) use the random number functions on their calculators stores them in List 1.
to obtain 100 random digits (from the digits 0-9) and to
store the digits in a list; Notes: To store (STO→) in List 1 (L1), notice the name L1
is above the numeric key 1 and obtained using the 2nd
b) investigate ways to use their calculator to graph a function. To view L1 in a table, choose “edit” under the
histogram and a box plot of the list formed in a); EDIT menu of the STAT menu. To clear List 1, use the
command ClrList L1, where “ClrList” is the 4th function
c) determine how to use the calculator to compute the of the EDIT menu of the STAT menu.
mean, median, and sum of the list formed in a).
b) To produce a histogram of the List 1 data, turn on the
Discuss the students’ results. histogram for Plot 1 in the STAT PLOT menu and then
press GRAPH. One can TRACE the histogram to determine
the frequency of each digit (i.e., the height of each bar).
To produce a box plot of List 1, turn on the box plot for
Plot 1 and then press GRAPH. Using the TRACE function on
a box-plot displays the minimum, maximum, upper
quartile, lower quartile, and median. See your calculator
manual for detailed procedures and troubleshooting.

c) To compute the mean of List 1, enter the command

mean(L1), where the “mean” function is in the “MATH”
menu of the STAT LIST menu. The “median” and “sum”
functions are in the same menu as the “mean” function.

7␣ ␣ Pose the following to the groups: 7␣ ␣ One purpose of this problem is to introduce the idea
of selection without replacement. Since there must be 12
There are 45 sailboats in a race. The boats are different winners, once a boat’s number is chosen, it
numbered from 1 to 45 and the director of the cannot be chosen again. Thus, if in the random selec-
boat race wishes to randomly select 12 different tion of 12 numbers, a number is selected more than
sailboat numbers for prizes. Write a set of calcu- once, only the 1st occurrence is used and additional
lator commands to generate the winning num- numbers must be selected until a total of 12 different
bers. numbers are selected. This is called selection without
replacement.
Discuss the groups’ methods and results.
For example, the following 12 numbers were obtained
on the TI-83 using the command randInt(1,45,12): 13,
20, 10, 38, 41, 32, 24, 9, 3, 24, 5, 22. Since the second 24
must be disregarded, the command randInt(1,45) must
be used repeatedly until 12 different numbers are gener-
ated.

Math Alive! Course III / 455

Lesson 17 Simulations and Probability
Connector Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

8␣ Give each student a copy of Connector Master B and 8␣ ␣ You might encourage groups that solve these prob-
ask them to complete Problem a). Discuss their methods lems quickly to determine more than one possible set of
and results. Repeat for 3 or more of b)-g). calculator commands for generating each set of random
numbers. Or, you could ask them to determine a strat-
egy for using the Table of Random Numbers to generate
Simulations and Probability Lesson 17 the numbers for each situation. Following are examples
Connector Master B
of TI-83 commands for each problem:

For each of the following, use a calculator to generate the random a) The command randInt(372500,374000,5) randomly
numbers that are described. Then record the calculator com-
mands that you enter and the data generated by the commands. generates 5 numbers from 372,500 through 374,000.
a) Last month Lakeway Theater sold tickets numbered from
372500 to 374000. The theater manager plans to give free passes b) The command randInt(2,12,2) generates a pair of
to the first 5 numbers that are randomly selected from these
numbers.
numbers where each number is greater than or equal to
2 and less than or equal to 12. Each time ENTER is pressed
b) To practice multiplication facts, each day Rachelle randomly
generates a set of 25 pairs of whole numbers, where each num- a new pair of random integers is selected and displayed.
ber in a pair is randomly selected from the whole numbers 2
through 12.
As an alternative method, some students may suggest
c) Some combination locks are designed for use with any 3 num-
bers from 0 to 45. When these locks are manufactured, the num-
generating a list of 50 random integers from 2 through
bers used in each combination are selected at random. 12 and then grouping adjacent pairs of numbers from
d) In a drawing for 2 CD players, tickets are numbered from 41 the list.
through 80. The 1st 2 ticket numbers that are randomly selected
and divisible by 3 are the winning numbers.
c) The command randInt(0,45,3) generates a set of 3
e) Suzanne’s teacher asked her to randomly generate a set of
even numbers less than 100 and to select the first 3 that are divis-
whole numbers randomly selected from 0 through 45.
ible by 5.

f) A researcher randomly selects 15 numbers from the following d) For example, using the command randInt(41,80) and
set: {1, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3, 3.5, 4, 4.5, … 38, 38.5, 39, 39.5, 40}. Then she pressing ENTER 6 times generated the following random
computes the mean and the sum of the 15 numbers, and she
makes a box plot of 15 numbers. whole numbers from 41 through 80:
g) Joey randomly selected 3 odd numbers greater than 100 and
less than 140. 46 49 72 52 61 45

Notice that, in this example, it was necessary to generate

6 numbers before obtaining 2 numbers which are divis-
ible by 3.

Another approach is to note that, for the whole num-

bers from 41 through 80, the smallest number divisible
by 3 is 3 × 14 = 42 and the largest such number divisible
by 3 is 3 × 26 = 78. Hence, entering the command
3*randInt(14,26,2) generates a pair of random integers
between 41 and 80 such that each integer is divisible by 3.

e) The command 2*randInt(1,50) randomly generates

even whole numbers less than or equal to 100. In the
following example, 15 such numbers were required to
obtain 3 numbers which are divisible by 5.

14 92 82 86 68 70 86 44 88
66 68 12 10 36 90

As another approach, since all even numbers are divis-

ible by 2, and since all numbers divisible by both 2 and
5 must be divisible by 10, one can satisfy the conditions

456 / Math Alive! Course III

Simulations and Probability Lesson 17
Connector Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

of this situation by generating a set of 3 random num-

bers that are divisible by 10. This can be done by enter-
ing the command 10*randInt(1,10,3).

f) To generate and store a list of 15 such random num-

bers enter the command .5*randInt(2,80,15) STO→ L1. To
compute the mean of the 15 numbers, enter mean (L1),
using the “mean” function from the “MATH” menu of
the LIST menu. To compute the sum of the numbers,
enter sum(L1) where the “sum” function is also in the
“MATH” menu of the LIST menu. To create a box plot of
the 15 numbers, turn on a box plot for LIST 1 from the
STAT PLOT menu and then press GRAPH or TRACE (be sure
other graphs are turned off).

g) The odd numbers which are greater than 100 and less
than 140 can be randomly generated using the com-
mand 2*randInt(51,70)–1.

As another approach, some students may generate

random integers from 100 through 140 and then select
the 1st 3 odd numbers.

Math Alive! Course III / 457

Lesson 17 Simulations and Probability

TEACHER NOTES:

458 / Math Alive! Course III

Simulations and Probability Lesson 17

Focus Teacher Activity

OVERVIEW & PURPOSE MATERIALS
Students identify key components of simulations, and they ✔ Connector Master A, 1 copy per group, 1 transparency.
design and carry out simulations to solve probability prob- ✔ Focus Masters A and C, 1 transparency of each.
lems whose theoretical solutions are complex and/or out of
✔ Focus Master B, 1 copy per student, 1 transparency.
reach for this grade level. The graphing calculator serves as
an efficient tool for generating and representing data. Central ✔ Focus Student Activities 17.2 and 17.3, 1 copy per
tendency, range, variation, and confidence intervals provide group and 1 transparency.
bases for predictions. ✔ Assorted materials (e.g., protractors, compasses,
bobby pins, straightedges, dice, game markers, cubes,
tile, grid paper, etc.) available to groups.
✔ Graphing calculators, 1 per student.
✔ Overhead graphing calculator (optional).
✔ 1 ⁄ 4 " grid paper, 1 transparency.
✔ Blank transparencies and overhead pens, 2 per group.

ACTIONS COMMENTS

1␣ ␣ Arrange the students in groups and place a transpar- 1␣ ␣ Students’ interpretations of the expression “on the
ency of Focus Master A on the overhead, revealing only average, 2 out of 5 people” may vary. Following are 3
the Blood Type Problem. Discuss the students’ ideas examples:
regarding the meaning of the expression “on the aver-
age, 2 out of 5 people.” Then ask each group to propose If 5 people are randomly selected, then it may be that any
2 different approaches for using a simulation to solve the number from 0-5 have blood type O. But if many groups of 5
Blood Type Problem. people are selected, then the average of the numbers of people
in each group with blood type O will be close to 2.
Invite volunteers to describe their group’s proposals. Ask
the students to provide feedback regarding the strengths Regardless the number of people selected, 40% of the people
of the strategies proposed, and ways these strategies may have blood type O.
be biased and/or need refinement. Use this as a context
for discussing the terms trial and successful trial. If 1 person is randomly selected, there is a 40% chance that
person has blood type O.

Simulations and Probability Lesson 17 You may wish to engage students in discussion about
Focus Master A
the meaning of the word simulation and reasons for the
use of simulations. In Lesson 8 of this course, students
Blood Type Problem were introduced to simulations—procedures for answer-
ing questions about a problem by conducting an experi-
If, on the average, 2 out of every 5 people have blood ment whose conditions resemble the conditions of the
type O, and 3 people are randomly selected, what is
problem—when the actual conditions of the problem
the probability that exactly 2 of these 3 people will
have blood type O? are not practical to carry out. For example, it is inconve-
nient to actually select groups of 3 people and interview
them regarding their blood type, or to examine ran-
domly selected medical records; hence, a simulation can
be used to model such selections.

It may be helpful here to remind students that you are

only asking them to propose possible simulations, rather

(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 459

Lesson 17 Simulations and Probability
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

1 (continued.)
than to determine solutions, as there will be an opportu-
nity later to carry out strategies and solve the problem.

Some students may suggest determining the theoretical

probability; if so, you might suggest that they focus on
ideas for simulations now and let them know there will
be an opportunity later to investigate the theoretical
probability. Note: One reason for simulating this prob-
lem is that determining the theoretical probability may
be challenging to many students.

Students may propose a variety of simulations for col-

lecting experimental data. For example, one group of
students suggested the following:

Place 2 markers of one color, representing blood type O, and

3 markers of another color, representing NOT blood type O,
in a sack; select 1 marker, record its color, and return it to the
sack. Repeat this until 3 markers have been selected. If
exactly 2 markers representing type O blood are selected, this
selection of 3 markers is recorded as a successful set. Carry
out these selections of sets of 3 markers many times. Divide
the number of successful sets by the total number of sets to
determine the probability that exactly 2 out of 3 people will
have type O blood.

In the above example, a set of 3 selections is a trial; a

successful trial is the selection of 2 people with type 0
blood and 1 with a different blood type.

As another example, the following simulation is based

on random numbers (if no one suggests this, you might
ask the students to develop a strategy that involves use
of random numbers, or you could suggest such a strat-
egy as another possibility):

Use a Table of Random Numbers, letting the digits 1 and 2

represent people with type O blood and the digits 3, 4, and 5
represent people without type O blood. Beginning at any
number in the table and reading across a row or down a
column, record the first 3 digits that are greater than 0 and
less than 6 and denote this set of 3 digits as a successful trial
if exactly 2 of the digits are either a 1 or a 2. Carry this out
many times and determine the ratio of successful trials to the
total number of trials.

A variation of the above simulation is to use the com-

mand randInt(1,5,3) on the TI-83 (or the corresponding
command on another brand of calculator) to randomly
generate sets of 3 digits from 1 through 5. Then examine
the sets of numbers as described above.

460 / Math Alive! Course III

Simulations and Probability Lesson 17
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

2␣ Give each group a copy of Focus Student Activity 2␣ Students may simulate this situation by using any of
17.2 and ask them to complete Parts a)-c), alerting them the methods outlined in Comment 1, or they may
to the location of a variety of materials, e.g., compasses, develop other simulations. One line plot with data
protractors, straightedges, bobby pins, Table of Random generated using the TI-83 is shown below; the experi-
Numbers, paper clips, dice, paper bags or other contain- mental probability for each outcome is shown in the top
ers, cubes, tiles, game markers, calculators, marking row. For this experiment, the probability of exactly 2
pens, grid paper, etc., for use in their simulations. Dis- people having blood type O is .32.
cuss their strategies and results.
7
__ 9
__ 8
__ 1
__
= .28 = .36 = .32 = .04
Probability: 25 25 25 25

Simulations and Probability Lesson 17

Focus Student Activity 17.2

NAME DATE

Blood Type Problem:

If, on the average, 2 out of every 5 people have blood type O,

and 3 people are randomly selected, what is the probability that
exactly 2 of these 3 people will have blood type O?
X
Design and carry out a simulation to answer the above Blood Type X X
Problem. Collect data for a minimum of 25 trials, where a trial is the
blood type information for a set of 3 people. On separate paper: X X X
a) Describe, in detail, your simulation procedures. X X X
b) Show all of the data that you collect. X X X
c) Show how you organize, graph, and analyze your data to answer
the Blood Type Problem. Be sure to support all conclusions with
X X X
sound mathematical reasoning and a variety of mathematical evi-
dence. If you form graphs or compute statistics on the calculator,
X X X
sketch and label the results and include them in your written argu-
ments. X X X
d) Challenge. Determine and explain the theoretical probability for X X X X
the Blood Type Problem. Show/explain your methods and reasoning
so that it is clear why your answer is correct. 0
0 1
1 22 3
3

Number of people out of 3 with blood type O

Some students may suggest combining the groups’ data

or finding the average of the groups’ probabilities. As
more data is collected, the experimental probability for
exactly 2 out of 3 people with blood type O should
approach the theoretical probability of 28.8% (see Com-
ment 3).

You might ask the students to use the data from their
graphs to predict other probabilities, such as the prob-
ability that none of the 3 people selected will have
blood type O or the probability that at least one of the 3
people will have blood type O. Note: For the given
Blood Type Problem, the theoretical probabilities that 0
people, 1 person, 2 people, and 3 people will have blood
type O are 21.6%, 43.2%, 28.8%, and 6.4%, respectively.

Math Alive! Course III / 461

Lesson 17 Simulations and Probability
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

3 ␣ (Optional) Ask the groups to complete Part d) on 3␣ ␣ Whether to assign Part d) on Focus Student Activity
Focus Student Activity 17.2. Discuss their methods and 17.2 may depend on your students’ needs and interests.
results. Regardless, determining the theoretical probability
should not detract from the importance of simulations;
scientists often rely on simulations as a basis for decision
making.

Following is one way of determining the theoretical

probability that, for the given conditions, exactly 2 out
of 3 people selected at random will have blood type O:

When 3 people are randomly selected, there are 3 pos-

sible ways in which 2 of the people selected can have
type O blood (let O represent type O and N represent
not type O): ONO, OON, or NOO. For each person
selected, there is a 2 ⁄ 5 probability their blood type is O
and a 3 ⁄ 5 probability it is not type O. Hence, the theoreti-
cal probabilities for the possibilities involving 2 people
with type O blood are:

ONO 2⁄ 5 × 3 ⁄ 5 × 2 ⁄ 5 = 12 ⁄ 125
OON 2⁄ 5 × 2 ⁄ 5 × 3 ⁄ 5 = 12 ⁄ 125
NOO 3 ⁄ 5 × 2 ⁄ 5 × 2 ⁄ 5 = 12 ⁄ 125

Thus, the theoretical probability that exactly 2 of the 3

people selected have type O blood is 12 ⁄ 125 + 12 ⁄ 125 =
12 ⁄ 125 = 36 ⁄ 125 = 28.8%.

4␣ ␣ Place a transparency of Focus Master A on the over- 4␣ The intent here is to prompt the students to engage
head, revealing the Cereal Box Problem. Discuss the in thought about the problem and to sensitize them to
students’ ideas regarding: the fact that recognizing and clarifying assumptions are
important aspects of designing a simulation.
a) What is their “quick guess” of the number of cereal
boxes needed? a)-b) Students’ guesses may range from 6 boxes to sev-
eral hundred; following are examples of statements
b) What are some statements/predictions students can students commonly make. Remember to avoid giving
make with a high level of confidence about the situation clues or judging responses!
described in the Cereal Box Problem.
We are certain we must purchase at least 6 boxes.
c) What aspects of the problem need clarification?
We don’t think it is very likely that we would get all 6 trad-
ing cards by purchasing only 6 boxes.

We think it will take 36 boxes because there are 6 possibili-

ties for each box and we need at least 6 boxes.

c) Following are examples of points that students may

raise for clarification/agreement:

Does the cereal company use the same number of each

trading card?

462 / Math Alive! Course III

Simulations and Probability Lesson 17
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

Is there one trading card that is harder to get than the other
Simulations and Probability Lesson 17
Focus Master A
ones?

Are the boxes randomly mixed when distributed to stores?

Blood Type Problem
For the purposes of this activity, it is important to as-
If, on the average, 2 out of every 5 people have blood
type O, and 3 people are randomly selected, what is
sume that each trading card has the same chance of
the probability that exactly 2 of these 3 people will being in any one box and that any store will have a
have blood type O? random mix of all the trading cards. These are the types
of assumptions that need to be made when designing a
simulation.
Cereal Box Problem

As a special promotion, the Crunchy-Crispy Cereal

Company includes a baseball trading card in each box
of cereal. There are 6 different trading cards, and each
cereal box contains exactly 1 of the 6 cards. How many
boxes of cereal would you expect to buy in order to
collect all 6 trading cards?

5␣ ␣ Discuss the students’ ideas regarding ways to simu- 5␣ ␣ There are a variety of possibilities for this simulation,
late the Cereal Box Problem. such as: selecting from 6 different colored markers in a
sack; using a spinner with 6 equal parts; rolling an
ordinary die; and using a random number function on a
calculator or a Table of Random Numbers to generate
random digits from 1-6.

6␣ ␣ Distribute a copy of Focus Student Activity 17.3 (see 6␣ ␣ Frequently, when students are involved in establish-
next page) to each group and ask them to complete Parts ing guidelines for evaluating their work, they report
a)-d), again alerting students to the location of materials feeling a higher sense of commitment to producing
that are available for use in their simulations. When the quality work. Hence, prior to beginning Focus Student
groups have completed Part d), invite volunteers to Activity 17.3, it may be helpful to have the class create a
share their group’s results and confidence levels. Discuss set of evaluation standards for their written work on the
as needed. activity. For example, groups may suggest that their
simulation procedures should reflect the conditions of
the problem. Or, they may require use of specific statisti-
cal plots (e.g., histogram, line plot, box plot) or specific
statistical measures (e.g., mean, median, mode, range,
outliers, average deviation) and a discussion of the
relevance of these measures to the data. In other words,
evaluation standards can be used to enhance the depth
and quality of the groups’ investigations and analyses.

You might also have the students establish expectations

for the presentation of their results (e.g., create a poster
to be evaluated by other groups, a written report that
meets certain formatting guidelines, an oral report with
visual aids presented by each group to 2 other groups,
etc.). See Starting Points for other assessment ideas.

(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 463

Lesson 17 Simulations and Probability
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

6 (continued.)
Lesson 17 Simulations and Probability
Students’ simulations need to involve enough trials (e.g.,
Focus Student Activity 17.3 50 or more trials for this set where 1 trial generates all 6
trading cards) to assure a fairly representative data set,
NAME DATE

and so that students experience the wide variation

Cereal Box Problem
possible from 1 trial to another.
As a special promotion, the Crunchy-Crispy Cereal Company
includes a baseball trading card in each box of cereal. There are
6 different trading cards, and each cereal box contains exactly 1
of the 6 cards. How many boxes of cereal would you expect to The groups’ data analysis methods may vary. For ex-
buy in order to collect all 6 trading cards?
ample, when analyzing their data for Part c) some
Design and carry out 2 simulations to answer the above problem so
that one simulation involves the use of a random number function
groups may rely on the mode, especially if their data
on a graphing calculator or a Table of Random Numbers, and the
other simulation does not involve these methods. For each simula-
shows a given number of boxes occurs with high fre-
tion, collect data for a minimum of 20 trials, where one trial con- quency. Others may feel the median, or mean is a better
sists of selecting until all 6 trading cards are obtained (i.e., the num-
ber of selections required for a trial will vary from trial to trial). indicator. Still others may report a range of numbers of
a) For each simulation, describe in detail your simulation proce- boxes to purchase. What is important is that groups
dures.
have a mathematically sound rationale for basing a
b) For each simulation, show all of the data that you collect.
conclusion on a particular statistical measure.
c) For each simulation, show how you organize, graph, and analyze
your data and use the results to answer the Cereal Box Problem. On
a scale of 1-100, how confident are you in each solution? Explain.

d) Show how you combine the data from your 2 simulations and
analyze the results. Based on this information, now what is your
solution to the Cereal Box Problem? On a scale of 1-100, how confi-
dent are you now in your solution? Explain.

e) Show how you analyzed the combined data from all groups in
your class. Discuss any adjustments this leads you to make in your
solution from d). On a scale of 1-100, now how confident are you in
your prediction?

7␣ ␣ Discuss the students’ ideas regarding ways to com- 7␣ ␣ Students may suggest carrying this out as a whole
bine the class data. Then have the class determine and class activity, or they may suggest that each group
carry out a process for combining the data. Next, have compile all the class data and analyze the results. In
the groups complete Part e) on Focus Student Activity general, students should feel more confidence in predic-
17.3. Discuss their results and confidence levels. tions that are based on larger numbers of trials.

Some students may suggest the idea of a “likely range”

or “likely spread” of data by choosing a range of values
that includes data for most of the trials. To do this, they
may suggest that, if a graph shows that most of the
experimental data clusters in a certain interval, then the
number of cereal boxes to purchase is likely to fall
within that interval and the data far away from the
cluster are outliers for the experiment.

8␣ ␣ Pose the following question to the groups: 8␣ ␣ The groups’ responses may vary, although many may
relate their confidence levels to the amount of data
How many boxes of cereal do you think would collected or the distribution of the data in a line plot or
have to be purchased in order to feel 90% cer- box and whiskers plot. For example, one group used the
tain of obtaining all 6 trading cards? line plot below to support the following conclusion:

Allow time for the groups to determine an answer to the Using the data in this line plot, we feel 90% certain of getting
above question and to build arguments to support their all 6 trading cards with 21 boxes of cereal, because 90% of
answers. Discuss. Use this as a context for introducing our data is less than or equal to 21.
confidence intervals and 90% box and whisker plots (and
other % box plots).

464 / Math Alive! Course III

Simulations and Probability Lesson 17
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

X
X X
X X
X X X X X X
X X X X X X X X X X X X
X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
6 10 15 20 25
90%
Notice that, based on the above reasoning and data,
other lines can be drawn to indicate other confidence
levels. For example, again based the the above data, one
could say with 82.5% certainty that purchasing 19 or
fewer boxes would assure all 6 trading cards.

Some students may suggest that the above method of

locating a 90% confidence interval is valid only if suffi-
cient data is collected. Ideas about what is sufficient may
vary among individuals and can vary depending on the
nature of a problem.

Another visual method of representing a 90% confi-

dence interval is to use a 90% box-and-whisker plot, as
shown above the line plot below.

7 13 21 24
X
X X
X X
X X X X X X
X X X X X X X X X X X X
X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
6 10 15 20 25

Notice that the box is positioned above the line plot so

that the left end of the box corresponds with the mini-
mum data value and the right end corresponds with the
maximum data value of the lower 90% of the data.
There is no whisker on the left end of this 90% box plot
since the box to contains the lower 90% of the data, (or
as close to 90% as possible, noting that, since a data
value equal to the value of an end of a box is considered
“in” the box, and since, in some cases there are several
data entries equal to the value of an end of a box, a box
may contain more than 90% of the data). The right
whisker of this 90% box plot extends across the upper
10% of the data. Note: in experiments based on other
problems it may be more reasonable for a 90% box plot
to include the middle 90% of the data and have 2 whis-
kers; however, that is not reasonable for the Cereal Box
Problem.

Math Alive! Course III / 465

Lesson 17 Simulations and Probability
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

9␣ ␣ Ask the groups to each form a 90% box plot of their 9␣ ␣ Graphing 90% box plots from several groups of
data from Part d) of Focus Student Activity 17.3. Then students provides a visual summary of the data. Four
sketch the base line of a line plot along the edge of a such plots are shown below.
transparency of 1⁄ 4 " grid paper. Invite several groups to
sketch box plots for their data for Part d) on the trans- Group A
parency. Discuss the students’ observations.
Group B

Group C

Group D

…
6 10 15 20 25 30 >30

Students may make observations about the variability in

the length of the boxes and/or the whiskers, the relative
locations of medians, and the extent to which the box
plots overlap. With each observation students make
about the box plots, it is helpful to encourage them to
relate the observation to information it reveals about the
Cereal Box Problem.

10␣ ␣ Ask the groups to list their ideas about the key 10␣ The following ideas were sugested by one class:
stages of the simulation process, in general. Discuss and
reach consensus as a class. Understand the problem.

Determine what assumptions are imbedded in the problem.

Know what key questions must be answered to solve the

problem.

Determine what simulation methods best model the condi-

tions of the problem so the key questions can be answered.

Determine what makes a trial, what it takes for a trial to be

successful, and how many trials to complete.

Develop a system for recording data.

Select appropriate statistical measures and plots to analyze

the data. Keep confidence levels in mind to determine if more
data is needed.

Report conclusions.

466 / Math Alive! Course III

Simulations and Probability Lesson 17
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

11␣ ␣ Place a transparency of Focus Master A on the 11␣ ␣ Rather than presenting their work on transparen-
overhead, revealing the Principal Problem. Give each cies, you might have the groups use 2 sheets of blank
group 2 blank transparencies and an overhead pen. Have paper. Then groups can exchange completed work and
the groups design and carry out a simulation to solve provide feedback to each other. Limiting groups to 2
the problem, recording the following on the 2 transpar- sheets encourages them to be selective about what/how
encies: they report.

a) all data collected; One objective of this problem is to illustrate the conve-
nience of using random numbers in simulations of
b) all relevant statistical graphs formed; situations involving larger numbers. For example, the
whole numbers from 1 to 77 can be assigned to the
c) all statistical measures computed; students in the following way:

d) their answer to the Principal Problem; and 1, 2, 3, … 25 represent Class I

26, 27, … 55 represent Class II
e) their level of confidence in their answer. 56, 57, … 77 represent Class III

Invite volunteers to show their data and results to the If pairs of digits, 01, 02, … 77 are used from a Table of
class. Discuss the students’ ideas about similarities and Random Numbers, the numbers greater than 77 must
differences in their results, and other observations stu- be disregarded. To randomly generate whole numbers
dents make about the data. from 1 through 77 on the TI-83, use the command:
randInt(1,77). A trial ends when 5 different numbers
have been selected. A trial is successful if 1 number from
Simulations and Probability Lesson 17 each of the 3 classes (see above) is selected.
Focus Master A

A second objective of this problem is to illustrate sam-

Blood Type Problem pling without replacement. If a student is selected as 1 of
the 5 team members, then this same student can not be
If, on the average, 2 out of every 5 people have blood selected again for the same team of 5. That is, once a
type O, and 3 people are randomly selected, what is
student is selected, that student is not replaced back into
the probability that exactly 2 of these 3 people will
have blood type O? the set of 77 students for the next selection. Thus, in
generating sets of 5 numbers, if the same number occurs
more than once, the repetitions must be crossed out and
Cereal Box Problem additional numbers selected until a set of 5 different
numbers is formed.
As a special promotion, the Crunchy-Crispy Cereal
Company includes a baseball trading card in each box
of cereal. There are 6 different trading cards, and each The 20 sets of 5 numbers shown on the next page were
cereal box contains exactly 1 of the 6 cards. How many generated on the TI-83. Each number from 1-25 has
boxes of cereal would you expect to buy in order to been circled, each number from 26-55 has been boxed,
collect all 6 trading cards?
and each number from 56-77 has been underlined. The
16 trials marked with a ✔ were successful, i.e., at least 1
Principal Problem student from each class was represented in the set of 5.
All remaining trials were not successful, i.e., all 3 classes
Mount Hood Middle School has 3 classes of 7th grad- were not represented. For these 20 trials the experimen-
ers: 25 students in Class I, 30 in Class II, and 22 in Class tal probability that at least 1 student from each of the 3
III. If 5 of the 77 students are randomly selected to meet
classes will meet with the principal is 16 ⁄ 20 = .8.
with the principal, what is the probability that at least 1
student from each class will be in the meeting?

(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 467

Lesson 17 Simulations and Probability
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

11 (continued.)

✔ 23 57 43 47 14 6 27 69 19 71 ✔
44 49 27 41 19 15 34 8 61 73 ✔
✔ 59 56 69 52 13 60 24 44 2 10 ✔
30 43 5 6 43 23 7 16 3 70 45 ✔
✔ 73 23 62 38 21 69 51 12 14 67 ✔
67 25 25 70 24 16 29 21 57 63 57 ✔
45 41 72 56 43 65 8 14 44 50 ✔
✔ 18 68 60 31 46 71 8 4 57 44 ✔
✔ 52 16 33 15 74 11 23 10 55 75 ✔
✔ 56 72 5 50 23 73 53 43 51 5 ✔

A variety of observations involving experimental prob-

abilities can be made about the information in this
chart. For example, the probability that at least 1 stu-
dent from each class will not meet with the principal is
.2. The probability that at least 2 students from Class I
will meet with the principal is 14⁄ 20 = .7. The probability
that a student from Class III will not be included is 2 ⁄ 20 =
.1. The probability that 3 or more students from Class II
will be included is 3⁄ 20 = .15.

12␣ ␣ Give each student a copy of Focus Master B. Discuss 12␣ ␣ In most cases the problems on Focus Master B will
your expectations. When completed, discuss the stu- be too difficult for the students to determine answers
dents’ various approaches and conclusions. theoretically. These problems have been designed to be
solved by simulations.

You might base the number of problems you assign and

your expectations regarding student reporting of solu-
tions on your time needs and the interest level and
needs of your students. You may wish to select some
problems for homework and/or 1 or 2 problems for all
students to complete as an assessment activity. Or, you
might have the students select 1 problem each of low,
medium, and high difficulty levels. See Comment 6 for
ideas for establishing standards for evaluating students’
work.

Results from students’ simulations will vary. However,

due to the Law of Large Numbers, as the amount of data
students collect increases, the likelihood of experimental
probabilities resembling the theoretical probabilities
increases. Following is one possible simulation for each
problem; these simulations use the TI-83 to generate
data. Note that the number of trials in these examples is

468 / Math Alive! Course III

Simulations and Probability Lesson 17
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

small due to space limitations. In most cases, students

Lesson 17 Simulations and Probability
Focus Master B
should collect larger samples than shown here.

a) Notice that this problem is a variation of the Cereal

Solve the following problems by designing and carrying out
simulations. Box Problem. Let each of the digits 0-6 represent a differ-
ent colored pen. One trial consists of repeatedly entering
a) Each box of Pops-a-Lot Popcorn contains 1 of 7 different col-
ored pens. How many boxes of popcorn would you purchase in the command: randInt(0,6) until obtaining all 7 of the
order to be 90% certain that you would obtain a complete set of digits from 0 through 6. For example, the following trial
all 7 colors?
required 15 random digits to obtain all 7 digits:
b) Based on his past archery records, the probability that Eric will
hit the bulls-eye of a target is .94. If Eric takes 8 shots at the tar-
get, what is the probability he will hit the bulls-eye exactly 7 times? 5 2 5 6 4 3 6 6 2 3
c) Assume that the probability of a randomly selected person 5 0 5 6 1
having a birthday in a given month is 1⁄ 12.

i) How many people, on the average, would you need to select A line plot and 90% box plot of the results of 20 trials
to be 90% certain that 2 of them will have a birthday in the
same month?
are shown below. The mean of this data is 18.7 boxes
and the median is 19 boxes. From this experiment it can
ii) If 8 people are randomly selected, what is the probability
that at least 3 will have a birthday in the same month? be concluded with 90% certainty that the 7 pens will be
obtained by purchasing 26 or fewer boxes of popcorn.
d) Two students are playing a coin-tossing game. Each player
tosses a coin until obtaining 3 heads or 3 tails in a row. The (Note: the theoretical mean number of boxes to pur-
player who requires the fewest number of tosses wins the game. chase is 18.15.)
How many tosses of a coin are required on the average to obtain
3 heads or 3 tails in a row?

e) Hoopersville Hospital uses 2 tests to classify blood. Every

blood sample is subjected to both tests. Test A correctly identifies
blood type with probability .7 and Test B correctly identifies blood
type with probability .5. Determine the probability that at least 1 11 19 26 28
of the tests correctly determines the blood type.

(Continued on back.)
X X X
X X X
Simulations and Probability Lesson 17
X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
Focus Master B (cont.) 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28

f) The names of 5 people (all with different names) are placed on b) Use the command randInt(1,100,8) to randomly
5 separate slips of paper and these slips are placed in a sack. If
each person randomly chooses a slip from the sack, on the aver- generate sets of 8 whole numbers from 1 to 100. Let the
age, how many people will select their own name? numbers 1 through 94 represent hitting the target and
g) On a quiz show, contestants guess which 1 of 3 envelopes con- 95 through 100 represent a miss. In 1 out of the follow-
tains a $5000 bill. What is the probability that exactly 4 people out
of 8 contestants will select the envelope with $5000?
ing 3 trials the target was hit exactly 7 times. So for this
limited set of trials, the experimental probability is 1 ⁄ 3.
h) At a certain university it is required that 85% of the students be
from within the state. If 6 students are randomly selected from
this university’s student body, what is the probability that exactly Trial 1: 72 11 44 12 78 25 13 88 8 hits
1 of them will be from outside the state?
Trial 2: 38 77 8 41 70 38 29 91 8 hits
i) Assume that the probability of a randomly chosen person hav- Trial 3: 39 35 55 18 9 36 97 60 7 hits
ing a birthday on a given day of the year is 1⁄365. How many people,
on the average, would you need select in order to be 90% certain
of obtaining exactly 2 people with a birthday on the same day?
Note: The theoretical probability of hitting the target
exactly 7 times out of 8 is .31 to 2 decimal places.

c)i) Let the whole numbers from 1 to 12 represent the

months of the year. Using the command randInt(1,12),
each of the following 5 trials ended when a number
occurred twice, representing 2 people with the same
birth months.

(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 469

Lesson 17 Simulations and Probability
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

12 (continued.)
Trial 1: 2 9 5 11 12 11
Trial 2: 3 4 3
Trial 3: 8 5 6 4 11 10 10
Trial 4: 3 1 3
Trial 5: 6 11 7 8 10 6
2 5 7 10
The line plot at the left shows the data for 20 trials. For
X X
X X X
this data, the mean number of people that must be
X X X chosen is 5.2 and the median is 5. The 90% box plot
X X X X indicates with 90% certainty that 2 people will have a
X X X X X X X X birthday in the same month if 7 or fewer are randomly
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 chosen.

c)ii) The following trials were generated using the com-

mand randInt(1,12) 8 times. A trial is a success if the
same number occurs 3 or more times. In the 5 trials
below, 1 trial was a success; hence, for these 5 trials, the
experimental probability of getting a success is 1 ⁄ 5.

Trial 1: 12 1 8 9 2 8 2 10
Trial 2: 8 3 9 1 10 5 9 10
Trial 3: 12 12 10 10 11 8 1 6
Trial 4: 3 3 4 1 3 2 10 3
Trial 5: 5 1 12 2 3 8 4 7

d) Simulate the tossing of coins by randomly generating

the digits 0 and 1, with 0 representing heads and 1 rep-
resenting tails. A trial ends when either 3 heads or 3 tails
are obtained. Five trials are shown below; the numbers
of tosses required for these 5 trials are 19, 4, 5, 11, and 3,
respectively.

Trial 1: 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0
1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1
Trial 2: 0 1 1 1
Trial 3: 1 0 1 1 1
Trial 4: 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0
3 6 16 20
Trial 5: 0 0 0
X
X
The line plot at the left contains the data for 20 trials.
X
X X The mean number of tosses required is 8.05 and the
X X X median is 6. The 90% box plot indicates that, for this
X X X X X X X X X X X X data, one can be 90% certain of obtaining 3 heads or 3
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 tails in a row with 16 or fewer tosses.

e) For Test A, let 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 represent a correct

identification of blood type and 8, 9, 10 represent an
incorrect identification. For Test B let 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 repre-
sent a correct identification and 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 an incor-
rect identification. Use the command randInt(1,10,2) to
generate pairs of numbers where the first number repre-

470 / Math Alive! Course III

Simulations and Probability Lesson 17
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

sents Test A and the second Test B. A successful trial is a

pair of numbers for which at least 1 number indicates a
correct identification of blood type. For the following 10
trials, where an underlined number indicates a correct
identification of blood type, there were 8 successes;
hence for this data, the experimental probability of at
least one of the tests correctly determining the blood
type is .8.

(2,6), (10,8), (3,4), (6,8), (2,9), (4,10), (1,10), (3,6), (1,4),

(9,8)

Note: Although the above sample is small, the experi-

mental probability is close to the theoretical probability
of .85.

f) Assign each person a different number from 1 through

5. Enter randInt(1,5,2) 5 times to select 5 pairs of ran-
dom integers from 1 through 5. Selecting a pair of
matching numbers represents a person selecting her
own name from the sack.

Trial 1: (5,3) (4,5) (2,3) (4,1) (3,5) 0 matches

Trial 2: (5,4) (5,5) (2,3) (3,3) (3,2) 2 matches
Trial 3: (4,3) (1,3), (1,1) (4,1) (4,5) 1 match
Trial 4: (1,4) (4,5) (5,2) (4,3) (2,3) 0 matches
Trial 5: (2,5) (5,2) (2,3) (4,3) (1,1) 1 match
Trial 6: ((3,3) (3,1) (3,3) (3,3) (4,2) 3 matches
Trial 7: (2,3) (4,5), (3,3) (2,1) (2,4) 1 match

Based on the above 7 trials, on the average, (0 + 2 + 1 + 0

+ 1 + 3 + 1)/7 ≈ 1.1 person should select her own name.
Since a partial person doesn’t make sense, one might
round to say that, on the average, 1 person out of 5
should select her own name. This is based on the mean
as average. Ordering the results (0, 0, 1, 1, 1, 2, 3) and
finding the median affirms 1 out of 5 as the average.
And, the mode of this data also suggests an average of 1
out of 5.

Many repeated trials of this experiment should produce

a simulated average which is close to the theoretical
average of 1 person selecting their own name.
Trail 1: 0 0 2 1 1 2 2 2 ✔
Trial 2: 0 2 0 1 0 2 0 2
g) The digits 0, 1, and 2 can be used to represent the 3
Trial 3: 1 2 1 1 0 2 2 1
envelopes with 2 representing the envelope with $5,000.
Trial 4: 0 0 2 1 0 0 0 1
Use the command randInt(0,3,8) to generate sets of 8
Trial 5: 2 0 0 1 0 0 2 0
numbers. A trial is a set of 8 numbers and is successful if
Trial 6: 2 1 0 2 1 1 0 0
4 of the digits are 2. Shown at the left are 10 trials with 2
Trial 7: 2 1 0 0 2 2 0 2 ✔
successes (see ✔ marks). Thus, based on this simulation,
Trial 8: 0 1 2 1 1 1 0 1
Trial 9: 0 2 2 1 0 1 1 0
Trial 10: 2 1 1 0 2 1 0 0 (Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 471

Lesson 17 Simulations and Probability
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

12 (continued.)
the experimental probability of exactly 4 people win-
ning $5000 is 2 ⁄ 10 .

Note: The theoretical probability that exactly 4 people

out of 8 people will select the envelope with $5000 is .17
to 2 decimal places.

Trial 1: 46 40 83 50 94 15 ✔ h) Randomly generate sets of 6 whole number percents

Trial 2: 65 97 83 95 24 45 from 1 to 100 using the command: randInt(1,100,6). Let
Trial 3: 35 27 69 53 32 61 the numbers from 1 through 85 represent the in-state
Trial 4: 60 24 13 38 100 69 ✔ students and 86 through 100 represent the out-of-state
Trial 5: 57 75 57 99 82 60 ✔ students. A trial is 1 set of 6 numbers, and a trial is
Trial 6: 33 47 32 41 60 5 successful if exactly one of the numbers is from the set
Trial 7: 94 97 81 76 90 40 86 through 100. Four of the 8 trials shown at the left are
Trial 8: 49 92 80 68 13 29 ✔ successes (see ✔ marks); hence, the experimental prob-
ability that exactly 1 student will be from out-of-state is
4 ⁄ 8 = .5.

The theoretical probability that only 1 of 6 randomly

selected students will be from out-of-state is .40 to the
nearest 2 decimal places.

i) Use the command randInt(1,365) to randomly gener-

ate the whole numbers from 1 through 365. A trial is
complete when the same number repeats. For example,
the following 4 trials required, respectively, 48, 37, 17,
and 15 numbers before obtaining the same number
twice.

Trial 1: 267 98 42 220 323 27 280 166 54

350 44 69 234 275 67 205 191 272
152 228 18 34 358 167 35 256 237
95 71 97 305 295 273 193 101 118
41 360 30 355 132 57 347 296 243
326 157 18

Trial 2: 298 276 28 221 220 174

278 173 232 322 271 262
226 80 360 125 184 242
39 306 233 350 22 20
9 350 64 189 328 32
158 339 253 247 46 197
220

Trial 3: 56 20 128 273 122 108 204 340 127

292 311 132 326 315 149 161 127

Trial 4: 281 291 304 255 102 245 198 271 56

277 235 168 74 8 235

472 / Math Alive! Course III

Simulations and Probability Lesson 17
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

The following line plot and 90% box plot show the data
for 20 trials. From this data, the mean number of people
required in order to obtain 2 people with a birthday on
the same day is 26.25 and the median is 27. The 90%
box plot for this simulation shows, with 90% confi-
dence, that 2 people will have the same birthday if 37 or
fewer are randomly chosen.

10 27 37 48

X X X X
X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48

Surprisingly, it can be proven that for 23 people the

probability that 2 or more will have a birthday on the
same day is just over 50%.

13␣ ␣ Place a transparency of Focus Master C on the 13␣ ␣ Predicting which player has the advantage of win-
overhead. Arrange the students in pairs and have the ning in this game is not intuitive, and the theoretical
pairs play the Marker Game once. Clarify the game rules probability is difficult to determine.
as needed. Then ask the students for their predictions as
to which player has the better chance of winning. Dis- Some students may erroneously reason that the drawer
cuss. has a 2 ⁄ 3 chance of winning because either the 2 markers
will both be red, both be green, or the colors will be
Next ask each pair of students to design and carry out a different.
simulation with at least 20 trials to determine the ex-
perimental probability of the game being won by the Students may wish to play this game using colored
drawer. Discuss their conclusions and reasoning. markers to become familiar with the game; however,
you might remind them that playing the actual game is
not a simulation of the conditions.
Lesson 17 Simulations and Probability
Focus Master C
One way to simulate this game is to use the command
randInt(0,9,2) to select pairs of digits from 0 through 9.
Marker Game Let the digits 0-4 represent red markers and 5-9 repre-
sent green markers. The game involves selection “with-
A sack is filled with 5 red game markers and 5 green out replacement,” so if a digit occurs more than once in
game markers. One player called the holder, holds the
the data, pairs containing the repeated digit are disre-
sack and the other player called the drawer, selects 2
markers at a time. The drawer earns a point if both garded. The following 2 trials show data from 2 simu-
markers have the same color, and the holder earns a lated games. In each trial, the drawer wins 2 points and
point if the 2 markers have different colors. The drawer the holder wins 3 points. Notice that 7 pairs of numbers
continues selecting 2 markers at a time, with the were selected in Trial 2, since 2 pairs included a digit
drawer and holder earning points as described above,
that had already been selected.
until all the markers have been selected. The player
with the most points wins the game.

(Continued next page.)

Math Alive! Course III / 473

Lesson 17 Simulations and Probability
Focus Teacher Activity (cont.)

ACTIONS COMMENTS

13 (continued.)
Trial 1 Trial 2
(1,5) red, green (4,0) red, red
(9,0) green, red (1,8) red, green
(4,2) red, red (8,0) invalid
(3,8) red, green (7,9) green, green
(6,7) green, green (5,3) green, red
(6,4) invalid
(2,6) red, green

Repeating this experiment for many trials should show

that the holder has the greater probability of winning.

Some students may want to investigate this game for

different numbers of markers. For example, for 2 red
markers and 2 green markers, the theoretical probability
of the holder winning is 2 ⁄ 3 . For 3 red and 3 green, the
theoretical probability of the holder winning is 3 ⁄ 5.
Simulations with many trials should produce experi-
mental probabilities which are close to these theoretical
probabilities.

474 / Math Alive! Course III

Simulations and Probability Lesson 17

Follow-up Student Activity 17.4

NAME DATE

1␣ ␣ Record your methods and results for each of the following.

a) An electronic lock has digits 0-9, and the code for the lock is 2
3-digit numbers. Randomly generate codes for 5 locks.

b) At a raffle 217 tickets are sold, numbered 1-217. Eight winning

numbers are randomly selected. Randomly generate 5 sets of 8 win-
ning numbers.

c) A scientist is studying the directions in which wild animals move

and needs to randomly select 12 angles that vary from 0° to 360°.
Randomly generate 3 sets of 12 angles.

d) A professional basketball player has a free-throw average of 87%

(i.e., 87% of his free throws are successful). Simulate 4 sets of 20 free
throws and record his free-throw percentage for each set.

2␣ Design simulations to solve the following problems. For each

problem, explain your simulation procedures, show at least 20 trials,
and give statistical evidence to support your answer to the problem.

a) At the school carnival, anyone who correctly predicts 8 or more

tosses out of 10 tosses of a coin wins a prize. Luise practiced at home
and determined she can predict a coin toss 72% of the time. What is
the probability she will win a prize at the school carnival?

b) A baseball player’s batting average is the probability of getting a

hit each time the player goes to bat. For example, a player with a
batting average of .245 has a probability of 24.5% of getting a hit. If
a player with a .293 batting average bats 4 times in a game, what is
the probability of the player getting 2 or more hits?

c) A newly married couple would like to have a child of each gen-

der. Assuming that the probability of having a girl is 50% and the
probability of having a boy is 50%, what is the average number of
children the couple must have in order to be 90% certain of having
at least 1 girl and 1 boy?

(Continued on back.)
Math Alive! Course III / 475
Lesson 17 Simulations and Probability
Follow-up Student Activity (cont.)

d) Determine the experimental probability of obtaining a 3 at least

twice if a standard die is tossed 5 times.

e) How many times must 2 dice be tossed to be 90% certain of ob-

taining a sum of 10 or greater?

f) Each box of a certain Kandy Korn contains either a super-hero

ring or a super-hero belt buckle. If 1⁄ 3 of the boxes contain a ring
and 2⁄ 3 of the boxes contain a belt buckle, what is the probability
that a person who buys 3 boxes of Kandy Korn will receive both a
ring and a belt buckle?

g) At Kidville Day Care 28% of the children are from 1-child fami-
lies. How many children must be randomly selected to be 80% cer-
tain of obtaining 2 students from 1-child families? to be 85% cer-
tain? to be 90% certain?

h) Three 6th graders, two 7th graders, and two 8th graders have
been chosen by the student body to receive awards at a school as-
sembly. The principal will randomly select from these awardees to
determine the order in which they receive their awards. What is the
probability that the first 3 students selected will contain 1 student
from each of the 3 grades?

3␣ ␣ Write a letter to Heather, a student from another school, who

was absent during all of this lesson. In your letter, explain the fol-
lowing to Heather:

a) the meaning and purpose of a simulation;

b) key points in the design of a simulation;

c) tips for carrying out a simulation;

d) suggestions for analyzing simulation data to solve a problem.

476 / Math Alive! Course III

Simulations and Probability Lesson 17
Connector Master A

Table of Random Numbers

16877 62796 31056 59269 96725 03510 19186 41672 73387 79284 45697 83702
04419 47911 71787 71696 16243 94507 34229 64227 74719 92763 26120 26676
75939 36554 94366 76143 35655 30214 14796 43156 80044 29719 87905 90690
95567 44275 71147 14808 18677 88968 07326 79537 54169 08392 94501 75642
76431 76938 15066 69132 24674 37084 86339 01514 01943 47018 43849 29406

75407 87829 99305 08420 02584 07888 34234 18388 90287 10718 43386 56457
55762 77741 78263 50907 73016 04595 52029 67789 65254 15750 61520 77606
41403 72567 47625 39432 74864 80303 63257 16798 48436 34737 76541 37816
59269 94176 30216 29459 70063 47051 23187 78262 02884 39857 79393 85013
38793 30586 26783 98341 01379 89414 59707 53130 18896 11211 59959 56900

44722 22398 08182 59445 18743 51183 43850 83134 34802 56327 85775 50176
76792 15413 21246 62483 85973 31468 84551 79229 23694 41874 53784 51870
54146 99549 03892 90288 91541 15296 41359 79732 47707 32861 08284 09301
13258 98825 01224 81597 92304 02093 92229 15847 93575 09709 08284 32880
10017 95166 51510 07391 88433 15653 61773 24623 64493 41353 75811 20046

59657 17253 82592 41514 35609 42019 74328 30695 38949 63331 36022 43688
41389 56877 18323 92464 94235 63498 31954 47714 28424 04041 61545 82321
41858 73549 80343 92251 65510 58671 18490 24278 86894 75956 07622 04836
19566 51618 19581 09700 24562 06142 29945 52454 25711 56299 57296 50691
83203 14552 64977 50767 69853 17417 99352 38352 70414 53469 41128 14907

25112 68883 84887 13802 66934 51070 93787 23816 33707 28622 45618 61966
58415 53175 87365 90811 21936 09650 72851 38107 72851 04268 69737 65574
34693 13723 45306 95760 75208 30848 35810 97002 56068 50981 84566 10941
24872 90442 84322 68282 39577 22272 02654 32727 39361 60659 38083 65416
41984 99543 77292 04579 72718 78427 53647 71794 86988 41346 80978 73041

75478 86379 14318 96269 44900 63619 30630 54758 23360 17874 05854 74444
30434 89355 57050 34114 21280 99919 05157 30236 54951 71782 25803 38854
68066 17895 99454 18143 53727 50943 95711 87285 16946 73275 85412 86282
67782 75800 53994 25767 87501 91511 61128 45081 65661 41952 58406 42426
83840 02103 43204 44410 09188 64132 21788 14714 24348 34371 44907 29912

39074 47327 91183 05675 20069 06647 11494 33750 57719 90226 28720 00578
11320 17425 37182 41460 58948 88640 43978 41636 59767 85239 42843 06220
20061 21591 32017 47522 15491 34360 15385 07860 29687 88036 17448 05554
54138 01873 61646 85299 58479 47410 56923 41593 51695 92199 61850 53722
03669 13358 09583 33932 59348 53359 52437 50889 99250 93626 51771 13278

69839 06921 78794 89196 23332 98505 13874 96457 89402 13575 18514 48466
15450 65441 81939 81633 69536 07936 88569 32608 20762 25883 84028 66554
44299 68481 28078 12352 19198 54445 48652 27205 91811 61883 59061 69477
04691 72461 17275 77242 64938 97750 50648 89443 56513 85940 34066 17280
45855 40677 54003 67362 03456 95489 06329 58694 87021 47689 18746 22160

58802 98687 39554 56036 38187 51985 90895 09215 14525 68772 53814 57386
86620 73916 17143 42927 10858 57750 78656 42031 73934 79573 75971 49113
09682 00755 70561 45131 16440 14107 17075 78385 64347 51414 56677 97189
99583 07952 12497 58162 33850 93029 49328 87580 50232 71255 82129 39595
01346 62215 94291 63462 06520 27938 83438 41685 59481 39404 49188 44704

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 17 Simulations and Probability
Connector Master B

For each of the following, use a calculator to generate the random

numbers that are described. Then record the calculator com-
mands that you enter and the data generated by the commands.

a) Last month Lakeway Theater sold tickets numbered from

372500 to 374000. The theater manager plans to give free passes
to the first 5 numbers that are randomly selected from these
numbers.

b) To practice multiplication facts, each day Rachelle randomly

generates a set of 25 pairs of whole numbers, where each num-
ber in a pair is randomly selected from the whole numbers 2
through 12.

c) Some combination locks are designed for use with any 3 num-
bers from 0 to 45. When these locks are manufactured, the num-
bers used in each combination are selected at random.

d) In a drawing for 2 CD players, tickets are numbered from 41

through 80. The 1st 2 ticket numbers that are randomly selected
and divisible by 3 are the winning numbers.

e) Suzanne’s teacher asked her to randomly generate a set of

even numbers less than 100 and to select the first 3 that are divis-
ible by 5.

f) A researcher randomly selects 15 numbers from the following

set: {1, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3, 3.5, 4, 4.5, … 38, 38.5, 39, 39.5, 40}. Then she
computes the mean and the sum of the 15 numbers, and she
makes a box plot of 15 numbers.

g) Joey randomly selected 3 odd numbers greater than 100 and

less than 140.

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Simulations and Probability Lesson 17

Connector Student Activity 17.1

NAME DATE

1␣␣Discuss possible methods for creating a list of 100 random digits.

2␣␣Choose a method discussed for Problem 1 to generate a list of

100 random digits.

a) Describe your method of generating 100 random digits:

b) Record your 100 digits, in the order generated, in this table:

__ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __
__ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __
__ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __
__ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __

c) Make a line plot of your 100 digits here:

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

3␣␣Do you feel that your set of 100 digits is random? List some con-
ditions that you feel a set of digits should satisfy in order to be con-
sidered a set of random digits?

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 17 Simulations and Probability

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Simulations and Probability Lesson 17
Focus Master A

Blood Type Problem

If, on the average, 2 out of every 5 people have blood

type O, and 3 people are randomly selected, what is
the probability that exactly 2 of these 3 people will
have blood type O?

Cereal Box Problem

As a special promotion, the Crunchy-Crispy Cereal

Company includes a baseball trading card in each box
of cereal. There are 6 different trading cards, and each
cereal box contains exactly 1 of the 6 cards. How many
boxes of cereal would you expect to buy in order to
collect all 6 trading cards?

Principal Problem

Mount Hood Middle School has 3 classes of 7th grad-

ers: 25 students in Class I, 30 in Class II, and 22 in Class
III. If 5 of the 77 students are randomly selected to meet
with the principal, what is the probability that at least 1
student from each class will be in the meeting?

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 17 Simulations and Probability

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Simulations and Probability Lesson 17
Focus Master B

Solve the following problems by designing and carrying out

simulations.

a) Each box of Pops-a-Lot Popcorn contains 1 of 7 different col-

ored pens. How many boxes of popcorn would you purchase in
order to be 90% certain that you would obtain a complete set of
all 7 colors?

b) Based on his past archery records, the probability that Eric will
hit the bulls-eye of a target is .94. If Eric takes 8 shots at the tar-
get, what is the probability he will hit the bulls-eye exactly 7 times?

c) Assume that the probability of a randomly selected person

having a birthday in a given month is 1⁄ 12.

i) How many people, on the average, would you need to select

to be 90% certain that 2 of them will have a birthday in the
same month?

ii) If 8 people are randomly selected, what is the probability

that at least 3 will have a birthday in the same month?

d) Two students are playing a coin-tossing game. Each player

tosses a coin until obtaining 3 heads or 3 tails in a row. The
player who requires the fewest number of tosses wins the game.
How many tosses of a coin are required on the average to obtain
3 heads or 3 tails in a row?

e) Hoopersville Hospital uses 2 tests to classify blood. Every

blood sample is subjected to both tests. Test A correctly identifies
blood type with probability .7 and Test B correctly identifies blood
type with probability .5. Determine the probability that at least 1
of the tests correctly determines the blood type.

(Continued on back.)
© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 17 Simulations and Probability
Focus Master B (cont.)

f) The names of 5 people (all with different names) are placed on

5 separate slips of paper and these slips are placed in a sack. If
each person randomly chooses a slip from the sack, on the aver-
age, how many people will select their own name?

g) On a quiz show, contestants guess which 1 of 3 envelopes con-

tains a $5000 bill. What is the probability that exactly 4 people out
of 8 contestants will select the envelope with $5000?

h) At a certain university it is required that 85% of the students be

from within the state. If 6 students are randomly selected from
this university’s student body, what is the probability that exactly
1 of them will be from outside the state?

i) Assume that the probability of a randomly chosen person hav-

ing a birthday on a given day of the year is 1⁄365. How many people,
on the average, would you need select in order to be 90% certain
of obtaining exactly 2 people with a birthday on the same day?

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Simulations and Probability Lesson 17
Focus Master C

Marker Game

A sack is filled with 5 red game markers and 5 green

game markers. One player called the holder, holds the
sack and the other player called the drawer, selects 2
markers at a time. The drawer earns a point if both
markers have the same color, and the holder earns a
point if the 2 markers have different colors. The drawer
continues selecting 2 markers at a time, with the
drawer and holder earning points as described above,
until all the markers have been selected. The player
with the most points wins the game.

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 17 Simulations and Probability

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Simulations and Probability Lesson 17

Focus Student Activity 17.2

NAME DATE

Blood Type Problem:

If, on the average, 2 out of every 5 people have blood type O,

and 3 people are randomly selected, what is the probability that
exactly 2 of these 3 people will have blood type O?

Design and carry out a simulation to answer the above Blood Type
Problem. Collect data for a minimum of 25 trials, where a trial is the
blood type information for a set of 3 people. On separate paper:

a) Describe, in detail, your simulation procedures.

b) Show all of the data that you collect.

c) Show how you organize, graph, and analyze your data to answer
the Blood Type Problem. Be sure to support all conclusions with
sound mathematical reasoning and a variety of mathematical evi-
dence. If you form graphs or compute statistics on the calculator,
sketch and label the results and include them in your written argu-
ments.

d) Challenge. Determine and explain the theoretical probability for

the Blood Type Problem. Show/explain your methods and reasoning
so that it is clear why your answer is correct.

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 17 Simulations and Probability

Focus Student Activity 17.3

NAME DATE

Cereal Box Problem

As a special promotion, the Crunchy-Crispy Cereal Company

includes a baseball trading card in each box of cereal. There are
6 different trading cards, and each cereal box contains exactly 1
of the 6 cards. How many boxes of cereal would you expect to
buy in order to collect all 6 trading cards?

Design and carry out 2 simulations to answer the above problem so

that one simulation involves the use of a random number function
on a graphing calculator or a Table of Random Numbers, and the
other simulation does not involve these methods. For each simula-
tion, collect data for a minimum of 20 trials, where one trial con-
sists of selecting until all 6 trading cards are obtained (i.e., the num-
ber of selections required for a trial will vary from trial to trial).

a) For each simulation, describe in detail your simulation proce-

dures.

b) For each simulation, show all of the data that you collect.

c) For each simulation, show how you organize, graph, and analyze
your data and use the results to answer the Cereal Box Problem. On
a scale of 1-100, how confident are you in each solution? Explain.

d) Show how you combine the data from your 2 simulations and
analyze the results. Based on this information, now what is your
solution to the Cereal Box Problem? On a scale of 1-100, how confi-
dent are you now in your solution? Explain.

e) Show how you analyzed the combined data from all groups in
your class. Discuss any adjustments this leads you to make in your
solution from d). On a scale of 1-100, now how confident are you in
your prediction?

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Simulations and Probability Lesson 17

Follow-up Student Activity 17.4

NAME DATE

1␣␣Record your methods and results for each of the following.

a) An electronic lock has digits 0-9, and the code for the lock is 2
3-digit numbers. Randomly generate codes for 5 locks.

b) At a raffle 217 tickets are sold, numbered 1-217. Eight winning

numbers are randomly selected. Randomly generate 5 sets of 8 win-
ning numbers.

c) A scientist is studying the directions in which wild animals move

and needs to randomly select 12 angles that vary from 0° to 360°.
Randomly generate 3 sets of 12 angles.

d) A professional basketball player has a free-throw average of 87%

(i.e., 87% of his free throws are successful). Simulate 4 sets of 20 free
throws and record his free-throw percentage for each set.

2␣ Design simulations to solve the following problems. For each

problem, explain your simulation procedures, show at least 20 trials,
and give statistical evidence to support your answer to the problem.

a) At the school carnival, anyone who correctly predicts 8 or more

tosses out of 10 tosses of a coin wins a prize. Luise practiced at home
and determined she can predict a coin toss 72% of the time. What is
the probability she will win a prize at the school carnival?

b) A baseball player’s batting average is the probability of getting a

hit each time the player goes to bat. For example, a player with a
batting average of .245 has a probability of 24.5% of getting a hit. If
a player with a .293 batting average bats 4 times in a game, what is
the probability of the player getting 2 or more hits?

c) A newly married couple would like to have a child of each gen-

der. Assuming that the probability of having a girl is 50% and the
probability of having a boy is 50%, what is the average number of
children the couple must have in order to be 90% certain of having
at least 1 girl and 1 boy?

(Continued on back.)

© 1998, The Math Learning Center Blackline Masters, MA! Course III
Lesson 17 Simulations and Probability
Follow-up Student Activity (cont.)

d) Determine the experimental probability of obtaining a 3 at least

twice if a standard die is tossed 5 times.

e) How many times must 2 dice be tossed to be 90% certain of ob-

taining a sum of 10 or greater?

f) Each box of a certain Kandy Korn contains either a super-hero

ring or a super-hero belt buckle. If 1⁄ 3 of the boxes contain a ring
and 2⁄ 3 of the boxes contain a belt buckle, what is the probability
that a person who buys 3 boxes of Kandy Korn will receive both a
ring and a belt buckle?

g) At Kidville Day Care 28% of the children are from 1-child fami-
lies. How many children must be randomly selected to be 80% cer-
tain of obtaining 2 students from 1-child families? to be 85% cer-
tain? to be 90% certain?

h) Three 6th graders, two 7th graders, and two 8th graders have
been chosen by the student body to receive awards at a school as-
sembly. The principal will randomly select from these awardees to
determine the order in which they receive their awards. What is the
probability that the first 3 students selected will contain 1 student
from each of the 3 grades?

3␣␣Write a letter to Heather, a student from another school, who

was absent during all of this lesson. In your letter, explain the fol-
lowing to Heather:

a) the meaning and purpose of a simulation;

b) key points in the design of a simulation;

c) tips for carrying out a simulation;

d) suggestions for analyzing simulation data to solve a problem.

Blackline Masters, MA! Course III © 1998, The Math Learning Center
Materials
NECESSARY MANIPULATIVES AND MATERIALS

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS
Math Alive! Visual Mathematics Course III (Lessons 1-30)
Starting Points for Implementing Visual Mathematics
Math Alive! Visual Mathematics Course III Blackline Masters
Blackline Masters include Student Activities Grids.

MAKE FROM BLACKLINE MASTERS OR PURCHASE FROM MLC

Algebra Pieces
1 set per 4 students
Algebra Pieces, Overhead
1 set per teacher
Bicolored Counting Pieces, Overhead
1 set per teacher

MATERIALS AVAILABLE FROM MLC

Cubes, Wood (3⁄4" or 2-cm) Rulers (metric/imperial)
30 per student 1 per student
Dice, 6-sided Lunch Bags
1 die per student 1 per student
Game Markers Overhead Pens
1 bag per 15 students 1 set per teacher
Modeling Clay Protractors
1 box per 16 students
Coffee Stirrers
15 per student
Visit [Link] to order these and other materials.

MATERIALS NOT AVAILABLE FROM MLC

Hamburger Patty Paper
Blank Transparencies Scissors 6" square sheets of translucent
Poster Paper Graphing Calculators waxed tissue like that used between
frozen hamburger patties. About
Tape, Glue, Glue Sticks Compasses 4,000 sheets (four 1,000-sheet
Colored Markers String or Yarn boxes) needed per classroom.

OPTIONAL MATERIALS
ADDITIONAL VISUAL MATHEMATICS BOOKS
Visual Mathematics, Course III Student Activities Book
Visual Mathematics Student Journal
VIDEOS FROM MLC
Math and the Mind’s Eye Video
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MATERIALS AVAILABILITY AS OF NOVEMBER 2016 Math Alive! Visual Mathematics Course III / Appendix–1
 Index

Index
A cylinder 75
parallelogram 59-60
Absolute value 297, 327, 378
prism 71, 73
Acute angle 34, 213, 245 trapezoid 59-60
Addition 163 triangle 60, 218
Adjacent angle 245 Angle
Algebra acute 34, 213, 245
algebraic expressions 110-115, 172 adjacent 245
algebraic formula (algebraic equation) 111-132 alternate exterior 248
algebraic fractions 172-175 alternate interior 248
algebraic thinking 115-118, 124-132, 342-347 arc 34, 56-57, 251
equivalent expressions 95, 109-112, 226-227, 231 bisector 249
pieces 107-132 complementary angles 246
simplifying an expression 129 congruent 142, 213, 245
solving equations 115-118, 124-132 corresponding 142, 248
solving simultaneous equations 114-117, 126-127 exterior 273
variable 107-108 inscribed 271
interior 44, 273
Algebraic expression 110-115, 172 linear pair 245
Algebraic formula 111-132 obtuse 245
Algebraic fractions 172-175 polygon 44
rays 34
Algebraic thinking 115-118, 124-132, 342-347 reflex 34, 249
Algebra pieces remote interior 273
area pieces 107, 281, 371-373, 381, 384 right 213
black counting pieces 110, 324, 371, 373, 381 straight 245
blank counting pieces 108 supplementary 245
blank n-strips 108 vertex 34, 142
counting piece units 107, 281 vertical 142, 246, 248
edge frames 123, 286-292 Angle-side-angle property 259
edge (linear) pieces 107, 112-116, 123, 381, 384
linear units 107 An Introduction to the History of Mathematics 65
n-frames 122-130, 283-285 Arc 34, 56-57, 251, 272
n-strips 107 Area
n 2-mats 107, 289, 384 circle 66-68
opposite collections 121-122 conservation 56
opposite x-frames 315, 371, 373, 381, 384 dimensions 55
red counting pieces 110, 324, 371, 381 geoboard 59
red n-strips 285 hexagon 238
x-frames 315, 373-374, 381, 384 parallelogram 59-60
Algorithms 116 pieces 107
algebraic fractions 172 polygon 59-62, 216-218
decimal operations 171 rectangle 60, 150
fraction operations 170-171, 173-174, 176, 179-180 relationship to length 55
radical expressions 231 sector 69
Alternate exterior angles 248 square 60, 287-288
trapezoid 60
Alternate interior angles 248 triangle 61-62, 218, 234-236
Altitude (height) Area model: See Division and Multiplication area models

Math Alive! Course III / Index–1

Index

Area pieces 107, 281, 371-373, 381, 384 Blank n-strips 108
Area units 55, 76, 216-218, 233-236 Box and whisker plot 403-408, 418
Arithmetic sequence 50% plot 404
common difference 97 90% plot 465-466, 469-470
finite 97 Bulletin boards 26, 47
formula 98
infinite 97
terms 97 C
sequence 97, 109-117 Calculator: See Graphing calculator
series 97 Center of data 409-410
Arrangement number 120, 281-282 Center of rotation 4, 6, 30, 269
Arrangements Central angle 56-57
continuous sequence 314-327, 371
discrete sequence 314, 329, 330 Chance: See Probability
extended sequence 119-132, 281-298, 309-312 Chi-square test 452
nonextended sequence 108-118, 298-300, 309-310 Chord 56-57, 274
Array (rectangular) 112, 114, 116, 123, 286-295 Circle
Assessment arc 56-57, 251
Feedback Sheets 100 area 66-68
Follow-up Assessment Guide 2 center 56, 63
Follow-ups 2, 82, 336, 424 central angle 56-57, 274
journals 82 chord 56-57, 274
portfolio 162 circumference 56-57, 64-66
writing 47 concentric 271
Associative property for multiplication 169 diameter 56-57, 64
disc (circular region) 56
Asymptotes 379 inscribed 67
Average deviation 409-410 point of tangency 67
Axes radius 56-57, 63
horizontal 110, 282 sector 56-57, 69
vertical 110, 282 segment 251
tangent 67, 274
Axis of symmetry (of reflection) 5, 7, 15-16, 31, 233
Circumference 56-57, 64-66

B Circumscribe 67, 274

Coefficient 283, 318
Babylonians 220
Collinear
Bar graph 109-110, 196-197 lines 86, 313
Bases rays 245
cylinder 75 Combinations 439-441
parallelogram 60
prism 70 Common difference 97
triangle 60, 218 Commutative property for multiplication 150
Base ten pieces 165 Comparison concept 163
Biconditional 255 Compass 251
Bilateral symmetry 6 Complementary angles 246
Binomial experiment 191 Completing the square 288, 326, 353-357, 383-384
Bisector Complex fractions 156
angle 249 Complex number system 386
line segment 253
Composite numbers 224
Blank counting pieces 108

Index–2 / Math Alive! Course III

 Index

Composites 32-37, 224

Compound events 429-430
D
Decimal fraction 165
Concentric circles 271 Decimal point 165
Conclusion 222, 247 Decimals
Conditional statement decimal fraction 165
biconditional 255 decimal point 165
conclusion 222-247 models 165
converse 222, 255 nonrepeating 212, 229
hypothesis 222, 247 nonterminating 212, 229
symbols 266 operations 171
Confidence intervals 464-465 place value 165
random 453-454
Congruence
angles 142, 213, 245 Deductive 219-220
corresponding parts 256, 266 Definitions 220
polygons 30, 34 Denominator 156
Congruence properties Diameter 56-57, 64
angle-side-angle 259
side-angle-side 259 Dilation 30
side-side-side 258 Dimension
Conjecture 220, 237 area 55
linear 55, 225
Conservation of area 56 prisms 71-74
Constant function 116, 373 rectangles 71, 224
Constant term 283, 319 rectangular solids 71, 78
triangles 217-218
Continuous
graph 314-327 Directly proportional 360
sequence 314-327, 371 Directrix 272
variables 315 Direct transformation 35-36
Converse 222, 255 Direct variation 359-363
Coordinates 110, 282 Disc 56
Coordinate system 109-110, 282-299 Discontinuous 314, 328-329
horizontal axis 282
origin 282 Discrete sequence 314, 329-330
scaling axes 319, 325 Discrete variables 315
vertical axis 282 Distance formulas 225-226
Corresponding angles 142, 248 Distributive property 169, 176-178
Corresponding parts 256, 266 Division
Counter example 167 area model 137-138, 150-157, 164
Counting pieces 107, 281 fractions 154, 156, 179
grouping 164
Cube sharing 164
surface area 70, 76 whole numbers 137-138, 141-150
volume 70, 76
Division concept (fractions) 137-138, 141-150, 165
Cylinder
altitude (height) 75 Domain of functions 120, 284, 309, 387
base 75 Drawing 251
lateral surface 75
surface area 75
volume 75-76

Math Alive! Course III / Index–3

Index

E Formulas
algebraic 111-132
Edge frames 123, 286-292 area of circle 66-68
Edge pieces 107, 112-116, 123, 381, 384 area of parallelogram 60
Egyptians 220, 223 area of trapezoid 60
area of triangle 61-62
Equal differences 181 circumference of circle 65-66
Equality of fractions 138, 155-156, 166 distance 225-226
Equality properties mid-point 225-226
reflexive 263 nth term of sequence 99
symmetric 264 perimeter 61-62
transitive 183, 264 sum of arithmetic sequence 98
sum of consecutive whole numbers 91-92
Equally likely events 198 surface area 70-77
Equal products 182 volume 70-77
Equal quotients 155, 182 Fractions
Equal sums 180 addition 144, 170-171, 173
algebraic 172-175
Equations area concept 137-138, 150-157
absolute value 297, 327, 378 complex 156
constant value 116, 283 decimal 165
linear 283, 294, 371-376, 415 denominator 156
quadratic 288-289, 323-327, 376-377 division 154, 156, 179
solving 114-118, 124-132, 289-291, 345-357, 373-374, division concept 137-138, 141-150, 165
385 equivalent 138, 155-156, 166
roots 302 multiplication 144, 168-170, 175-176
Equilateral triangle 17, 56, 233-234, 236 models 166-170
Equivalent expressions numerator 156
algebraic 95, 109-112, 226-227, 231 operations 170-176, 179-180
radical 226-227, 231 part-to-whole concept 137-138, 165
ratio concept 137-138, 165
Equivalent fractions 138, 155-156 reciprocal 152, 168
Escher-type tessellations 46 simplest form 156
Euclid’s Elements 220 simplifying 156
subtraction 174
Even number 95, 338
Frames
Experimental probability 192, 460-461 algebra 122-130
Extended sequence 119-132, 281-298, 309-312 symmetry 3-9
Exterior angle 273 Frieze
Extremes 183 glide reflection 39
reflection 39-41
rotation 39-41
F symmetry 38
translation 38-41
Factorial 433
Factoring 301, 323-327 Function
absolute value 297, 327, 378
Factors 224, 301 constant 116, 373
Family of equations 321, 375-378 continuous 314-327
Finite sequence 97 discontinuous 314, 328-329
domain 120, 284, 309, 387
Focus linear 282-283, 294, 371-374
ellipse 272 quadratic 288, 294, 323-327, 376-377
hyperbola 272 range 120, 284, 309, 386-387, 402
parabola 272
Follow-ups 2, 82, 244, 280, 308

Index–4 / Math Alive! Course III

 Index

Fundamental counting principal 429-430

H
G Histogram 404-408
Hexagon 14-15, 18-19, 56, 238
Galois, Evariste 266-267
Hexominoes 28
Geoboard 59
Horizontal axis 110, 282
Geometric construction 251-260, 265-267
Hyperbola 272, 379
Glide reflection 36-43, 48
Hypotenuse 215
Goals of Math Alive! 2, 20-21, 100-101, 162
Hypothesis 222, 247, 402
Graph
absolute value 297, 378, 387
bar 109-110, 196-197
box and whisker plot 403-408, 465-466, 469-470
I
Identity for multiplication 152, 168
continuous 314-327
coordinate 109-110 Image 30-31
discontinuous 314, 328-329 Index set 120
histogram 404-408
Indirect transformation 35-36
inequalities 386-387
linear 282-283, 312-322, 372-376, 383, 386-387, 388-391 Indirect variation: See Inverse variation
line plot 400, 404-408, 465, 469-470 Inductive 219-220
quadratic 292, 294, 323-327, 376-377, 386-387, 392
Inequalities 293-294, 323-327, 386-387
symmetric 292
test for continuity 314 Infinite sequence 97
zeros 302, 371 Infinity symbol 379
Graphing calculator 330-331, 369 Inscribed
advantages and disadvantages 392-393 angle 271
box plots 418 circle 67
calc menu 372-375, 415
polygon 67, 271, 274
catalog 454
Integers
Clrlist 455
models 165
draw 369
negative 111, 119, 314
format 369
operations 168-170
graph 372-374, 315, 455
opposite 111
intersect function 372, 374, 380-381, 385
positive 111, 119, 314
maximum-minimum 373
math menu 372, 374, 378 Intercepted arcs 272
“mean” function 457 Interior angle 44, 273
prb menu 433
Interquartile range 409
random number function 453-459
solver function 372, 374, 380-381, 385 Inverse for multiplication 168
stat plot 415, 418
Inverse (indirect) variation 358-363, 379
sto→ (store command) 455, 457
Inversely proportional 360, 379
“sum” function 457
table 374, 380-381 Irrational number 65, 212, 229, 314, 383
trace 372-375, 380-385, 389-391, 455
Isometry 30-38, 42
value function 372-373, 375
Isosceles
window 373-375, 416
trapezoid 274
“Y =” function 374, 386, 416
triangle 17, 56, 250
zero function 372
zoom 372-375, 380-385, 389-391

Greeks 220, 251, 266 J

Grouping (division) 164 Journals 26, 82, 100, 146, 157

Math Alive! Course III / Index–5

Index

K Math Alive! Course IV 194, 271, 273, 288, 301, 314, 323,
354, 361, 376, 379, 385, 386, 387, 411, 414
Kite 273
Math Alive! Goals 2, 20-21, 100-101, 162

L Mathematical system 219-220

definitions 220
Lateral faces 70 postulates 220
Law of Large Numbers 468 theorems 219-220
undefined terms 220
Length: See Linear units
Mean 193, 352, 400-401, 409
Line of best fit 411-412, 414
Means-extremes property 183
Line (axis) of symmetry 5, 7, 15-16, 31, 233
Median 193, 400-401, 409
Line plot 400, 404-408, 465, 469-470
Median fit line 412-416
Line segment 86-87, 141-148
length 213 Median point 413
midpoint 225, 248 Measurement
midsegment 274-275 angle 34
perpendicular bisector 248, 253 area 55, 76
Linear equation 283, 294, 371-376, 415 length 55, 107
coefficient 283 perimeter 55, 61-62
constant term 283 surface area 70-77
graph 282-283, 312-322, 372-376, 383, 386-387, 388-391 unit: See Unit of measure
slope 318-323, 371-372, 375-376, 415 volume 70, 76
slope-intercept form 320, 377 Mental computation strategies
solving 114-118, 124-132, 317-323, 373-374 equal differences 181
standard form 323, 377 equal products 182
x-intercept 319, 371-372 equal quotients 182
y-intercept 319, 371-372, 415 equal sums 180
Linear pair of angles 245 Middle quartile (median) 403
Linear pieces: See Edge (linear) pieces 107 Midpoint 225, 248
Linear units 55, 211-213, 216-218, 224, 233-236, 320 Midpoint formulas 225-226
Lines Midsegment 274-275
collinear 86, 313 Minimal collection 110
parallel 141-143, 247-248
perpendicular 247, 266 Minus sign 111
family 321 Mirror image 31
Locus 270-272 Mixed number 165
Lower quartile 403 Mixture problems 350-352
Mode 193, 400-401, 409
M Monty’s Dilemma 201-205
Magnitude 30-31 Multiple 223
Maneuvers on rectangles 153-156 Multiplication
Math Alive! Course I 5-6, 96, 112, 137, 163, 180, 184, 192, area model 150, 164
216, 223, 245, 301 commutative property 150
fractions 144
Math Alive! Course II 28, 30, 56, 61-62, 70, 94-96, 106-109, properties of zero 151
112-115, 117, 120, 137, 153, 155, 163, 165, 167, 180, 184, repeated addition 144, 148, 153, 164
192, 211, 214, 216, 223, 245, 338, 339, 358, 359, 400, 402,
410, 451 Multiplicative identity 152
Multiplicative inverse 152

Index–6 / Math Alive! Course III

 Index

Opposite collections 121-122

N Opposite net value 121-122
Natural numbers 314
Opposite rays 245
NCTM Standards (quotes) 2, 26, 54, 106, 136, 162, 190,
Opposite x-frames 315, 371, 373, 381, 384
210, 244, 280, 308, 336, 368, 398, 424, 450
Opposites 111
Negative integers 111, 119, 314
Ordered pair 110
Negative signs 111
Order of operations 112
Net value 117
Order of symmetry 6-7, 15-20
n-frames 122-130, 283-285
Orientation 36
n2-mats 107, 289, 384
Origin
n-strips 107
coordinate system 282
Nonextended sequence 108-118, 298-300, 309-310 rays 245
Nonrepeating decimal 212, 229 Outlier 193, 409
Nonterminating decimal 212, 229
Number properties 113, 150
associative for multiplication 169
P
Parabola 272, 323-327, 376-377
distributive 169, 176-178
directrix 272
identity for multiplication 152, 168
focus 272
inverse for multiplication 168
vertex 376-377
Numbers
Parallelepiped 70-72
complex 386
composite 224 Parallel lines 141-143, 247-248
even 95, 338 alternate exterior angles 248
fractions 137-157 alternate interior angles 248
integers 111, 119, 314 corresponding angles 248
irrational 65, 212, 229, 314, 383 equations 376, 382-383
mixed 165 transversal 248
natural 314 Parallelogram 56-60, 275, 342
negative 111, 119
Part-to-whole concept 137-138, 165
odd 96, 338
positive 111, 119 Pascal’s triangle 194
prime 224 Pentagon 56
rational 314
Pentominoes 28
real 314
signed 111 Percent 165, 184
whole 314 Perfect square 214, 338
Numerator 156 Perimeter 55, 61-62, 217-218, 341-343
Permutations 432-436, 439
O Perpendicular bisector 248, 253
Oblique Perpendicular lines 247, 266
prism 72-74, 76-77
Pi
triangle 221
approximations 65
Obtuse angle 245 area of circle 66-68
Odd number 96, 338 circumference of circle 64
early values 65
One-to-one correspondence 30, 314
mnemonics 65
One variable data 411, 419
Place value
Operations 113, 163, 168-176, 179-180 decimals 165
whole numbers 165

Math Alive! Course III / Index–7

Index

Plane 42 probability trees 441-445

Plus sign 111 sample size 197
selection without replacement 455, 467
Point of tangency 67 simple event 430
Polyhedron simulation 202-206, 459-474
nets 72 theoretical 192, 195-199, 204-206, 461-462
surface area 70 trial 191, 459
volume 70 unequally likely events 198
Polygon Probability rectangles 441-445
angles 44 Probability trees 441-445
area 59-62, 216-218
circumscribed 67 Problem situations
congruence 30, 34 algebra 127, 129, 133-134
hexagon 14-15, 18-19, 56, 238 circles 65-66, 69, 79-80
inscribed 67, 271, 274 fractions 139, 147, 149, 160
parallelogram 56-60, 275, 342 odd and even numbers 96
pentagon 56 scale factors 78-80
perimeter 61-62 sequences 97-98
quadrilateral 16, 45, 56, 251 surface area 77-78
rectangle 60 symmetry 13, 18, 23-24
regular 23, 44 transformations 37
rhombus 56, 275 volume 77-78
square 60 Proportional
symmetry 11-20 directly 360
trapezoid 56, 50-60 inversely 360, 379
triangle 17, 45, 56, 59, 61-62 Proportions
Portfolio 162 extremes 183
Positive integers 111, 119, 314 means 183
means-extremes property 183
Postulates 220
Pythagorean theorem 214, 219-220, 222-223
Preimage 30
Pythagorean triples 223-224
Prime number 224
Pythagorus 214
Primitive Pythagorean triple 223
Prism
altitude 71, 73 Q
base 70 Quadratic equations
oblique 72-74, 76-77 factoring 301, 323-327
rectangular 70 graphing 292, 294, 323-327, 376-377, 386-387, 392
right 70 solving 285-292, 323-327, 354-356, 376-377
surface area 71-74, 77 Quadrilateral 16, 45, 56, 251
trapezoid 74
triangular 72 Quartiles 403, 409
volume 72-77 Quotient 155
Probability
binomial experiment 191
combinations 439-441
R
compound events 429-430 Radicals
equally likely events 198 equivalent expressions 226-227, 231
experimental 192, 460-461 radicand 229
Law of Large Numbers 468 rationalizing the denominator 233
outlier 193, 409 simplest form 229, 231
permutations 432-436, 439 simplified expression 228-229, 231
probability rectangles 441-445 Radicand 229

Index–8 / Math Alive! Course III

 Index

Radius 56-57, 63 Sample size 197

Random Scale factor
decimals 453-454 enlargements 76, 78, 274-275
digits 451-452 reductions 76, 78
Randomness 451 Scalene triangle 17, 56
Range of functions 120, 284, 309, 386-387, 402 Scaling axes 319, 325
Ratio 137-138 Scatter plot 410-416
Rationalizing the denominator 233 Sector 56-57, 69
Rational numbers 314 Segment 251
Rays Selection without replacement 455, 467
collinear 245 Sequence
opposite 245 arithmetic 97, 109-117
vertex 245 arrangement number (index) 120
Real numbers 314 continuous 314-327
Reasoning discrete 314, 329-330
deductive 219-220 extended 119-132, 281-298, 309-312
inductive 219-220 finite 97
index set 120
Reciprocal 152, 168 infinite 97
Rectangle 60, 302, 342-343 nonextended 108-118, 298-300, 309-310
Rectangle diagram 425-428 Series 97
Rectangular array 112, 114, 116, 123, 286-295 Sharing (division) 164
Rectangular prism 70 Side-angle-side property 259
Rectangular solid 71, 78 Side-side-side property 258
Red counting pieces 110, 324, 371, 381 Similar
Red n-strips 285 rectangles 275
triangles 274
Reflection 4, 30-37, 268, 377
glide 36-43, 48 Simple event 430
symmetry 5-9, 11-20, 28, 42-44, 47 Simplest form 156
Reflexive property for equality 263 Simplified expression 228-229, 231
Reflex angle 34, 249 Simplifying fractions 156
Regular polygon 23, 44 Simulation 202-206, 459-474
Relatively prime 156, 224 Sketch 251
Remote interior 273 Slope 318-323, 371-372, 375-376, 415
Rhombus 56, 275 Slope-intercept form 320, 377
Right angle 213 Solving by substitution 385
Right prism 70 Solving equations 124-132
Right triangle 56, 215 linear 114-118, 124-132, 317-323, 373-374
quadratic 285-292, 323-327, 354-356, 376-377
Roots of an equation 302
Solving simultaneous equations 114-117, 126-127, 293-
Rotation 3-4, 30-37, 268 299, 323-327, 380-386, 388-391
Rotation symmetry 6-9, 11-20, 28, 42-44, 47 Solving simultaneous inequalities 386-387
Rotation vector 31 Sphere 63
Spread 409
S Square 60
area 287-288

Math Alive! Course III / Index–9

Index

edges 287-288 Symmetrical 5, 10, 42

value 211-212, 287-288 Symmetric property of equality 264
Square root Symmetry
history 212 axis (line) of symmetry (of reflection) 5, 7, 15-16, 31,
negative 211 233
positive (principal) 211 bilateral symmetry 6
properties 231-232 center of rotation 4, 6, 30, 269
Square units: See Area units frame 3-9
Staircase model 89-99, 111-112 graphs 292
hexagons 14-15, 18-19
Standard form 323, 377 order 6-7, 15-20
Starting Points 2, 18, 20, 26, 47, 97, 100, 303, 336, 419 polygons 11-20
Statistics quadrilaterals 16
average deviation 409-410 reflection 5-9, 11-20, 28, 42-44, 47
box and whisker plot 403-408, 418 rotational 6-9, 11-20, 28, 42-44, 47
center 409-410 triangles 17
Chi-square test 452 Systems of equations 114-117, 126-127, 293-299, 380-386
confidence intervals 464-465
interquartile range 409
line of best fit 411-412, 414 T
line plot 400, 404-408, 465, 469-470 Take-away concept 163
mean 193, 352, 400-401, 409 Tangent 67, 274
median 193, 400-401, 409 Tessellation
median fit line 412-416 Escher-type 46
median point 413 glide reflection 43, 48
mode 193, 400-401, 409 isometry 42
one variable data 411, 419 quadrilaterals 45
outlier 193, 409 reflection symmetry 42-44, 47
quartiles 403, 409 rotation symmetry 42-44, 47
random decimals 453-454 symmetrical 42
random digits 451-452 translational symmetry 43-44, 46
scatter plot 410-416 Tetromino 27
simulation 202-206, 459-474 Theorems 219-220
spread 409
stem and leaf plot 399-401, 404-408 Theoretical probability 192, 195-199, 204-206, 461-462
two variable data 411, 419 Transformation
variability 409 composites 32-37
Stem and leaf plot 399-401, 404-408 direct 35-36
glide reflection 36-43, 48
Straight angle 245 image 30-31
Straight edge 251 indirect 35-36
Strip pattern: See Frieze isometry 30-38
magnitude 30-31
Subtraction one-to-one correspondence 30
comparison concept 163 orientation 36
take-away concept 163 preimage 30
whole numbers 111 reflection 4, 30-37, 268
Subsets 314 rotation 3-4, 30-37, 268
Supplementary angle 245 rotation vector 31
translation 30, 32-37, 268
Surface area translation vector 30
cube 70, 76
cylinder 75 Transitive property of equality 183, 264
polyhedron 70 Translation 30, 32-37, 268
prism 71-74, 77 Translational symmetry 43-44, 46

Index–10 / Math Alive! Course III

 Index

Translation vector 30 angle 34, 142

Transversal 248 parabola 376-377
triangle 60
Trapezoid 56, 50-60
isosceles 274 Vertical angle 142, 246, 248
nonisosceles 274 Vertical axis 110, 282
Tree diagram 425-429 Vertical line test 316
Trial 191, 459 Visual proofs 59-61, 80, 167-170, 174-183, 219-220, 226,
Triangle 231-232, 265-267, 338-339
altitude 60, 218 Volume
area 61-62, 218, 234-236 cube 70, 76
base 60, 218 cylinder 75-76
equilateral 17, 56, 233-234, 236 oblique prism 73-74, 76-77
isosceles 17, 56, 250 parallelepiped 70-72
legs 61 polyhedron 70
nonequilateral 56 prism 72-77
nonisosceles 56
oblique 221 Volume units 70, 76
perimeter 217-218
right 56, 215
scalene 17, 56
W
similar 274 Whiskers 403, 407, 409
symmetry 17 Whole numbers 314
vertex 60 division 137-138, 141-150
Triangle inequality 221 even number 95
odd number 96
Triangular prism 72 place value 165
Two variable data 411, 419 subtraction 111

U X
Undefined terms 220 x-frames 315, 373-374, 381, 384
Unequally likely events 198 x-intercept 319, 371-372
Unit of measure
angles 34
area 55, 76, 287
Y
length 55, 107, 287 y-intercept 319, 371-372, 415
surface area 70-77
volume 70, 76 Z
Upper quartile 403 Zero, properties of 151
Zeros of a graph (equation) 302, 371
V
Value
edges 211, 302, 320
rectangle 117, 302
square 211-212, 287-288
Variability 409
Variables 107-108, 341
continuous 315
discrete 315
Venn diagram 314
Vertex

Math Alive! Course III / Index–11