1 Basic Ppq"iples, Concepts

I and Definitions

Thermodynamics is that branch of the physical sciences

that treats of various phenomena of energ-Jr and the related
properties ofmatter, especially of the laws of transformation of
heat into other forrns of energy and vice versa.

Systems of Units
Newton's law states that 'the aceeleration of a particular
body is directly proportional to the resultantforce acting on it
and inversely proportional to its mass.o

hE, F= D8, k =+F

"- m k
k is a proportionality constant

Systenns of units where k is unity but not dimensionless:

cgs system: I dyne forcre accelerates 1 g mass at
1 cm,/s2
mks system: 1 newton force accelerates I kg mass at
I m./sz
fps system: 1 lb force accelerates 1 slug mass at l Nsz

l--t;]*ldyne I t -* i*l newton [T,,'*-l-'r,0"

/777r/7mrV /7furm,h n77v77v?rrvr
1 cm./s2 _+ 1m/s2 1&,/sz

t=r,4'cm-
-cyne.s" o=t#;p k=rw
Systems of units where k is not unity:
47

If the same word is used for both mass and force in a given
system, k is neither unity nor dimensionless.
r=f,a
1 Ib force acceierates a I lb mass at 32.L74 fVs2
1 g force accelerates a I g mass at 980.66 cm/s2 1 poundal = (1 lb_) (1 fVs2)
L kg force accelerates a 1 kg mass at 9.8066 m/s2 F is force in poundals
tr mass in pounds
,0, l- t ,. l-. u #
f-.,.-f* , t [-t u*. f-, nr'
a is acceleration in ftls2
d7mzm'V /72zv7m77 /7V7v77v77v7
32.L74 fVsz----+ 980.66 cm"/s2 -------> 9.8066 mlsz --'-+
[T**
l*
/7V7V7mV ',0,
k= [Link] k = e80.66-*F k = e.80668#
L fVs2 --------+

Relation between kilogram force (kgr) and Newton (N) m

.U =r-8.
l(
ks .m
k=1k# k = e.8066
Ets" 1 pound = (1 slug) (1 fvsz); 1 slug = 1 lb"
-lr-
s2

F is force in pounds
Therefore, t
k# = e.8066
H# S
K
is -ass in slugs
1kg"= 9.8066 N a is acceleration in fl;/s2

Relation between pound psss (lb-) and slug Mass and lVeight

k=1# k= 32.r74ffi
The mass of a body is the absolute quantity of matter in it.
The weight o,f a body means the force of gravity F, on the
lrody.

Therefore, t*5& = 82.r74ffi

mFF"
L slug = 32.L74Lb
k =t=g-
where g = acceleration produced by force F*
Acceleration a = acceleration produced by another force F

A unit of force is one that produces unit acceleration in a AL or near the surface of the earth, k and g are numerically
body of unit mass. ,.r1rr:rl, so are m and F-
I poundal
I
I

:.._l
I
fvs2 --)
E
1(
Problcms:
l.Whatistheweightofa66-kg-manatstandardcondi- lb .ft
--'l- J
K s
S'= I,l ls-P- 0.4e [Link]+se.o#-l
tion?

Solution
=l
Bo.b+ 'L ^"J
= 222.26 g,,,

m=66k9- I = 9.8066 m/s2

F"ok [Link]' t*tfufl
mo=-?-= = 1435.49 g-
Bosg_.- F "f*J
? = (o ro,r"er rtrJ = 1459.41 g,"
[Link]- U|nu-r
2. The weight of an object is 50 lb. What is its mass at Total mass = mr + m2 + na + m4 + m5
standard condition? = 500 + 843.91 +222.26 + 1435.49 + 1459.41
= 446t.07 g^
Solution
(b) Total mass = 446L.0J g^
F, = 5o lbr g= 32.L74ftlsz = [Link] lb-
453.6
ils
r rb!rf- [Link]
Fo fztz+14s'j 9'83 ]!-o'
FK (t') Total mass - = 0.306 slug
* =d-= So lb_
32.174;ifis
32.L74 ft
P
4. Note that the gravity acceleration at equatorial sea level
[Link] rr s = 32.088 fpsz and that its variation is - 0.003 fps2 per 1000
grr"itv i. 30. 5 fVs2 are as follo**t m, is- 500 g of masq rq, y^eighs l't, :rscent. Find the height in miles above this point for which
(a)
[oo eim, weighs 15 poundals; mo [Link] mu is 0'10 slug llr:, gravity acceleration becomes 30.504 fps2, (b) the weight of
;i *]',r. trnuf iu theiotal mass expressed (a) in grams, 16) in ,r lsivcn man is decreased by \Vo. (c) What is the weight of a 180
pounds, and (c) in slugs. I I r,,, rn an atop the 29,131-ft, Mt. Everest in Tibet, relative to this

por rr L'?
Solu,tion

in/ft) (2.54 cm/in) = 929'64 cmls2 ,\til tr tion

g = (30.5 fVsz) (12
(;r ) change in acceleration = 30.504 - 32.088 = * 1.584 fps2

F't [[Link] g; p:; = 528,000 ft or

llcight, h = - I lP* fps' 100 miles
(a) mz = = = 843.91
- -T0008
0.003
e2e.64 +
4
+T
(b) F = 0.9b Fg Let Fg = weight of the man at sea level Specifrc Volume, Density and Specifrc Weight
-t .a
FF- The density p of any substance is its mass (not weight) per
-ag
____q
= unit volume.
I

h 0.95 F" F"

I
a =g rv
rl=D

a = 0.959 = (0.95) (32.088) = 30.484 fps2

The specific volume v is the volume of a unit mass.
-L 'Fg V1
g = 32.088 fps2 lt
----
mp
(30.484 - 32'088) fps'z= b34,6z0 ft or tOt.B miles
" --
t.,
_ [Link];r The specificweightTof any substance is the force of gravity
-Tmorr on unit volume.

(c)
a
F
,vF
g= 8

Since the specific weight is to the local acceleration of

gravity as the density is to the standard acceleration,Tlg= pk,
29.1.31 ft
conversion is easily made;

Tk orY ='fr
P='g os
r_.6 F8
g = 32.088 fps2
At or near the surface of the earth, k and g are numerically
m = 1801b- r-
Ito
-1
1"1 {}l cqual, so are p and y
a = 32.088 fps' fpsz] = 32'001 fpsz
-
fTdriil [0'003 Problems

ma
tlso lb-l [Link]&l r _^ ^^ lbr
,,
1. What is the specific weight of,water at standard condi.
o =T-= #=179.03 tion?
32.174F"1T"
Stilution
kg_
g = 9.8066 m/sz P = 1000 n5.

*_pg
I- E-- [*,SE**d = looo mo
kgF
e.8066ffi#
ry
2. Two Iiquids of different densities (p, = 1500 kg/m3,Pzi^ Pressure
500 kg/m3) are poured together into a 100-L tank, frlling it' If
the resulting density of the mixture is 800 kg/mt, frnd the The standard reference atmospheric pressure is 760 mm
respective quantities of liquids used. Also, find the weight of Hg or 29.92 in. Hg at 32"F, or 1"4.696 psia, or 1 atm.
the mixture; Iocal g = 9.675 mps2.
Measuring Pressure
Solution
1. By using manometers
mass of mixture, mm = pmvm = (800 kg/m3) (0'100 m3) = 80 kg I

(a) Absolute pressure is greater than atmospheric pres-

mt+m2=mm sure.
po
PrVt+PrV,=D- p = absolute pressure
I

1500 Vr + 500 q = 80 (r)

D Po = atmospheric pressure
'lt p" = gage pressure, the pres-
V, + V, = 0'100 Q) I ' sure due to the liquid
column h
solving equations (1) and (2) simultaneously p = Po+Pg
Vt = 0'03 mg
(b) Absolute pressure is less than atmospheric pressure
Ve = 0'07 m3

m, = P,Vr = (1500 kg/m3) (0.03 m3) = 45kg P=Po-P,

mr= prY2= (500 kglm3) (0.07 m3) = 35 kg The gage reading is called
vacuum pressum or the vacuum.
weight of mixture,

re-=x"=@ =?[Link] I ll"y using pressure gages

e.8066*#
A Jrrt:ssure gage is a device for
rilr,,1||llr rt ng gage pressure,
'l'lrin picture shows the
rrr,[Link](.1)t, in one type ofpres-
!, I r r . l::ll{(', k nown as the single-
I rr lrr. 'l'hc f'luid enters the
p1i r13..
lnlrr, llrrrrrrglr t,lrc thrcnded
,
',,rur.r'lrorr. A$ [Link] prOssur:e Fig. 1 Pressure Gage

I
ry_
increases, the tube with an elliptical section tends to straighten, Solution
the end that is nearest the linkage toward the right. The link-
age causes the sector to rotate. The sector engages a small
pinion gear. The index hand moves with the pinion gear. The
whole mechanism is of course enclosed in a case, and a gpadu- pr=*#= FuuS
', kg-'4
["*S (30 m)
ated dial, from which the pressure is read, and is placed under ' [Link]
the index hand.
= b48,680 N/mz or b43.6g pps(gage)
(p=po+p")
+Pt Atmospheric Pressure

A barometer is used to measure atmospheric pressure.

,=O,P=Po)
-P, V

Absolutet Pressure (p=p"-pr)

(p=0,Pr=P")

Gage Pressure

po P=Po+Pg
I
--T---
ps
_ F" 1V yAh-
Pr=*-A-=:6l P.=Y\
Where ho = the height of column of liquid supportedby atmos-
P, = Tb, =ry'=* pheric pressure {

l)roblems
Problem
1. A vertical column of water will be supported to what
lrcight by standard atmospheric pressure.
A 30-m vertical column of fluid (density 1878 kg/ms) is
located where g = 9.65 mps2. Find the pressure at the base of the
column.

IO
 Absolute Pressure
Solution
P=Th
At standard condition
yh"-* h = ho * hr, the height of column of liquid supported
-by absolute
\* = 62'4lblfts Po = 14'7 Psi pressure p.
If the liquid used in the barometer is mercury, the atmos-
T ..-rr ;-l
lu.z *l lt++'#l
,t'= p,, - L----:n!-!_--!t"! = 33.9 ft
pheric pressure beconoes,

t; 62.4Y
-'- ft3 P" = THshs = (sp S)H, (T*) (h")

[Link]
Thespecificgravity(*pg')ofasubstanceistheratioofthe Fz.+ H rL'" i',1
spccifrc weight of the substance to that of water'
1728H
^{
sps=T
po = 0.491 h" l4
is 9.5 kg/cm2. The}arometric
2, The pressure of a boiler
pressure of the atmosphere is 768mm of Hg. Find the absolute where ho = column of mercury in inches
p".*r,r"* in the boiler. (ME Board Problem - Oct' 1987)
then, ps = 0.491 n-
Solution h
Pg = 9'5 kg/cm3 ho = 768 mm Hg and, p =0.491 hP-=
ln."
At standard condition
l)roblems
T* = 1000 kdmt
l. A pressure gage regrsters 40 psig in a region where the
po = (ynr) (h") = (sp gr) nr(T*) (h") l,irrometer is 14.5 psia. Find the absolute pressure in psia, and
'rr kPa.
(13.6)
Fooo S to.?68 m)
_ 1.04 kg
Srilution
10.000
'm'
c!* cm-E

p = 14.5 + 40 = 54.5 psia

= po * p, = 1.04 + 9.5 = 10.54# t-t k-+'r newton [ , "[-ft, ,0,

/Tnvrnh /vTTvvmmiV
a= I m./sz a=1fUs2

l2
1T-
-t- Solution
E KgJ P.
lkgn = = 0.06853 slug (a)p = Po * Ps = 14.7 + 80 = 94.7 Psia

Pr=
ao Ps]L = S.A4atmospheres
1+ r,. t7 Psla
I':t. | --:-
= FS][tr'fl =8.28$ af,m

F,lbf
h = 9.92 in. Hg abs
a = 3.28 Nsz in.
lrg = 2o
P = 0.491 h
h"= [Link]".
t = ff = (0.06863 slug)
[.za {l=
[Link] tb, llth' -1f- p
=
(0.491) (9.92) = 4.87 psia
$.. J

1 newton = 0.2248Ib"
p8 = 4.7 psi vacuum
1.1b" = 4.4484 newtons
ps = (4.7 esi)
r o"_l
(1rb)
rl4
ln' =
F**H [Link];] l:8e5;-s!
ln- P = 10 psia =32,407 Ps(gage)

114= osgs\
mo
(rl)
h = 29.92 + 15 = 44.92 in. Hg abs
h =15in.
= 375,780 Pa or 375.78 kPa

P, = 0'491 h,
[Link] the barometric pressure of L4.7 psia (2g.g2 in. Hg
abs), make these conversions:
(a) 80 psig to psia and to atmosphere, =[r"H F"!F*'H
(b) 20 in. Hg vacuum to in. Hg abg and to psia,
(c) 10 psia to psi vacuum and to Pa, = 50,780 Pa(gage)
(d) 15 in. Hg gage to psia, to torrs, and to pa.
(1 atmosphere = 760 torrs)

t4 15
.lF
I'empcraturc
It follows that,
1. Derive th. r.l:rtion between degrees Fahrenheit and de-
grees Centigrndo. (FlE Board euestion) 1Fo=1Po

100"c and
T212.F T lc.-1K"
tl
*uu *r". 2. Show that the specific heat ofa substance in Btu/(lb) (F")
1 ,r"" I0". is numerically equal to caV(g)(C").

Solution
t.F -32 _.= t"C-0
212 - n lbb: o

I r Btu
toF = t"C + 32 (lb) (r")
o

5( t.F Btu - cal

toC =
I - 32) -Ir-IEXD =IG'(E
, Absolute temperature is the temperature measured from
absolute zero. . Conservation of Mass
Absolute zero temperature is the temperature at which all 'l'lr. law of conservation of mass
molecular motion ceases. states rhat mass is inde-
,tr [Link].e.
Absolute temperature will be denoted by T, thus 'l'lr,r. rluantity of fluid passing through a given section
is
,'r\ r'n t)y fne lOfmUla
TbR = t.F + 460, degtees Rankine
TK=t"C+z71,Kelvin
V=Au
Degrees Fahrenheit ("F) and degrees Centigrade ("C)
indi-
cate temperature reading (t). Fahrenheit degrees
iFJ) and -: VAu =Aup
III = i__
Centigrade degress (C") indicate tempertu"" or differ-
v v-
ence (At). "h"ogu
Wltcrc V = volume flow rate
180 Fb = 100 C"
A = cross sectional area ofthe stream
1p"-5g"
9
l) :, ilvcrage Speed
1 C. =!-1l,"
o rir ,., m:rss llow rutc
16
t7
F7--- \t
I
Applying the law of consewation of mass'
I
-- \- =-n;
=' *T-
4=ff =Erf,El a,E4zftz I
T
ArDrpr = \rtrPz tank is receiv-
2. A 10-ft diameter by 15-ft height vertical I
ing water (p = 62.1 lb/cu ft) at the rate of 300 gpm and is I
discharging through a 6-in ID line with a constant speed of 5 I
Problems

1.
as a
-
Two gaseous stre?ms enter a combining tube and leave
single mi*trrr". These data apply at the entrance section:
-fot
:j:rlil"ffJrr;,'frh'iisfilTil;1lo' I
6rr" gur, A'r= 75 in,z, o, = 590 fps,-vt] 10 ft3llb
For the other gas, A, = 59^i1''.:T, = 16'67 }b/s
P" = 0.12lb/ftg
At exit, u.. j 350 fPs, v, = 7 ftaAb'
Find (a) the speed u, at section 2, i- 'd
ft) the flow anii area at the exit section' I

Solution
rs,
f___ _ _]= t__
\
I l=:-:_-_*--l -l-,
I F'--=- -:-1J tiu'

e""" =-f, (10)2 = 78.54 ftz

tu'",=il'i,=ffi =4oorps
r\lirrur lr,,w rate enreri", =
[ffi] [rr
r
fi = z4so.\
(b)
. Aru,
-[.'9!d=2604+
--------r6Tt3- r\t,r'* tuwrateleavins=Aup=
mr = --vr =
? Bd'[Link]*J F +
ib

rh, = rh, + rh, = 26.04+ 16'6? = 42'?1+ = ru* S*

18
Mass change = (3658 - 2490.6) (15) = 17,511 lb (decreased) Review Problems
volume ch^nge = 17'51-l:-!b
= 282 ft' 1.
What is the mass in grams and the weight in dynes and
62.1# in gram-force of 12 oz of salt? Local gis 9.65 m/s2 1 lb- = 16 oz.
Ans. 340.2 g-;328,300 dynes; 334.8 g,

= = 3'59 ft 2. A mass of 0"10 slug in space is subjected to an external

Decrcased in height ffi# vertical force of4 lb. Ifthe local gravity acceleration is g = 30.5
fps2 andiffriction effects are neglected, determine the accelera-
Water level after 15 min. = 7.5 - 3'59 = 3'91 ft tion of the mass if the external vertical force is acting (a)
upward and (b) downward
Ans. (a) 9.5 fps2; (b) 70.5 fps'?

[Link] mass of a given airplane at sea level (g = 32.1 fps2)

is 10 tons. Find its mass in lb, slugs, and kg and its (gravita-
[Link]) weight in lb when it is travelling at a 50,000-ft elevation.
'l'he acceleration of gravity g decreases by 3.33 x 10-6 fpsz for
r,rrch foot of elevation.
Ans. 20,0001b-; 627.62 slugs; 19,850lbr

4. A lunar excursion module (LEM) weights 150[r kg, on

[Link] where g = 9.75 mps2. What will be its weight on the
rrrrrface of the moon where B. = 1.70 mpsz. On the surface of the
,noon, what will be the force in kg, and in newtons required to
',,'ttlerate the module at 10 mps2?
Ans. 261.5 kg; 1538.5 kgr; 15,087 N

systenis 0.311 slug, its density is 30

,l-r. The mass of a fluid
and g is 31.90 fpsz. Find (a) the specific volume, (b) the
ll,/l'1,:r
(c) the total volume.
"1,,'r'ific weight, and
Ans. (a) 0.0333 ft3Ab; (b) 29.75 lb/ft3; (c) 0.3335 ft3

{;. A cylindrical drum (2-ft diameter, 3-ft height) is filled

*'rllr :r tluid whose density is 40lb/ft3. Determine (a) the total
,,,lrrrno of fluid, (b) its total mass in pounds and slugs, (c) its
,'1r'r'rlit: volume, and(d) its specific weight where g = 31.90 fps2.
Ans. (a) 9.43 ft'; (b) 377.21b; 11.72 slugs; (c) 0.025 ft3l
lb; (d) 39.661b/ft3.
'i A wuathcrman carried an aneroid barometer from the
! r "t, ir l llrxrr to tris ofl'icc atop the Sears Towcr in Chicago. On

20 2l
the ground level, the barometer read 30.150 in. F,Ig absolute;
topside it read 28.607 in. Hg absolute. Assume that the average
atmosphdric air density was 0.075 lb/ft3 and estimate the
height of the building.
Ans. 1455 ft Consenration of Energy
8. A vacuum gauge mounted on a condenser reads 0.66 m
[Link] is the absolute pressure in the condenser in kPa when
the atmospheric pressure is 101.3 kPa?
Ans. 13.28 kPa
Gravitational Potential Energy (P)
9. Convert the following readings of pressure to kPa abso-
lute, assuming that the barometer reads 760 mm ltrg: (a) 90 cm The gravitational potential energ:y of a body is its energy
Hg gage; (b) 40 cm Hgvacuum; (c) 100 psiS; (d) 8 in. Hg vpcuum, due to its position or elevation.
and (e) 76 in. Hg gage.
Ans. (a) 221..24 kPa; (b) 48 kPa; (c) ?90.83 kPa; (d) p=Fsz=ry
74.219 kPa; (e) 358.591 kPa

10. A fluid moves in a steady flow manner between two P, =

sections in a flow line. At section 1:A, =10 fLz,Dr= 100 fpm, v,
AP
=
P, - ff@r- zr)
= 4 ft3/lb. At section 2: Ar- 2ft2, pz = 0.201b/f13. Calculate (a)
the mass flow'rate and (b) the speed at section 2. AP = change in potential energy
Ans. (a) 15,000lb/h; (b) 10.42 fps
[Link]
11. If a pump discharges 75 gpm of water whose specifrc
weiglit is 61.5 lb/ft3 (g = 31.95 fpsz), frnd (a) the mass flow rate
in lb/min, and (b) and total time required to fill a vertical Kinetic EnergT (K)
cylinder tank 10 ft, in diameter and 12 ft high.
Ans. (a) 621.2lblmin, (b) 93.97 min The energy or stored capacity for performing work pos'
Hrls$ed by a moving body, by virtue of its momentum is called
kinetic energy.

K=#
nK=4-K,=fttoi-ui)
AK = change in kinetic energy

23
22