Social networking sites and addiction 10 lesson lessons learned By Daria J.
Kuss and Mark D. Griffiths:
Social networking sites usage:
Facebook was launched in 2004 and 2016. It became the most popular social networking site
with 1712 million users, increasing 17 to 20% annually. Instagram was launched in 2010 with
500 million users in 2016.
Snapchat was launched in 2011 with 200 million users in 2010. In the USA, 13- to 24-year-old
people used 72% Snapchat ,68% Facebook ,66% Instagram.
Messaging apps like WhatsApp and Facebook head 1000million users. Twitter micro blogging
app like a personal diary in 2016 had 313 million users.
[5,11,15,13]
Social media is used as a way of being:
Social media is used as a way of being. It is driven by motivation and is used for gratification
purposes, for searching for information and for entertainment. It is
also relative to Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory for safety, association, and self-realization.
Interestingly, recent research has demonstrated that sharing information on social media
increases life satisfaction and loneliness for younger adult users, whereas the opposite was true
for older adult users [35].
Being online is viewed as safer than roaming the streets and parents often assume using
technology in the home is normal and healthy, as stated by a psychotherapist treating adolescents
presenting with the problem of Internet addiction: “Use of digital media is the culture of the
household and kids are growing up that way more and more” [34]
SNS addiction:
Addiction causes symptoms like salience, mood modification, tolerance, withdrawal, and
conflict with regards to behavioral addiction. The social skill model suggests that individuals use
SNSs excessively as a consequence of low self-presentation skills and preference for online
social interaction over face-to-face communication, resulting in addictive SNS use [51]. With
respect to the socio-cognitive model, excessive social networking develops as a consequence
of positive outcome expectations, Internet self-efficacy, and limited Internet self-regulation,
leading to addictive SNS use [51]. It has furthermore been suggested that SNS use may become
problematic when individuals use it in order to cope with everyday problems and stressors,
including loneliness and depression [52].
Fear of missing out FOMO as part of SNS addiction:
High engagement on SNSs is due to FOMO. In one study using 5280 social media users from
several Spanish-speaking Latin-American countries [74] it was found that FOMO predicts
negative consequences of maladaptive SNS use. In addition, this study also found that the
relationship between psychopathology (as operationalized by anxiety and depression symptoms
and assessed via the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale) and negative consequences of SNS
use were mediated by FOMO, emphasizing the importance of FOMO in the self-perceived
consequences of high SNS engagement.
Smartphones addiction:
Using social networking sites is a particularly popular activity on smartphones, with around 80%
of social media used via mobile technologies [83]. For instance, approximately 75% of Facebook
users access the SNS via their mobile phones [84]. Therefore, it can be suggested that
smartphone addiction may be part of SNS addiction.
Sociodemographic difference:
SNSs addiction may be more common in females rather than male patients.
Girls don’t play role-playing games primarily, but use social forums excessively, in order
to experience social interaction with other girls and above all to feel understood in their very
individual problem constellations, very different from boys, who want to experience narcissistic
gratification via games. This means the girls want direct interaction. They want to feel
understood. They want to be able to express themselves. (…) we’re getting girls with clinical
pictures that are so pronounced that we have to admit them into inpatient treatment. (…) we have
to develop strategies to specifically target girls much better because there appears to be a huge
gap. Epidemiologically, they are a very important group, but we’re not getting them into
consultation and treatment.[ 34]
Fig:1 Sociodemographic difference of social media us
Internet Addiction: The Emergence of a New Clinical Disorder
KIMBERLY S. YOUNG, Psy.D.
Anecdotal reports indicated that some online users were becoming addicted to the Internet in much the
same way that others became addicted to drugs or alcohol, which resulted in academic, social, and
occupational impairment. However, research among sociologists, psychologists, or psychiatrists has not
formally identified addictive use of the Internet as a problematic behavior. The purpose of this study was
to investigate the existence of internet addiction, to make set criteria, and to identify the extent of
problems caused by misuse of the internet.
The term “addiction” isn’t listed in DSM-IV; the study used Pathological Gambling, which is
an impulse control disorder without an intoxicant. Young developed a Diagnostic Questionnaire
(DQ) based on eight basic questions from Pathological Gambling criteria. Participants were volunteers
who responded to various advertisements: newspaper ads, campus flyers, electronic support group
postings, and users who searched for "Internet" or "addiction" on popular web search engines. Valid
responses yielded a sample of 596 users from which participants who answered “yes” to five or
more items were classified as Dependents (396 users), while the remainder were Nondependent (100
users).
Applications Dependent Nondependent
Chat rooms 35% 7%
MUDs 28% 5%
Newsgroups 15% 10%
E-mail 13% 30%
WWW 7% 25%
Info: Protocols 2% 24%
The DQ criteria consisted of preoccupation, increasing time to achieve satisfaction (tolerance), failed
efforts to cut back, withdrawal symptoms when stopped like moody or irritated, staying online longer
than intended. Impairments faced by dependent users were mainly of 5 types of academic problems,
relationship problems, occupational, financial and physical problems. Students experienced poor
grades, academic probation, and expulsion due to an inability to control use, resulting from surfing
irrelevant sites, engaging in chat, and playing games at the cost of productive activity. Marriages, dating
relationships, and close friendships were disrupted. Dependents spend less time with loved ones.
Arguments ensued, and Dependents often denied the problem and lied about their time online. Cybersex
and new online romantic relationships were a major source of disruption in marriages. Reported work-
related problems involved using employee access for personal use, creating a distraction, and misuse of
time. In the past, excessive online service fees were an issue, although flat-rate fees may encourage
longer, addictive use by eliminating this financial burden. Mild to moderate complaints were noted. Sleep
patterns were typically disrupted by late-night logins (e.g., until 2, 3, or 4 a.m.). Sleep deprivation caused
excessive fatigue and decreased immune function, impairing occupational/academic function. Prolonged
sedentary use increased risk for carpal tunnel syndrome, back strain, and eyestrain.
Impairment None Mild Moderate Severe
Academic 0% 2% 40% 58%
Relationship 0% 2% 45% 53%
Financial 0% 10% 38% 52%
Occupational 0% 15% 34% 51%
Physical 75% 15% 10% 5%
This study acknowledges different significant limitations such as the sample of 396 Dependents is small
compared to the estimated 56 million Internet users at the time. The Nondependent group was not
demographically matched, weakening comparative results. The use of a self-selected group introduces
inherent biases. Individuals classified as Dependent were more likely to respond due to an exaggerated set
of negative consequences, potentially overstating the harmful effects. Approximately 20% more women
than men responded, which is counter to the stereotypic profile of an "Internet addict" as a young, savvy
male. This might be because women are more likely to discuss emotional issues.
Dependents predominately used two-way communication functions (highly interactive mediums), which
allowed them to meet, socialize, and exchange ideas. 54% of Dependents had no desire to cut down their
time online. 46% made unsuccessful attempts to cut down. They failed to maintain self-imposed time
limits and, in extreme cases, dismantled their computers or canceled service. When attempting to stop,
Dependents developed a preoccupation with being online again, which they compared to intense
"cravings" felt by smokers.
Measures Dependent Nondependent Comparison
Hours/Weeks M=38.5 (SD=8.04) M=4.9 (SD=4.70) Dependents
spend nearly 8 hours per
week on non-essential
use. Dependent
gradually developed a
daily habit of up to 10
times their initial use.
Usage Time 83% have been online for 71% had been online for Suggest addiction may
less than 1 full year. more than 1 year. happen quickly after
introduction to online
services.
The exploratory data provides a workable framework for further study. Individuals met diagnostic criteria
showing signs of impulse-control difficulty, like pathological gambling. The results suggest that the
Internet itself may not be addictive; specific, highly interactive applications (like chat rooms and MUDs)
play a significant role in pathological use. It's hypothesized that the unique reinforcement of online
relationships may fulfill unmet real-life social needs (e.g., for comfort, community) in lonely
individuals.
Dependents were mostly relative to beginners (83% online for less than 1 year), suggesting newcomers
may be at higher risk. However, more advanced users may suffer from greater denial, as their Internet use
is an integral part of their lives, leading to their low representation in the sample.
Future research should: Attempt to select random samples to eliminate methodological
limitations. Develop treatment protocols and conduct outcome studies for effective management of the
disorder. Examine personality traits that may mediate addictive Internet use, especially among new users,
and how denial is fostered. Focus on the prevalence, incidence, and role of this behavior in other
established addictions (e.g., substance dependencies) or psychiatric disorders (e.g., depression, bipolar
disorder, OCD).
Internet Addiction: Coping Styles, Expectancies, and
Treatment, Implications by Dr Matthias Brand
Introduction
The internet has become an essential part of everyday life for communication, work, and entertainment.
While most people use it in a healthy way, some individuals lose control over their online behavior,
leading to emotional distress, poor performance, and problems in relationships. This problem has become
more important because of its high rate in the population, which is estimated between 1.5% and 8.2%, and
in some studies even up to 26.7% (Weinstein & Lejoyeux, 2010; Kuss et al., 2014).
Internet addiction (IA) was first described by Young (1996), but experts still debate how to classify
it.
However, most researchers now use the term Internet Addiction (IA) because it has strong similarities
with substance addiction, both in behavior and brain effects (Young, 2004; Griffiths, 2005; Brand et al.,
2014). Theories like the incentive sensitization theory of addiction (Robinson & Berridge, 2000, 2001,
2008) and Griffiths’ component model of addiction (2005) explain how Internet use can become
addictive.
Researchers distinguish between:
Generalized Internet Addiction (GIA): Overuse of the internet as a whole.
Specific Internet Addiction (SIA): Addiction to particular activities, such as gaming, shopping, or social
networking.
Research shows that GIA is linked with several psychological and personality factors such as depression,
anxiety, shyness, neuroticism, stress vulnerability, procrastination, and low self-esteem (Whang et al.,
2003 Yang et al., 2005; Ebeling Witte et al., 2007 Kim & Davis, 2009 Pontes et al., 2014).A lack of
social support or loneliness, especially in adolescents, also increases the risk (Morahan Martin &
Schumacher, 2003 Caplan, 2007).Many people use the Internet as a way to cope with stress, negative
emotions, or daily problems (Whang et al., 2003; Tang et al., 2014).This suggests that Internet addiction
may work as a maladaptive coping strategy (Kardefelt -Winther, 2014)
. Dr. Matthias Brand and his colleagues proposed a theoretical model explaining that psychological
factors (like depression, anxiety, and low self-esteem) influence Internet addiction indirectly through
coping styles and cognitive expectancies people’s beliefs about how the internet helps them feel better or
escape problems. To explain how Internet addiction develops, Brand et al. (2014) created a theoretical
model with three main elements:
1. Core personal characteristics: Depression, social anxiety, shyness, low self-confidence, and
social isolation.
2. Internet-related cognitions: Beliefs or expectations about how the Internet can help for
example: escape from stress or improvement of mood.
3. Coping strategies: The ways individuals handle stress or negative emotions in daily life.
The model shows that poor coping skills and positive expectations about Internet use connect personality
factors to Internet addiction.
Operational Model
The researchers built a testable statistical model based on the theoretical framework proposed by Brand et
al. (2014). To do this, they selected at least two variables (measurable factors) for each dimension in the
model and used validated psychological scales to measure them. These variables were then analyzed
through a Structural Equation Model (SEM) to test relationships between personal traits, coping styles,
and Internet addiction.
Participants
The study collected data through an online survey with a total of 1,148 participants. After removing
incomplete responses, 1,019 people were included in the final sample.
Participants were recruited through: University mailing lists and Facebook pages, Flyers in public
places, and Word-of-mouth. As an incentive, participants could join a raffle to win items like an iPad or
Amazon gift [Link] approval was granted by the local ethics committee.
Demographic Variable Category/Description Percentage/Mean(SD)
Age Average age 25.6 years ( SD=7.37)
Gender Female 61.3%
Male 37.8%
Relationship status In a relationship or married 56.6%
Single 40.2%
Occupation Students 67.4%
Employed 32.6
Internet usage findings:
Average time online: 972 minutes per week (2.3 hours/day) 11.4% met the criteria for problematic
Internet use, 3.7% met the criteria for pathological use (using the short Internet Addiction Test, s-IAT).
Almost all participants (97%) regularly used three or more online applications, such as: social
networking, information searching, online shopping, gaming, gambling, and cybersex.
Depression and Anxiety: Measured with the Brief Symptom Inventory (BSI). This test finds out if a
person feels sad, worried, or emotionally stressed.
Self-esteem: Measured with the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale. It shows how good or confident a person
feels about themselves and their self-worth.
Self-efficacy: Measured with the General Self-Efficacy Scale. It checks how strongly a person believes
they can handle challenges and solve problems in life.
Stress vulnerability: Measured with the Trier Inventory for Chronic Stress (TICS). It shows how easily a
person feels pressure or gets stressed in daily life.
Coping style: Measured with the Brief COPE Inventory. It identifies how a person deals with
stress whether they face problems calmly or avoid them.
Internet-use expectancies: Measured with the Internet Use Expectancy Scale (IUES), which was
developed by Brand and his team. It shows what people believe about using the internet
For example, whether they think it helps them relax, feel better, or escape from problems.
Results
The proposed model explained 63.5% of the variance in Internet addiction symptoms a very strong
result. Individuals with higher depression, social anxiety, or low self-esteem were more likely to show
symptoms of Internet addiction. However, these effects were indirect they worked through coping style
and Internet use expectancies. People with maladaptive coping strategies (like avoidance or denial) and
strong positive expectancies (believing the internet improves mood) were at higher risk. Emotional
problems did not directly cause addiction rather, the way people use the internet to cope was the key
factor.
Conclusion. Internet addiction develops through a combination of emotional vulnerabilities, poor
coping mechanisms, and unrealistic beliefs about the benefits of internet use. It is not simply about time
spent online, but why and how people use the internet to manage emotions.
Relationship between behavioral addiction and psychiatric disorder
by Vladan Starcevic and Yasser Khazaal
Problematic Internet Use (PIU), another name for digital addiction, has grown to be a significant
psychological issue in recent years. A person's mental, emotional, and social well-being can suffer as a
result of excessive or uncontrolled use of digital devices or online activities like social media, gaming, or
online shopping. It is extensively researched under the heading of behavioral addictions, along with
gambling, compulsive buying, and exercise addiction, despite not yet being recognized as a separate
disorder in the DSM-5 (Starcevic & Khazaal, 2017).
Studies reveal that behavioral addictions frequently coexist with mental health conditions such as
substance use disorders, anxiety, and depression. Starcevic and Khazaal (2017) claim that behavioral
addictions like pathological gambling, Internet addiction, and online gaming have characteristics in
common with substance use disorders, such as withdrawal symptoms, loss of control, and
compulsive engagement. Additionally, these conditions frequently co-occur with mental health
conditions, a phenomenon known as high comorbidity.
Several studies have identified strong associations between digital addiction and various mental health
disorders. Individuals who engage excessively in online activities often experience psychological
symptoms such as depression, anxiety, and attention difficulties. The following table summarizes the
most commonly reported mental health problems related to digital addiction and their approximate
prevalence rates among affected individuals.
Mental health problems Percentage of individuals with digital addiction
affected
Depression Up to 77.8%
Substance abuse Up to 55%
Anxiety disorders Up to 50%
Social Anxiety disorders Up to 45%
Sleep disturbance Up to 38.6%
ADHD Up to 32.2%
Researchers point out that the direction of causality is still unknown despite these strong correlations.
Whether digital addiction causes mental health decline or mental health issues cause digital addiction is
still unknown. The accuracy and generalizability of results are limited by the use of cross-sectional
designs, small samples, and self-report surveys in many studies. Furthermore, it is challenging to
compare results from different studies due to differing diagnostic standards and inconsistent definitions of
"Internet addiction."
Despite these limitations, the majority of researchers concur that treatment should focus on both mental
health and digital addiction since they are closely related. For example, when depression or ADHD co-
occur with digital addiction, the use of stimulants like methylphenidate or antidepressants like bupropion
has demonstrated beneficial results. Additionally, people frequently use cognitive behavioral therapy, or
CBT, to enhance their emotional regulation and form healthier online habits. This combined strategy,
which addresses both behavioral patterns and psychological symptoms, is thought to be the most
successful for recovery. The body of research indicates a strong correlation between digital addiction and
psychiatric disorders such as anxiety, depression, and ADHD. Nevertheless, more longitudinal studies
are required to determine the long-term trajectory of these associations and to create evidence-based,
more successful treatment plans.
Analysis and discussion
This study aimed to explore how digital addiction affects mental health among
university students. The survey included 200 participants (100 males and 100
females). Data were analyzed using Microsoft Excel , applying descriptive
statistics and simple inferential tests such as t-tests and correlation analysis.
Daily digital media usage among student
Daily usage time Percentage of students
Less than two hours 10%
2-4 hours 22%
4-6 hours 43%
More than 6 hours 25%
Digital Addiction Levels
Based on the seven-item digital addiction scale, 43% of students were at a
moderate level and 32% were at a high-risk level of addiction. Common signs
included losing track of time, feeling restless when offline, and using digital
platforms to relieve stress or loneliness. These symptoms align with Mark D.
Griffiths’ (2005) biopsychosocial model, which describes addiction through
salience, tolerance, withdrawal, and conflict.
The correlation analysis found a strong positive relationship (r = 0.62, p < 0.01)
between digital addiction and mental health problems. Students with higher
addiction scores also reported more symptoms of anxiety, sadness, and disturbed
sleep. These results support Dr. Matthias Brand’s (2019) I-PACE model, which
explains that poor emotional control and low self-regulation can lead to
compulsive internet use. Similarly, Dr. Vladan Starcevic (2016) highlighted that
digital addiction often coexists with anxiety and depression. The current study’s
findings are consistent with his view, showing that excessive online activity may
worsen emotional distress.
Smartphone Dependence
Nearly 80% of respondents said they used digital media mainly through
smartphones. This shows that smartphone dependence and social media addiction
are closely linked. The portability of smartphones allows users to stay online
almost constantly, reinforcing addictive behaviors. This also supports the view of
Kuss & Griffiths (2017), who argued that mobile technology has intensified the
addictive potential of digital media.
, This study confirms that digital addiction negatively affects mental health among
university students. Spending long hours on digital media
increases anxiety, restlessness, and sleep problems. The findings underline the
need for digital wellbeing education, time-management strategies, and balanced
use of technology.