Genetics and
Inheritance:
Understanding Variation
Living organisms maintain their continuity by producing offspring
similar to themselves through reproduction. While offspring inherit
characters from their parents, they also show subtle differences.
These variations are maximized through sexual reproduction,
creating unique individuals with their own identity.
What is Variation?
Variation refers to differences in characters or traits
among individuals of the same species and offspring of
the same parents. For example:
• Free vs. attached earlobes in humans
• Differences in height, complexion, hair type
• Eye color, nose and chin shape
These variations are passed from one generation to
another during reproduction.
Fig. 1: Free and attached earlobes in humans
Accumulation of Variation
Asexual Reproduction
• Monoparental - involves only one parent
• Minor differences due to DNA copying inaccuracies
• Offspring are almost carbon copies (clones)
• Examples: bacteria, Amoeba, yeast
Sexual Reproduction
• Characters inherited from two parents
• More variations in each generation Fig. 2: Creation of variations over
succeeding generations
• Accumulation of variations increases over generations
• Variations may be advantageous or disadvantageous
Significance of Variation
1. Variation enables organisms to adapt better according to the
changing
environment.
2. Lead to the development of new species.
3. Major source of species evolution and environmental evolution.
4. It help to make plants and animals resistant to different kinds of
diseases.
5. It enables the organisms to survive in adverse conditions.
Heredity: The Basis of
Inheritance
What is Heredity? Why Children Resemble
The process of transmission of
Parents
genetic traits/characters from Parents pass on genes to their
one generation to another, from children through gametes during
parents to offspring. sexual reproduction. These
genes control expression of
characters in the offspring.
Inherited Traits
Traits passed from parents to offspring, responsible for similarities.
Genes on chromosomes carry this information from one generation to
the next.
1. Transmission of genetic characters from parents to offspring is known as
heredity.
2. Characters such as height, body colour etc are called traits.
Gene
• Small section of DNA present on chromosomes.
• It controls the characters or trait of an organism.
• Each gene has 2 or more alternating forms of allele.
• During gamete formation, two forms of a gene separate, and the chromosome
number reduces to half.
• During fertilisation, fusion of male and female gamete restores the number of
chromosomes.
• Through genes, traits are inherited into progeny from parents.
Genes: The Units of Heredity
Mendel's Proposal
Inheritance is controlled by paired genetic units or factors, now called
genes. They are present in all body cells and transferred to the next
generation during reproduction.
Alleles
Two forms of the same gene that control the same characteristic. They
can be:
Dominant - expressed in both homozygous and heterozygous
conditions (e.g., 'T' for tallness)
Recessive - expressed only in homozygous condition (e.g., 't' for
dwarfness)
Fig. 4: Location of genes on chromosomes
Gregor Johann Mendel: Father of Genetics
Mendel's Life and Work
• Born in 1822 in Heinzendorf
• Joined Augustinian Monastery in 1843
• Studied natural history and mathematics (1851-1853)
• Began hybridization experiments with garden pea in 1856
• Research phase lasted until 1868
• Died in 1884 of kidney disorder
Mendel performed hybridization experiments for about 7 years,
maintaining proper records of his results before formulating his laws
of inheritance in 1866.
Fig. 3: Gregor Johann Mendel
Mendel's Experiments with Pea Plants
Why Pea Plants? Mendel's Approach
• Distinct, easily detectable contrasting characters • Selected pure breeding plants with contrasting
• Grows to maturity in a single season traits
• Self-pollinating (bisexual flowers) • Cross-pollinated plants with contrasting traits
• Self-pollination could be prevented • Raised F₁ generation
• Cross-pollination could be done artificially • Self-fertilized F₁ hybrids to produce F₂ generation
• Analyzed results mathematically
Mendel's Laws of Inheritance
Principle of Paired Factors
Genetic characters are controlled by a pair of unit factors or genes, one inherited from each parent. These
factors may be similar or dissimilar.
Principle of Dominance
When two different alleles are present, one allele (dominant) expresses itself while the other (recessive)
remains unexpressed.
Law of Segregation
Paired alleles separate randomly during gamete formation, so each gamete receives only one allele of a pair.
Law of Independent Assortment
Alleles of different traits segregate independently of each other during gamete formation.
Sex Determination in Humans
In humans, sex is genetically determined by chromosomes. We have 23 pairs (46) chromosomes:
22 pairs of autosomes - carry genes for body characters
1 pair of sex chromosomes - determine gender
Females have two X chromosomes (XX), while males have one X and one Y chromosome (XY).
The sex of a child is determined by the father's contribution:
If sperm with X chromosome fertilizes egg: girl (XX)
If sperm with Y chromosome fertilizes egg: boy (XY)
Fig. 5: Sex chromosomes
Blood Group Inheritance in Humans
Blood Group A
Genotypes: IAIA or IAi
Has A antigens on red blood cells
Blood Group AB
Genotype: IAIB
Has both A and B antigens (codominance)
Blood Group O
Genotype: ii
Has no antigens (recessive)
Human blood groups are determined by three alleles: IA, IB, and i. The alleles IA and IB are codominant (express
themselves independently when present together), while i is recessive to both.
PYQs 2025
When a pure-tall pea plant is crossed with a pure-dwarf pea plant, the percentage
of tall pea plants in F1 and F2 generation pea plants will be respectively. [1]
(a) 100%; 25% (b) 100%; 50%
(c) 100%; 75% (d) 100%; 100%
Solution:(c)
Assertion (A) : In reptiles, the temperature at which the fertilized eggs are kept
decides the sex of the offsprings.[1]
Reason (R) : Sex is not genetically determined in some animals.
Answer (a) [1]
Sol. In few reptiles, the temperature at which fertilised eggs are kept determines
whether the animals developing in the eggs will be male or female. It indicates that
sex is not genetically determined in these organisms.
Explain with the help of a flow chart that in human beings father is responsible for the sex (male or
female) of the child. [2]
Sol. Males produce 2 types of sperms - 50% are (A + X) and rest of the 50% are (A + Y), while
female produces only one type of ovum, i.e., 100% (A + X).
All children will inherit an X-chromosome from their mother. Thus, the sex of zygote depends on
this fact that ovum gets fertilized to which type of sperm, i.e., sex of the children is determined by
what they inherit from their father.
A child who inherits an X-chromosome from the father will be a girl and the one who inherits a Y
chromosome from him will be a boy.
NCERT textual questions
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