VECTORS

Vectors are nothing but vehicles by which the parasites are transmitted from
one host to another i.e., the animal that acts as a carrier of disease producing
germs (parasites) for transmission of disease from one host to another host.

In terminology, the word vector means, “any agent that acts as an intermediate
or alternative host for a pathogenic organism and transmits to a susceptible
host, is called vector”. For example—female Anopheles mosquito acts as vector
of malarial parasite (Plasmodium sp.).

Vector:

i. Harbours some part of life cycle of parasite.

ii. Provides place of residing of parasite within tissue or cells.

Types of Vectors:

Vectors may be classified into two groups:

1. Biological vectors:

Biological vectors are those carrier organisms (invertebrate animals) in

which the parasites (disease agents) increase their numbers by
multiplication or transformation inside the body of the carrier-organisms.
For example, female Anopheles mosquito is regarded as the biological
vector of Plasmodium sp. (malarial parasite).

When the disease-agent (parasite) undergoes multiplication or some

developmental changes in carrier-host is known as biological
transmission. The organisms or animals which are involved in spreading
or transmitting the disease are known as vectors or carriersm

2. Mechanical vectors:
There are certain vectors where the parasites (germs) are attached to the outside
of their body, such as in legs and thus transmit the germs or parasites from one
host to another without involving any developmental stages of the parasites in
their body. These types of vectors are known as mechanical vectors and are
found in housefly, cockroach etc. So they are known as mechanical vectors.

In this method, the disease-agent is transferred simply by the carrier-agent.

Here the carrier does not give shelter for any part of life cycle of parasite i.e. in
other words the parasite does not stay or live within the tissue or cells of
carrier.

So that the spread of disease agent or parasite occurs only mechanically by

different body parts through contamination. The transmission of diarrhoea,
typhoid, dysentery etc. by the housefly are examples.

TOOLS FOR VECTOR CONTROL

Biological Control

Biological control of disease vectors uses natural enemies and other biological
agents to suppress vector populations, with methods including the conservation of
existing natural enemies, introduction of new ones and inundative release of mass-
reared agents. Key biological agents include bacteria like Bacillus thuringiensis
(𝐵𝑡) which targets larvae, fungi such as Metarhizium spp., and larvivorous fish like
Gambusia affinis. These methods are often integrated with other control strategies
for a comprehensive approach.
Methods of biological control

• Conservation: This involves preserving and increasing populations of

existing natural enemies of disease vectors, such as predators or parasites
that already live in the environment.
• Augmentation: This method involves adding more natural enemies to a
system to boost their population and control the vectors by following
techniques
o Mass-rearing and release: Organisms are bred in large numbers and
released periodically (seasonally or in large amounts) to quickly
suppress the vector population.
 o Using specific agents: Examples include releasing larvivorous fish
like Gambusia affinis to eat mosquito larvae in water bodies or using
biopesticides like Bacillus thuringiensis (𝐵𝑡) to kill larvae.
• Introduction (Classical Biological Control): This is the most intensive
method, where natural enemies from another region are intentionally
introduced to control a pest species that is not native to that area. This is
intended to establish a permanent new population of the biological control
agent.

Examples of biological control agents

• Bacteria: Bacillus thuringiensis (𝐵𝑡) is a common example. When ingested

by mosquito larvae, its toxins kill them.
• Fungi: Fungi such as Metarhizium spp. can be used to infect and kill vector
insects.
• Fish: Larvivorous fish, like the mosquito fish (Gambusia affinis), are used
to consume larvae in aquatic habitats.
• Copepods: Certain species of copepods can be used to control mosquito
larvae in small water bodies. Examples of copepods used for vector control
include Mesocyclops aspericornis, Mesocyclops longisetus, and
Macrocyclops albidus, which are effective predators of mosquito larvae .

Chemical Control

Chemical control of disease vectors involves methods that use pesticides to directly
kill immature and adult vectors, or to create barriers that prevent them from biting
humans. Common techniques include Indoor Residual Spraying
(IRS), Insecticide-Treated Nets (ITNs), space spraying (fogging), larvicides,
and repellents. Each method targets vectors at different life stages or in different
environments, using a variety of chemical classes like pyrethroids, carbamates,
and organophosphates.

Methods of chemical control

• Indoor Residual Spraying (IRS): Insecticides with a residual effect are
sprayed on the interior walls of homes, killing mosquitoes that rest there
after a blood meal.
o Common chemicals: Pyrethroids, carbamates, organophosphates.
 o Target: Primarily adult mosquitoes that enter homes.

• Insecticide-Treated Nets (ITNs): Nets are soaked in insecticide, making

them a physical and chemical barrier that kills mosquitoes that come into
contact with them.
o Common chemicals: Pyrethroids, often combined with piperonyl
butoxide.

o Target: Adult mosquitoes that bite people while they sleep.

• Space Spraying: A fast-acting insecticide is sprayed into the air to kill adult
mosquitoes in an area.
o Application methods: Ground-based equipment (vehicles, hand-held
devices) or aerial spraying.

o Target: Large adult mosquito populations in a specific area.

• Larvicides: Chemicals are applied to water sources where mosquito larvae

develop to kill them before they emerge as adults.
o Common chemicals: Temephos, pyriproxyfen.

o Target: Larval stages of [Link] other flies

• Repellents: Chemicals are applied to the skin or clothing to deter

mosquitoes from biting.
o Types: Topical repellents (DEET, picaridin) and spatial repellents
(transfluthrin, metafluthrin) that create a vapor barrier.

o Target: The ability of mosquitoes, fleas and ticksto locate and bite
humans.

• Stomach poison: These kill insects when ingested through their digestive
system. Eg: Malathion, carbamates, arsanates, fluorine compounds etc.
• Fumigant: These are volatile agents that kill pests by being inhaled through
their respiratory system. Eg: Methyl bromide, Chloropicrin, hydrogen
cyanide, etc.
Adulticides
These are insecticides used to kill adult disease vectors like mosquitoes. They are
applied as ultra-low volume (ULV) sprays that create a fine mist to kill flying
insects or as residual sprays on surfaces where vectors rest. Common active
ingredients include pyrethroids, which are chemically similar to natural pyrethrins
and are known for their effectiveness and relative safety for vertebrates.

Types of applications
• Space sprays: Ultra-low volume (ULV) sprayers are used to apply liquid
adulticides as a very fine mist that kills mosquitoes and other flies on contact
as they fly through the air.
• Residual sprays: Liquid adulticides are sprayed onto surfaces where
mosquitoes rest, such as vegetation and buildings, so that mosquitoes are
killed when they land on the dried residue.
• Indoor residual spraying (IRS): A method where insecticides are applied
to the inside walls of homes to kill vectors that rest on them, particularly in
malaria control programs.

Common adulticides
• Pyrethrins and pyrethroids: These are synthetic insecticides that are
chemically similar to pyrethrins, which are derived from chrysanthemum
flowers. They are effective at low doses and are widely used due to their
rapid "knock-down" effect and relative safety for humans and other
vertebrates.
• Malathion: An organophosphate insecticide that is used for both urban and
rural vector control.
• DDT: An older insecticide that is still used in some regions for indoor
residual spraying to control vectors like those that cause malaria.
Important points to be considered before the use of adulticides
• Targeting: Adulticides are used when adult mosquitoes emerge, particularly
in areas unsuitable for larviciding.
 • Safety: When applied according to label instructions, adulticides are not
harmful to people, pets, or the environment. However, public concerns about
pesticide exposure are common.
• Environmental impact: Some adulticides, like malathion, can have
environmental impacts, so vector control programs often use a combination
of methods to manage populations.
• Surveillance: Determining which adulticide to use is often based on local
insecticide resistance testing, as some populations have become resistant to
certain chemicals.

Larvicides
These are insecticides that target larvae and pupae of mosquitoes and other
arthropod vectors in their breeding grounds to prevent them from developing into
adult insects They are a key part of an integrated strategy to control mosquito-
borne diseases like malaria, Zika, and West Nile virus. Common types include
microbial larvicides like Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis (Bti) and Bacillus
sphaericus (Bs), chemical larvicides such as S-methoprene, and spinosad, which is
derived from a bacterium. They can be applied to standing water in various forms
like dunks, tablets, or granules.

Types of larvicides
• Microbial larvicides: These use bacteria that are toxic to mosquito larvae.
o Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis (Bti) and Bacillus sphaericus
(Bs) are common examples, often formulated as dunks or briquettes
that release over time.

o They are effective and can be used in areas where resistance to

chemical insecticides is a problem.

• Chemical larvicides: These are synthetic compounds that kill larvae.

o S-methoprene: This is a growth regulator that prevents larvae from
developing into adults and is often found in time-release tablets for
larger bodies of water.
 o Temephos: A long- lasting, trusted larvicide with a history of public
health evaluations.

• Biorational larvicides: These are derived from natural sources.

o Spinosad: Derived from a bacterium, it is effective through contact
and ingestion and is recommended by the EPA and WHO.

o Plant-derived essential oils: Research is exploring the use of

compounds like lavandulyl acetate as a safer, natural larvicide.

Application of Larvicides
• Targeting breeding sites: Larvicides are applied to any standing water
where mosquitoes lay eggs, such as ditches, puddles, gutters, and containers.
• Application methods:
o By hand: Individuals can apply dunks, bits, or granules to small areas
of water.

o Professional application: Mosquito control professionals use

backpack sprayers, trucks, or airplanes for large-scale application.

• Combination with other methods: Larvicides are most effective when used
as part of an integrated mosquito management plan, which may also include
using insecticides to kill adult mosquitoes, such as via spraying or fogging.