FUNCTIONS OF SEVERAL VARIABLES

1. Functions of Two Variables

Definition: A function of two variables is a rule which associates a real number z =
f (x, y) to each ordered pair (x, y) in its domain. That is,
f : D ⊆ R2 → R.
The domain is the set of allowed input pairs; the range is the set of all output values of
f.

Solved Examples
Example 1: Evaluate f (2, 3) for f = x2 + xy + y 2 .
f (2, 3) = 4 + 6 + 9 = 19.
p
Example 2: Find domain of f (x, y) = 4 − x2 − y 2 .
4 − x2 − y 2 ≥ 0 ⇒ x2 + y 2 ≤ 4.
Example 3: Find range of f = x2 + y 2 .
f ≥ 0 ⇒ [0, ∞).
x−y
Example 4: Check whether f (x, y) = x+y
is defined at (1, −1).
x + y = 1 − 1 = 0 ⇒ undefined.

2. Partial Derivatives
Definition: A partial derivative measures the rate of change of a function with respect
to one variable, while keeping the other variable fixed. For f (x, y):
∂f ∂f
fx = , fy = .
∂x ∂y
Partial derivatives describe directional changes along coordinate axes.

Solved Examples
Example 1: For f = x2 y + y 3 :
fx = 2xy, fy = x2 + 3y 2 .
Example 2: For f = exy :
fx = yexy .
Example 3: f = ln(x2 + y 2 ):
2x
fx = .
x2 + y2
Example 4: f = x2 y 3 :
fxy = 6xy 2 .

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3. Total Differential
Definition: The total differential represents the approximate change in a multivariable
function due to small changes in its inputs. If f = f (x, y):

df = fx dx + fy dy.

It is the linear approximation of ∆f .

Solved Examples
Example 1: For f = x2 + y 2 :

df = 2x dx + 2y dy.

Example 2: f = xy:
df = y dx + x dy.
Example 3: f = sin(x + y):

df = cos(x + y)(dx + dy).

Example 4: f = ex−y :
df = ex−y (dx − dy).

4. Taylor’s Expansion for Two Variables

Definition: The Taylor expansion approximates f (x, y) near a point (a, b) by a polyno-
mial in terms of (x − a) and (y − b). Up to second order:
1
f (x, y) ≈ f + hfx + kfy + (h2 fxx + 2hkfxy + k 2 fyy ),
2
where h = x − a, k = y − b.

Solved Examples
Example 1: f = x2 + y 2 at (0, 0):

f (x, y) = x2 + y 2 .

Example 2: f = xy near (1, 1):

f (1 + h, 1 + k) = 1 + h + k + hk.

Example 3: f = ex cos y:
y2
f ≈1+x− .
2
Example 4: f = ln(1 + x + y):
1
f ≈ x + y − (x + y)2 .
2
2
5. Maxima and Minima
Definition: A function f (x, y) has: - a **local maximum** at (a, b) if f (a, b) is greater
than nearby values, - a **local minimum** if it is smaller than nearby values.
Critical points satisfy:
fx = 0, fy = 0.
The second derivative test uses:
D = fxx fyy − (fxy )2 .
- If D > 0 and fxx > 0 → local minimum - If D > 0 and fxx < 0 → local maximum - If
D < 0 → saddle point - If D = 0 → test inconclusive

Solved Examples
Example 1: f = x2 + y 2 , critical point (0, 0):
D = 4 > 0, fxx = 2 > 0 ⇒ min.
Example 2: f = x2 − y 2 :
D = −4 < 0 ⇒ saddle.
Example 3: f = x2 + xy + y 2 :
D = 3 > 0, fxx > 0 ⇒ min.
Example 4: f = 3x2 + 2y 2 − 6x − 4y: Minimum at (1, 1).

6. Constrained Maxima and Minima

Definition: A constrained extrema problem finds maxima or minima of f (x, y) subject
to a condition such as g(x, y) = 0. This reduces the domain of f to a curve or a surface.
One may solve it 1. by substitution, or 2. using Lagrange multipliers.

Solved Examples
Example 1: Maximise x + y subject to x2 + y 2 = 1:
1
x=y= √ .
2
Example 2: Minimise x2 + y 2 subject to x + y = 1:
1
x=y= .
2
Example 3: Maximise xy subject to x + y = 6:
x = y = 3.
Example 4: Minimise x2 + 4y 2 subject to x + 2y = 2:
 
4 1
(x, y) = , .
5 5

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7. Lagrange Multiplier Method
Definition: The method of Lagrange multipliers is a technique to find constrained ex-
trema. Instead of substituting, we solve:
∇f = λ∇g, g(x, y) = 0.
This ensures the gradient of f is parallel to the gradient of the constraint.

Solved Examples
Example 1: Maximise xy, x2 + y 2 = 1:
1
x=y= √ .
2
Example 2: Minimise x2 + y 2 , x − y = 1:
 
1 1
(x, y) = ,− .
2 2
Example 3: Maximise x + 2y, x2 + y 2 = 9:
 
3 6
(x, y) = √ , √ .
5 5
Example 4: Minimise x2 + xy + y 2 , x + y = 3:
(x, y) = (1, 2).

8. Jacobians
Definition: A Jacobian is a determinant that measures how an infinitesimal area changes
under a transformation. For a transformation (u, v) 7→ (x, y):
∂(x, y) x x
J= = u v .
∂(u, v) yu yv
If J ̸= 0, the transformation is locally invertible.

Solved Examples
Example 1: x = u + v, y = u − v:
J = −2.
Example 2: x = uv, y = u/v:
2u
J =− .
v
Example 3: Polar coordinates:
x = r cos θ, y = r sin θ, J = r.
Example 4: Complex-type transformation:
x = u2 − v 2 , y = 2uv,
J = 4(u2 + v 2 ).