Chapter 1

Computer Systems
and Organisation
By Palak Thakur, PGT CS
What is Computer System?
A computer is an electronic device that can be programmed to accept data (input), process it and
generate result (output).
A computer along with additional hardware and software together is called a computer system

What is Computer Organization?

Study of the internal working, structure, and implementation of a computer system.
Focuses on how various components of a computer interact to perform tasks

Why learn it?

Helps understand how data flows inside a computer.

Lays the foundation for programming, hardware, and system design.

Components of a computer system
[Link] Processing Unit (CPU)
It carries out the actual processing and usually referred as the brain of the computer.
It is commonly called processor also.
CPU is also popularly known as microprocessor.
The CPU is given instructions and data through programs. The CPU then fetches the program and
data from the memory and performs arithmetic and logic operations as per the given instructions
and stores the result back to memory.

Main Components:
[Link] Logic Unit (ALU)
Performs all arithmetic (add, subtract) and logic (AND, OR) operations.
[Link] Unit (CU)
Directs and coordinates all activities inside the computer.
CU controls sequential instruction execution, interprets instructions and
guides data flow through the computer’s memory, ALU and input or
output devices
2. Input Devices
The devices through which control signals are sent to a computer are termed as input devices.
These devices convert the input data into a digital form that is acceptable by the computer system.
Some examples of input devices include keyboard, mouse, scanner, touch screen, etc.,
Data entered through input device is temporarily stored in the main memory (also called RAM) of the
computer system.

Home work Qouestions:

1. write a short note on following input devices:
Keyboard
Mouse
touch Screen
Microphone
Joysticks
OCR
OMR
Barcode Reader
2. Output Devices
The device that receives data from a computer system for display, physical production, etc., is called
output device.
It converts digital information into human understandable form. For example, monitor, projector,
headphone, speaker, printer, etc

Home work Qouestions:

1. write a short note on following output devices:
Monitor
Speaker
Printer: inkjet, laserjet and dot matrix
2. Is a scanner an input or output device? Explain why.
3. Computer Memory
A computer system needs memory to store the data and instructions for processing.
A computer system uses binary numbers to store and process data.
The binary digits 0 and 1, which are the basic units of memory, are called bits.

Types of Memory
(A) Primary Memory
Program and data are loaded into the primary memory before processing.
The CPU interacts directly with the primary memory to perform read or write operation.
It is of two types :
(i) Random Access Memory (RAM) and
(ii) Read Only Memory (ROM).
Random Access Memory(RAM)
RAM is a type of temporary (volatile) memory that stores data and instructions currently being used by the CPU.
Volatile Memory:
Data stored in RAM is lost when the power is turned off.
Fast Access:
RAM provides high-speed data access compared to other types of memory.
Read and Write:
RAM allows both reading and writing of data.
Types of RAM:
SRAM (Static RAM) – Faster, expensive, used in cache memory. Does not need refreshing.
DRAM (Dynamic RAM) – Slower, cheaper, used as main memory. Needs to be refreshed regularly
Capacity:
Measured in GBs (Gigabytes), e.g., 4GB, 8GB, 16GB, etc.
Read Only Memory (ROM)

ROM is a type of non-volatile memory that stores permanent instructions required for the computer to start.
Non-Volatile Memory:
Data stored in ROM is not lost when the power is turned off.
Read-Only:
ROM can only be read, not written to during normal operation (modification is limited or not possible).
Used for Booting:
It stores the BIOS (Basic Input Output System) or firmware, which runs when the computer is turned on.
Permanent Storage:
Contains pre-installed, manufacturer-written instructions that do not change frequently.
No User Modification:
Unlike RAM, data in ROM cannot be easily modified or erased.
Types of ROM:
PROM (Programmable ROM) – Written once by the user.
EPROM (Erasable Programmable ROM) – Can be erased using UV light.
EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM) – Can be erased electrically.
(B) Cache Memory
RAM is faster than secondary storage, but not as fast as a computer processor. So, because of RAM, a
CPU may have to slow down. To speed up the operations of the CPU, a very high speed memory is
placed between the CPU and the primary memory known as cache.
It stores the copies of the data from frequently accessed primary memory locations, thus, reducing
the average time required to access data from primary memory.
When the CPU needs some data, it first examines the cache. In case the requirement is met, it is read
from the cache, otherwise the primary memory is accessed.

(C) Secondary Memory

Primary memory has limited storage capacity and is either volatile (RAM) or read-only (ROM). Thus, a
computer system needs auxiliary or secondary memory to permanently store the data or
instructions for future use.
The secondary memory is non-volatile and has larger storage capacity than primary memory.
It is slower and cheaper than the main memory.
It cannot be accessed directly by the CPU. Contents of secondary storage need to be first brought
into the main memory for the CPU to access.
Home work questions
1. Write a short note on following Sesondary devices:
hard disk
CD
DVD
Pendrive /Memory card
SSD
2. Differentiate between secondary and Primary memory.
3. Differentiate between RAM and ROM.
4. Differentiate between SRAm and DRAM.
 Software
Hardware needs to be operated by a set of instructions. These sets of instructions are referred to as
software.
. It is that component of a computer system, which we cannot touch or view physically.
Types of Software
System Software
The software that provides the basic functionality to operate a computer by interacting directly with
its constituent hardware is termed as system software.
A system software knows how to operate and use different hardware components of a computer
(A) Operating System
An Operating System is system software that acts as an interface between the user and the hardware.
It manages hardware resources and provides a platform for running application software.
Key Functions:
Process Management – Controls the execution of programs.
Memory Management – Allocates and tracks memory usage.
File System Management – Organizes and controls file storage.
Device Management – Manages input/output devices.
User Interface – Provides GUI (Graphical User Interface) or CLI (Command Line Interface).
Examples of Operating Systems: Windows, macOS, Linux, Android, iOS
(B) System Utilities
Software used for maintenance and configuration of the computer system is called system utility.
Some system utilities are shipped with the operating system for example disk defragmentation tool,
formatting utility, system restore utility, etc.
Another set of utilities are those which are not shipped with the operating system but are required to
improve the performance of the system, for example, anti-virus software, disk cleaner tool, disk
compression software, etc.

(C) Device Drivers

The purpose of a device driver is to ensure proper functioning of a particular device.
The responsibility for overall control, operation and management of a particular device at the hardware level
is delegated to its device driver.
The device driver acts as an interface between the device and the operating system.
Language Translators
As the computer can understand only machine language, a translator is needed to convert program
written in assembly or high level language to machine language.
The program code written in assembly or high-level language is called source code.
The source code is converted by a translator into the machine understandable form called object
(machine) code
[Link]
The translator used to convert the code written in assembly language to machine language is called
assembler.
Each assembler can understand a specific microprocessor instruction set only and hence, the machine code
is not portable.
2. Compiler
Compiler converts the source code into machine code.
If the code follows all syntactic rules of the language, then it is executed by the computer. Once translated,
the compiler is not needed.
3. Interpretor
An interpreter translates one line at a time instead of the whole program at one go.
Interpreter takes one line, converts it into executable code if the line is syntactically correct, and then it
repeats these steps for all lines in the source code. Hence, interpreter is always needed whenever a source
code is to be executed.
Application Software
Application software is a type of computer program designed to help users perform specific tasks or
activities.
It runs on top of the operating system and enables the user to complete functions such as writing,
calculating, editing, or browsing.
Examples: MS Word – for document editing, Web Browsers – like Google Chrome, Mozilla Firefox , Media
Players – like VLC, Games and mobile apps.
It is of two types: General Purpose Software and Customised Software.

Homework:
[Link] a short note on the follwoing with examples:
Free and Open Source Software (FOSS)
freeware
Proprietary software
 OS User Interface
(A) Command-based Interface
Command-based interface requires a user to enter the commands to perform different tasks like creating,
opening, editing or deleting a file, etc.
Examples of operating systems with command-based interface include MS-DOS and Unix.
(B) Graphical User Interface
Graphical User Interface (GUI) lets users run programs or give instructions to the computer in the form of
icons, menus and other visual options.
Examples of operating systems with GUI interfaces include Microsoft Windows, Ubuntu, Fedora and
Macintosh, among others.
(C) Touch-based Interface
Today smartphones, tablets and PCs allow users to interact with the system simply using the touch input.
Examples of popular operating systems with touch based interfaces are Android and iOS. Windows 8.1 and
10 also support touch-based interfaces on touchscreen devices.
(D) Voice-based Interface
Users today can use voice-based commands to make a computer work in the desired way.
Some operating systems which provide voice-based control to users include iOS (Siri), Android (Google
Now or “OK Google”), Microsoft Windows 10 (Cortana) and so on.
 Functions of Operating System
⚙️ 1. Process Management
Controls the creation, execution, and termination of processes.
Ensures proper multitasking by managing CPU time among processes.
💾 2. Memory Management
Allocates memory to programs while they are running.
Keeps track of each byte in a computer’s memory.
📁 3. File Management
Manages files on storage devices (create, open, save, delete).
Maintains file directories and access permissions.
🖱️ 4. Device Management
Controls all input/output devices like keyboard, mouse, printer.
Uses device drivers to communicate with hardware components
🔐 5. Security & Access Control
Protects data and system resources from unauthorized access.
Implements passwords, user roles, and permission settings.
“The computer was born to solve problems
that did not exist before.”
— Bill Gates