Definitions:
1. The term statistics refers to a set of mathematical procedures for organizing, summarizing, and
interpreting information.
2. A population is the set of all the individuals of interest in a particular study.
3. A sample is a set of individuals selected from a population, usually intended to represent the
population in a research study.
4. A variable is a characteristic or condition that changes or has different values for different individuals
5. Data (plural) are measurements or observations. A data set is a collection of measurements or
observations. A datum (singular) is a single measurement or observation and is commonly called a
score or raw score.
6. A parameter is a value, usually a numerical value, that describes a population. A parameter is usually
derived from measurements of the individuals in the population.
7. A statistic is a value, usually a numerical value, that describes a sample. A statistic is usually derived
from measurements of the individuals in the sample
8. Descriptive statistics are statistical procedures used to summarize, organize, and simplify data
9. Inferential statistics consist of techniques that allow us to study samples and then make generalizations
about the populations from which they were selected.
10. Sampling error is the naturally occurring discrepancy, or error, that exists between a sample statistic
and the corresponding population parameter.
11. In the correlational method, two different variables are observed to determine whether there is a
relationship between them.
12. In the experimental method, one variable is manipulated while another variable is observed and
measured. To establish a cause-and-effect relationship between the two variables, an experiment
attempts to control all other variables to prevent them from influencing the results
13. The independent variable is the variable that is manipulated by the researcher. In behavioral research,
the independent variable usually consists of the two (or more) treatment conditions to which subjects
are exposed. The independent variable consists of the antecedent conditions that were manipulated
prior to observing the dependent variable.
14. The dependent variable is the one that is observed to assess the effect of the treatment.
15. Individuals in a control condition do not receive the experimental treatment. Instead, they either
receive no treatment or they receive a neutral, placebo treatment. The purpose of a control condition is
to provide a baseline for comparison with the experimental condition.
16. Individuals in the experimental condition do receive the experimental treatment.
17. In a nonexperimental study, the “independent variable” that is used to create the different groups of
scores is often called the quasi-independent variable.
18. Constructs are internal attributes or characteristics that cannot be directly observed but are useful for
describing and explaining behavior.
19. An operational definition identifies a measurement procedure (a set of operations) for measuring an
external behavior and uses the resulting measurements as a definition and a measurement of a
hypothetical construct. Note that an operational definition has two components. First, it describes a set
of operations for measuring a construct. Second, it defines the construct in terms of the resulting
measurements.
20. A discrete variable consists of separate, indivisible categories. No values can exist between two
neighboring categories
21. For a continuous variable, there are an infinite number of possible values that fall between any two
observed values. A continuous variable is divisible into an infinite number of fractional parts.
22. Real limits are the boundaries of intervals for scores that are represented on a continuous number line.
The real limit separating two adjacent scores is located exactly halfway between the scores. Each score
has two real limits. The upper real limit is at the top of the interval, and the lower real limit is at the
bottom
23. A nominal scale consists of a set of categories that have different names. Measurements on a nominal
scale label and categorize observations, but do not make any quantitative distinctions between
observations
24. An ordinal scale consists of a set of categories that are organized in an ordered sequence.
Measurements on an ordinal scale rank observations in terms of size or magnitude.
25. An interval scale consists of ordered categories that are all intervals of exactly the same size. Equal
differences between numbers on scale reflect equal differences in magnitude. However, the zero point
on an interval scale is arbitrary and does not indicate a zero amount of the variable being measured.
26. A ratio scale is an interval scale with the additional feature of an absolute zero point. With a ratio scale,
ratios of numbers do reflect ratios of magnitude.
27. A frequency distribution is an organized tabulation of the number of individuals located in each
category on the scale of measurement.
28. In a symmetrical distribution, it is possible to draw a vertical line through the middle so that one side of
the distribution is a mirror image of the other.
29. In a skewed distribution, the scores tend to pile up toward one end of the scale and taper off gradually
at the other end.
30. The section where the scores taper off toward one end of a distribution is called the tail of the
distribution.
31. A skewed distribution with the tail on the right-hand side is positively skewed because the tail points
toward the positive (above-zero) end of the X-axis. If the tail points to the left, the distribution is
negatively skewed
32. The rank or percentile rank of a particular score is defined as the percentage of individuals in the
distribution with scores at or below the particular value.
33. When a score is identified by its percentile rank, the score is called a percentile.
34. Central tendency is a statistical measure to determine a single score that defines the center of a
distribution. The goal of central tendency is to find the single score that is most typical or most
representative of the entire group.
35. The mean for a distribution is the sum of the scores divided by the number of scores.
36. If the scores in a distribution are listed in order from smallest to largest, the median is the midpoint of
the list. More specifically, the median is the point on the measurement scale below which 50% of the
scores in the distribution are located.
37. In a frequency distribution, the mode is the score or category that has the greatest frequency
38. Variability provides a quantitative measure of the differences between scores in a distribution and
describes the degree to which the scores are spread out or clustered together.
39. Deviation is distance from the mean: deviation score X-µ
40. Variance equals the mean of the squared deviations. Variance is the average squared distance from the
mean.
41. Standard deviation is the square root of the variance and provides a measure of the standard, or
average distance from the mean.
42. SS, or sum of squares, is the sum of the squared deviation scores.
43. Population variance is represented by the symbol s2 and equals the mean squared distance from the
mean. Population variance is obtained by dividing the sum of squares by N.
44. Population standard deviation is represented by the symbol s and equals the square root of the
population variance.
45. Sample variance is represented by the symbol s2 and equals the mean squared distance from the
mean. Sample variance is obtained by dividing the sum of squares by n- 1.
46. Sample standard deviation is represented by the symbol s and equal the square root of the sample
variance.
47. For a sample of n scores, the degrees of freedom, or df, for the sample variance are defined as df 5 n 2
1. The degrees of freedom determine the number of scores in the sample that are independent and
free to vary.
48. A sample statistic is unbiased if the average value of the statistic is equal to the population parameter.
(The average value of the statistic is obtained from all the possible samples for a specific sample size, n.)
49. A sample statistic is biased if the average value of the statistic either underestimates or overestimates
the corresponding population parameter
50. A z-score specifies the precise location of each X value within a distribution. The sign of the z-score (+ or
−) signifies whether the score is above the mean (positive) or below the mean (negative). The numerical
value of the z-score specifies the distance from the mean by counting the number of standard
deviations between X and μ.
51. A standardized distribution is composed of scores that have been transformed to create predetermined
values for μ and σ. Standardized distributions are used to make dissimilar distributions comparable.
52. For a situation in which several different outcomes are possible, the probability for any specific
outcome is defined as a fraction or a proportion of all the possible outcomes. If the possible outcomes
are identified as A, B, C, D, and so on, then probability of A 5 number of outcomes classified as A total
number of possible outcomes
53. A random sample requires that each individual in the population has an equal chance of being selected.
54. A sample obtained by this process is called a simple random sample.
55. An independent random sample requires that each individual has an equal chance of being selected
and that the probability of being selected stays constant from one selection to the next if more than
one individual is selected.