CHAPTER – II
STATISTICAL TECHNIQUES
Statistical methods involved in carrying out a study include planning, designing,
collecting data, analysing, drawing meaningful interpretation and reporting of the
research findings. The statistical analysis gives meaning to the meaningless numbers,
thereby breathing life into a lifeless data. There are two types of statistical methods.
Figure-5
2.1 Descriptive Statistics:
Descriptive statistics are brief informational coefficients that summarize a given
data set, which can be either a representation of the entire population or a sample of a
population. Descriptive statistics are broken down into measures of central tendency
and measures of variability (spread). Measures of central tendency include the mean,
median, and mode, while measures of variability include standard deviation, variance,
minimum and maximum variables, kurtosis, and skewness.
Figure-6
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2.2 Inferential Statistics:
Inferential statistics is a branch of statistics that makes the use of various
analytical tools to draw inferences about the population data from sample data. Apart
from inferential statistics, descriptive statistics forms another branch of statistics.
Inferential statistics help to draw conclusions about the population while descriptive
statistics summarizes the features of the data set.
Figure-7
2.3 Population and Sample:
A population is a distinct group of individuals, whether that group comprises a
nation or a group of people with a common characteristic. A sample is the specific
group that you will collect data from. The size of the sample is always less than the
total size of the population.
Figure-8
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2.4 Classification of data types:
Figure- 9
2.5 Hypothesis testing:
Hypothesis Testing is a type of statistical analysis in which you put your
assumptions about a population parameter to the test. It is used to estimate the
relationship between 2 statistical variables.
Figure-10
2.6 Sample and Sample Size:
For this research random sampling is used for collecting the data 280 Sample
respondents. There is no age restrictions for participating this survey. The Research is
conducted at Chennai city area people.
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𝑆𝑆
Required sample size for Group = 𝑆𝑆−1
1+
𝑁
𝑃(1−𝑃)
Where sample size = 𝑍 2∗ 𝐶2
Z = Standard normal value = 2.58 for 99 % confidence and 1.96 for 95 % confidence.
P = Percentage picking a choice normally 0.5,
C = Level of significance = 5 % =0.05
2.7 Sources of data:
Two types of data have been used for the study viz., Primary data and Secondary
data. Primary data refers to those data which are collected first hand by the investigator.
Such data are original in character and are generated in a large number of survey
conducted, mostly by government and also by some individuals, institutions and
research bodies. There are several methods of collecting primary data like survey
method, observation method to name a few.
In this project, survey method is used to collect the primary data through a well-
designed questionnaire. In this method, the enumerator makes personal contacts with
the informants either directly or indirectly and collects the required data. Various
devices such as telephone, mailed questionnaire are used to collect information. As the
enumerator is personally involved in collecting data, the information is more reliable
and accurate. The data which are not originally collected but collected from either
published or unpublished sources are called secondary data.
2.8 Tools used for research:
In this study most analysis have done in Python, SPSS and Excel.
Python:
Python is one of the most popular languages among statisticians because it can
be used to manipulate and visualize data as well as build statistical models. Python is
a high-level language that is open-source, interpreted, and provides a great approach
to programming objects.
SPSS:
The main application of SPSS is to investigate logical information related to
sociology. This information can be utilized for statistical surveying, overviews,
information mining, and so forth. If you're conducting social science research then
SPSS can be an extremely useful tool in analysing your data.
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Excel:
Data visualization In Excel is a presentation technique that uses graphical
methods to reveal patterns in data. The goal is to help you see the data more clearly,
understand it better and make better decisions.
2.9 Histogram:
A histogram is a graphical representation of data points organized into user-
specified ranges. Similar in appearance to a bar graph, the histogram condenses a data
series into an easily interpreted visual by taking many data points and grouping them
into logical ranges or bins.
2.10 Pie chart:
A pie chart is a graphical representation technique that displays data in a
circular-shaped graph. It is a composite static chart that works best with few variables.
Pie charts are often used to represent sample data—with data points belonging to a
combination of different categories. Each of these categories is represented as a “slice
of the pie.” The size of each slice is directly proportional to the number of data points
that belong to a particular category.
2.11 Count plot:
The count plot is used to represent the occurrence(counts) of the observation
present in the categorical variable. It uses the concept of a bar chart for the visual
depiction.
2.12 Chi-square analysis:
A chi-square test is a statistical test that is used to compare observed and
expected results. The goal of this test is to identify whether a disparity between actual
and predicted data is due to chance or to a link between the variables under
consideration. As a result, the chi-square test is an ideal choice for aiding in our
understanding and interpretation of the connection between our two categorical
variables. A chi-square test or comparable nonparametric test is required to test a
hypothesis regarding the distribution of a categorical variable. Categorical variables,
which indicate categories such as animals or countries, can be nominal or ordinal. They
cannot have a normal distribution since they can only have a few particular values.
2
(𝑂 − 𝐸)2
𝜒 = ∑
𝐸
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where
• 𝑂 = Observed value
• 𝐸 = Expected value.
2.13 Frequency distribution:
A frequency distribution is a representation, either in a graphical or tabular
format, that displays the number of observations within a given interval. The
frequency is how often a value occurs in an interval while the distribution is the
pattern of frequency of the variable. The interval size depends on the data being
analysed and the goals of the analyst. The intervals must be mutually exclusive and
exhaustive. Frequency distributions are typically used within a statistical context.
Generally, frequency distributions can be associated with the charting of a normal
distribution.
2.14 Spearman rank correlation:
Spearman’s rank correlation measures the strength and direction of association
between two ranked variables. It basically gives the measure of monotonicity of the
relation between two variables i.e how well the relationship between two variables
could be represented using a monotonic function.
The formula for Spearman’s rank coefficient is:
6Σ𝑑𝑖 2
𝜌 =1−
𝑛(𝑛2 − 1)
𝜌 = spearman’s rank correlation coefficient
n = Number of data pairs
𝑑𝑖 2 = Square of difference in the rank of the two variables
The Spearman Rank Correlation can take a value from +1 to -1 where,
• A value of +1 means a perfect correlation of rank
• A value of 0 means that there is no correlation between ranks
• A value of -1 means a perfect negative correlation of rank
2.15 Mann Whitney u test:
Mann Whitney U test is the non-parametric alternative test to the independent
sample t-test. It is a non-parametric test that is used to compare two sample means that
come from the same population, and used to test whether two sample means are equal
or not. Usually, the Mann-Whitney U test is used when the data is ordinal or when the
assumptions of the t-test are not met.
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n1 (n1 +1)
U1 = n1 n2 + - R1
2
n2 (n2 +1)
U2 = n1 n2 + - R2
2
Where
• n1 is the observations from the first population
• n2 is the observations from the second population
• R1 is the sum of observation ranks for the first population
• R2 is the sum of observation ranks for the second population
2.16 One sample binomial test:
The one-sample binomial test makes statistical inference about the proportion
parameter by comparing it with a hypothesized value. The methods for estimating the
power for such a test are either the normal approximation or the binomial enumeration.
(𝑥 − 𝑛𝑝)
𝑍=
√𝑛𝑝𝑞
Where:
• 𝑍 is the test statistic, which follows a standard normal distribution.
• 𝑥 is the number of successes in the sample.
• 𝑛 is the sample size.
• 𝑝 is the hypothesized proportion of success.
2.17 Phi coefficient correlation:
The Phi Coefficient is a measure of association between two binary variables
([Link] / dead, black / white, success / failure, yes / no). It is also called the Yule phi
or Mean Square Contingency Coefficient and is used for contingency tables. For a 2×2
contingency table where a, b, c, and d represent the observation frequencies (the cell
count). The formula for phi is:
𝐴𝐷 − 𝐵𝐶
𝜑=
√(𝐴 + 𝐵)(𝐶 + 𝐷)(𝐴 + 𝐶)(𝐵 + 𝐷)
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Interpreting phi coefficient:
Similar to a Pearson Correlation Coefficient, a Phi Coefficient takes on values
between -1 and 1 where:
• -1 indicates a perfectly negative relationship between the two variables.
• 0 indicates no association between the two variables.
• 1 indicates a perfectly positive relationship between the two variables.
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