⚖️ Physics Foundations Review

Brief Overview
This note covers physics fundamentals and was created from the A Level Physics
Revision: All of Foundations of Physics - Units, Prefixes, Errors, Uncertainties YouTube
video. It includes a concise walkthrough of units and symbols, prefix conversions, derived
units, and measurement uncertainties with practical examples and error analysis.

Key Points
Understanding of SI base units and common prefixes.
Converting between prefixed and base units.
Calculating derived units such as frequency, pressure, and energy.
Estimating and propagating uncertainties in experimental measurements.

📏 Units, Quantities & Unit Symbols

Base Units

The base units are the fundamental building blocks of all other units in physics

Quantity Unit Symbol

Mass kilogram kg
Length meter m
Time second s
Temperature Kelvin K
Electric Current ampere A
Amount of Substance mole mol

Unit Prefixes

Prefixes modify units by powers of ten

 Prefix Symbol Factor
Tera T 10
12

Giga G 10
9

Mega M 10
6

Kilo k 10
3

Deci d 10
−1

Centi c 10
−2

Milli m 10
−3

Micro μ 10
−6

Nano n 10
−9

Pico p 10
−12

Prefix Conversions
From prefix to no prefix (multiply by prefix value):
−3
5 mm = 5 × 10 m
−9 −7
700 nm = 700 × 10 m = 7.0 × 10 m

From no prefix to prefix (divide by prefix value):

5 9
5 m = −9 ​ = 5 × 10 nm
10
10 4
10 m = = 10 mm = 10, 000 mm

🔬 Derived Units
10−3
​

Derived units are combinations of base units, calculated from physical equations

Examples of Derived Units

Frequency:
Equation: f =
1

T
​
 Derived unit: Hertz (Hz)
Base unit: s −1

Pressure:
Equation: P = = F ma

Derived unit: Pascal (Pa)

​ ​

A A

Base unit: kg m s −1 −2

Work/Energy:
Equations: W = F d or E = 1
mv
2
or E = mgh
Derived unit: Joule (J)
​

Base unit: kg m s 2 −2

⚖️ Homogeneous Equations
An equation is homogeneous when the units on both sides are identical

Example 1: m total ​ = m1 + m2 ​ ​

Left side: kg
Right side: kg + kg = kg
✓ Homogeneous

Example 2: v 2
= u
2
+ 2as

Left side: (m/s) 2

= m s
2 −2

Right side: m s 2 −2
+ (m/s )(m) = m s
2 2 −2 2
+ m s
−2 2
= m s
−2

✓ Homogeneous

📊 Making Estimates
Estimation involves making reasonable assumptions for unknown quantities and using
them in calculations

Example: Estimate pressure exerted by one foot on the ground

Assumptions:
Person's mass: 70 kg
 Foot area: 30 cm × 10 cm = 0.3 m × 0.1 m = 0.03 m 2

Calculation:
Force: F = mg = 70 × 9.8 ≈ 700 N
Pressure: P = = F
≈ 23, 000 Pa
700

🎯 Pressure Calculations
​ ​

A 0.03

Pressure is defined as force over area.

Pressure Formula: P =
F

A
​

For a person standing on one foot:

Force = half of body weight = mg 1

Mass = 70 kg
​

Gravitational acceleration = g = 9.81 m/s 2

Area = 0.03 m 2

Calculation: P
1
​
×70×9.81 4
2
= = 1.1 × 10 Pa = 11 kPa

🎯 Accuracy vs Precision
​

0.03

Accuracy
How close measurements are to the real value
Example: Real g = 9.81 m/s , experimental values: 9.79, 9.82 → High accuracy
2

Precision
How close measurements are to each other
Example: Values 8.49, 8.52, 8.50 → High precision (but low accuracy)
Scenario Accuracy Precision
9.79, 9.82 High High
8.49, 8.52, 8.50 Low High

⚠️ Types of Experimental Errors

Random Errors
Unpredictable variations
Examples: voltage fluctuations, temperature changes
Affects gradient of graphs
Solution: Take multiple measurements

Systematic Errors
Affects all measurements by same amount
Examples: zero error, parallax error
Displaces graph but doesn't affect gradient
Cannot be reduced by repeated measurements
Error Type Characteristics Graph Effect Solution
Random Unpredictable Affects gradient Multiple
measurements
Systematic Consistent offset Shifts graph Calibration

📊 Uncertainty Calculations
Absolute Uncertainty from Data Set

Formula: Δx = range

2
​ =
xmax −xmin
​

2
​

Example: Data set with values around g = 9.73 m/s 2

Range = 9.85 − 9.60 = 0.25 m/s 2

Absolute uncertainty = 0.25

= 0.125 m/s
2
​
2

Result: 9.73 ± 0.125 m/s 2

Absolute Uncertainty from Instruments

Instrument Type Reading Absolute Uncertainty
Analog (ruler) 15 cm ±1 mm = ±0.001 m

Digital (scale) 5.41 kg ±0.01 kg

Digital (voltmeter) 2.73 V ±0.01 V

Percentage Uncertainty

Formula:

Examples:
Length: 0.001

0.15
​ × 100

Mass: 0.01
× 100

🔗 Combining Uncertainties
​

5.41

Addition/Subtraction
Add absolute uncertainties
Example: 5.23 ± 0.01 kg + 4.33 ± 0.01 kg = 9.56 ± 0.02 kg

Multiplication/Division
Add percentage uncertainties
Example: For v = , add % uncertainties in d and t
d

t
​

Key Rules
1. Adding/subtracting → Add absolute uncertainties
2. Multiplying/dividing → Add percentage uncertainties
3. Never subtract uncertainties (even for differences)

📊 Uncertainty Propagation Rules 🧮

Basic Uncertainty Calculations

Percentage uncertainty is calculated as: absolute uncertainty

measured value
​
× 100

Example: For a measurement of 9.56 ± 0.02, the percentage uncertainty is: 0.02

9.56
​ ×

100 = 0.2

Operations with Uncertainties

 Operation Rule Example
Addition/Subtraction Add absolute If A = a ± Δa and B =
uncertainties b ± Δb, then A ± B =

(a ± b) ± (Δa + Δb)

Multiplication/Division Add percentage If calculating V = , addd

uncertainties percentage uncertainties of

​

d and t

Worked Example: Velocity Calculation

Given:
Displacement: d = 150 ± 1 m
Time: t = 9.8 ± 0.1 s
Step 1: Calculate velocity v = 150

9.8
​
= 15.3 m/s
Step 2: Calculate percentage uncertainties
Displacement: × 100 = 0.67
1

150
​

Time: × 100 = 1.02

0.1

9.8
​

Step 3: Add percentage uncertainties Total uncertainty = 0.67

Step 4: Convert to absolute uncertainty Absolute uncertainty = 15.3 × 1.69

100
​ = 0.26 m/s
Final answer: 15.3 ± 0.26 m/s or 15.3 ± 1.69

🔺 Powers and Uncertainties

When a quantity is raised to power n, the percentage uncertainty is multiplied by n

Rule: If y = x , then percentage uncertainty in y = n× (percentage uncertainty in x)

n

Example: For I = 5.0 ± 0.1 A, find uncertainty in I 2

Percentage uncertainty in I = × 100 = 2 0.1

5.0
​

Percentage uncertainty in I = 2 × 22
📈 Graphical Uncertainty Analysis
Error Bars

Error bars represent the absolute uncertainty of each data point

Example: A data point at 3V with error bars of ±1V means the true value lies between 2V
and 4V

Lines for Uncertainty Analysis

1. Line of best fit: Passes through the centre of all error bars
2. Line of worst acceptable fit:
Starts at bottom of bottom error bar
Ends at top of top error bar
Alternative: top of bottom to bottom of top (equally valid)

Gradient Uncertainty Formula

Percentage uncertainty in gradient: (gradient of best-fit line − gradient of worst-fit

line) ÷ gradient of best-fit line × 100%

Critical Rule: Never subtract uncertainties - only add them! The choice is between
adding absolute or percentage uncertainties depending on the operation.