Module - 3

Carrier Transport Phenomena

Equilibrium charge carrier concentration in semiconductors
Intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors
Carrier mobility
Drift and Diffusion of carriers
Einstein relation
Generation, Recombination and Injection of charge carriers
Metal-semiconductor contacts (Ohmic and Schottky).
 Equilibrium charge carrier concentration in semiconductors

The ability of a metal to conduct electricity depends on the number of quantum states and also the
energy levels which are available for the electrons.

Hence, it is essential to find the energy states which are available for the occupation of the electrons
(charge carriers)

The Fermi function F(E) gives only the probability of filling up of electrons in a given energy state. It
does not give the information about the number of electrons that can be filled in a given energy state.

To know that we should know the number of available energy states called density of quantum state.

It is defined as the number of available energy states per unit volume in an energy interval E and E +
dE. It is denoted by g(E). It is given by

total number of available quantum state

Density of quantum state (g(E)) = _________________________________

unit volume
The picture above shows a graphical representation of The positive 1/8 of the spherical k-space.
the allowed states in k-space.

𝟑
Density of quantum state per unit volume is 𝟒𝝅
g(E)= (𝟐𝒎) 𝟐 𝑬
𝒉𝟑

g(E) – the density of quantum states as function of E

 Extrinsic semiconductor

𝟑
𝟒𝝅
Density of states in the conduction band gc(E)= (𝟐𝒎𝒏∗ ) 𝟐 𝑬 − 𝑬𝒄
𝒉𝟑

E > Ec
Density of states in the valance band 𝟑
𝟒𝝅
gv(E)= (𝟐𝒎𝒑∗ ) 𝟐 𝑬𝒗 − 𝑬
𝒉𝟑
E
gc(E) E < Ev
Ec
Density of quantum state as a function of energy
Ev

gv(E)

g(E)
 Statistical Mechanics

• For treating the behavior of large number of identical systems –

Probabilistic approach- Distribution approach
• Average behavior

• Distribution Types:

• Maxwell-Boltzmann
- Distinguishable (He atoms at high temp.)
• Bose-Einstein
- Indistinguishable, doesn’t obey Pauli principle (Phonons)
• Fermi-Dirac
- Indistinguishable, obey Pauli principle (Electrons)
Fermi Dirac Distribution

E >> EF
Available and Empty States
FD Distribution & DOS
 Energy band gap as a function of Ef

Gap – EF finite, DOS D(E) = 0, e- population = f(E)D(E) = 0;

CB – 0K – D(E) =finite, f(E) = 0, No electrons;
HT, f(E) & D(E) finite, Populated.
 Equilibrium Distribution of Electrons and Holes - Semiconductors

• Charge Carriers – CB electrons & VB holes

• Need to study the equilibrium distribution of these electrons and holes

• Electron distribution in CB : n(E) = gc(E)f(E)

• The total electron concentration per unit volume in the conduction band is then found by
integrating the above equation over the entire conduction-band energy.

• Hole distribution in VB: p(E) = gv(E)[1 - f(E)]

• The total hole concentration per unit volume is found by integrating this function over the
entire valence-band energy.

• To find the thermal-equilibrium electron and hole concentrations (n0 and h0), -determine the
position of the Fermi energy EF with respect to the bottom of the conduction-band energy Ec
and the top of the valence-band energy Ev.
DOS and f(E) function – Intrinsic SC
 Thermal Equilibrium Electron Concentration (n0) in CB

Electron distribution in CB : n(E) = gc(E)f(E)

The thermal equilibrium concentration of the electron may be found by integration above equation

n0 = ∫ gc(E) f(E) dE
The expression for the concentration of electron in the CB of the intrinsic semiconductor is

𝟑
∗ (𝑬𝑭 −𝑬𝑪) (𝑬𝑭 −𝑬𝑪)
𝟐𝝅𝒎𝒏 𝒌𝑻 𝟐 Or
n0= 𝟐 𝒆 𝒌𝑻 n0= 𝑵𝑪 𝒆 𝒌𝑻
𝒉𝟐

𝟑
Where, ∗
𝟐𝝅𝒎𝒏 𝒌𝑻 𝟐
NC= 𝟐
𝒉𝟐

mn* is density of states effective mass of the electron

Nc is effective density of states function in the conduction band.
 Thermal Equilibrium Hole Concentration (p0) in VB

Hole distribution in VB : p(E) = gv(E) [1 - f(E)]

The thermal equilibrium concentration of the hole may be found by integration above equation

p0 = ∫ gv(E) [1 - f(E)] dE
The expression for the concentration of electron in the CB of the intrinsic semiconductor is

𝟑
∗ (𝑬𝑽 −𝑬𝑭) (𝑬𝑽 −𝑬𝑭)
𝟐𝝅𝒎𝒑 𝒌𝑻 𝟐 Or
p0= 𝟐 𝒆 𝒌𝑻 p0= 𝑵𝑽 𝒆 𝒌𝑻
𝒉𝟐

𝟑
Where, ∗
𝟐𝝅𝒎𝒑 𝒌𝑻 𝟐
NV= 𝟐
𝒉𝟐

mp* is density of states effective mass of the hole

NV is effective density of states function in the valance band.
 Intrinsic Carrier Concentration

In an intrinsic semiconductor, No of electron in CB (ni) = No of hole in VB (pi)

ni = pi ( in intrinsic semiconductor)
(𝑬𝑭 −𝑬𝑪) (𝑬𝑽 −𝑬𝑭)
EF = EFi ( intrinsic Fermi level)
n0= 𝑵𝑪 𝒆 𝒌𝑻 p0= 𝑵𝑽 𝒆 𝒌𝑻

n0 = p0 = ni = pi
The product of n0p0 n0 p0 = ni pi = ni 2
Sub n0p0 we get, 𝟑
−𝑬𝒈 𝟐
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝑬𝒄 − 𝑬𝑽 = 𝑬𝒈
ni= 𝑵𝑪𝑵𝑽𝒆 𝒌𝑻

𝟑 −𝑬𝒈
𝟑
𝟐𝝅𝒌𝑻 𝟐 ∗ ∗
ni= 𝟐 𝟐 (𝒎𝒏 . 𝒎𝒑 )𝟒 𝒆 𝟐𝒌𝑻
𝒉
This is the expression for intrinsic carrier concenteration
At a given temperature, for a given material ni is constand and independent of EFi
 𝟑 −𝑬𝒈
As a function of T
ni∝ 𝑻 𝒆
𝟐 𝟐𝒌𝑻
 Intrinsic Fermi level (EFi)
• The probability of occupation of energy levels in valence band and conduction band is called Fermi level.
• At 0K, intrinsic semiconductor acts as perfect insulator. However as the temperature increases free electrons and
holes gets generated.
• In intrinsic semiconductor, the No. of holes in VB is equal to the No. of electrons in the CB.

ni = pi ; i,e n0 = p0 Eg = 1.12 ev Eg = 1.432 ev

Sub n0 and p0 and simplify we get,

∗
𝒎𝒑
𝑬𝑽 + 𝑬𝑪 𝟑𝒌𝑻
𝑬𝑭𝒊 = + ln ∗
𝟐 𝟒 𝒎𝒏

Half of band gap Small correction depend on

effective mass

If mp* =mn*, the ln (mp*/mn*) = ln (1) =0, => EFi is in the center of mid gap
mp* < mn*, EFi < E-mid gap
mp* > mn*, EFi > E-mid gap
 Extrinsic semiconductor
• An extrinsic semiconductor is an intrinsic semiconductor (like pure Si or Ge) that has been doped with a controlled
amount of impurities to significantly increase its electrical conductivity
• Doping: The process of intentionally adding impurity atoms to a pure semiconductor is called doping.
• The impurity modifies the electrical properties of the semiconductor and makes it more suitable for electronic
devices such as diodes and transistors.
• This doping creates either an excess of electrons (in n-type semiconductors) or an excess of holes (in p-type
semiconductors), with the chosen impurity determining which type of semiconductor is formed.
Characteristics
• The primary purpose of doping is to enhance the electrical conductivity beyond possible with a pure, intrinsic
material.
• Unlike intrinsic semiconductors, extrinsic semiconductors have an unequal number of electrons and holes, with one
type of charge carrier dominating.
• Doping is essential for creating practical electronic devices like diodes and transistors, as it precisely controls the
electrical properties of the semiconductor material.
N-type Semiconductors:

Doping with pentavalent impurities (like

phosphorus or arsenic) from Group 15 of the
periodic table adds extra electrons to the crystal
lattice, creating an excess of free electrons. These
electrons are the majority charge carriers, and the
dopant atoms are called donor impurities.
P-type Semiconductors:

Doping with trivalent impurities (like boron) from

Group 13 creates an excess of holes, which are
vacancies where electrons are missing. Holes act
as positive charge carriers and are the majority
carriers in a p-type semiconductor.
 DOS and f(E) function – Extrinsic SC

EF < EFi – p-type

EF > EFi – n-type
 Equilibrium distribution of electron and hole

• Electron/hole addition to the SC changes the distribution in the material.

• EF depends on distribution it also changes with the dopant atom
• EF > EFi – n-type (electron more)
• EF < EFi – p-type (electron more)

We know at thermal equilibrium,

−(𝑬𝑪 −𝑬𝑭) −(𝑬𝑭 −𝑬𝑽)
n0= 𝑵𝑪 𝒆 𝒌𝑻 p0= 𝑵𝑽 𝒆 𝒌𝑻
and

Changing the EF position changes the value of n0 and p0

n0 > p0  n-type

n0 < p0  p-type
n-type Lets add and subtract the EFi in the exponential term of n0

− 𝑬𝑪 −𝑬𝑭𝒊 + 𝑬𝑭 −𝑬𝑭𝒊 − 𝑬𝑪 −𝑬𝑭𝒊 − 𝑬𝑭 −𝑬𝑭𝒊

n0= 𝑵𝑪 𝒆 𝒌𝑻 = 𝑵𝑪 𝒆 𝒌𝑻 𝒆 𝒌𝑻

− 𝑬𝑭 −𝑬𝑭𝒊 − 𝑬𝑭 −𝑬𝑭𝒊
n0 = 𝒏𝒊 𝒆 𝒌𝑻
Similarly P-type p0 = 𝒏𝒊 𝒆 𝒌𝑻

n0 and p0 varies from ni depending on dopant atoms. If EF > EFi, then n0 > ni and p0 < ni

Since for n type, EF > EFi , we have n0 > p0 and p type, EF < EFi , n0 < ni and p0 > ni ; p0 > n0

The n0 p0 Product

i) Always a constant
ii) Provides Boltzmann approximation is valid
 Fermi Dirac integral
The Fermi-Dirac integral is a special function used in semiconductor physics to calculate the exact carrier
concentration by integrating the product of the density of states and the Fermi-Dirac distribution function
over all energy levels.
For many semiconductors, especially those that are heavily doped or operating in extreme conditions, the
simpler Boltzmann approximation is inaccurate. The Fermi-Dirac integral provides a more exact calculation for
carrier concentration in these cases.
n0 and p0 were derived assuming that the Boltzmann approximation was valid. If the Boltzmann
approximation dose not hold means the equation changes to,
Let us take and then,

The integral is defined as,

This function is called Fermi-Dirac integral, if ƞF > 0, then EF > EC the Fermi level is in the conduction band

Similarly,

where and

This function is called Fermi-Dirac integral although the variable have slight different definition,
if ƞ’F > 0, then the Fermi level is in the valance band
Fermi Dirac integral vs. Fermi energy

ηF > 0, E F > E C
 Degenerate and Non-degenerate semiconductors
Feature Non-Degenerate Semiconductor Degenerate Semiconductor

Doping Level Lightly doped Heavily doped

Fermi Level In the forbidden gap, far from In the conduction or valence band
band edges

Dopant Levels Atom-like, separated Merge into impurity bands

Behavior Exhibits typical semiconductor Behaves like a metal

properties

degenerately doped (a) n-type and (b) p-type semiconductors.

(a) e- conc. > Nc (b)hole conc. > Nv
 Statistics of donors and acceptors
Fermi–Dirac distribution probability of state being occupied
Reconsider Fermi–Dirac distribution and apply the probability statistics to the donor/acceptor energy states.
The Pauli exclusion principle also applies to the donor and acceptor states.
Let there be Ni electrons and gi quantum states, (i indicates the ith energy level).
There are gi ways of choosing where to put the first particle.
Each electron has two spin orientation = 2 quantum states
The insertion of an electron into one quantum state, however, precludes putting an electron into the second
quantum state. By adding one electron, the vacancy requirement of the atom is satisfied, and the
addition of a second electron in the donor level is not possible.
The distribution function of donor electrons in the donor energy states is then slightly different than the
Fermi–Dirac function.
The probability function of electrons occupying the donor state is

where nd  density of electrons occupying the donor level

Ed  energy of the donor level.
The factor ½ is a direct result of the spin factor 1/g, where g is called a degeneracy factor.
Equation can also be written in the form

Nd concentration of donor atoms

Nd+ concentration of ionized donor atoms

Simiarlly Na concentration of acceptor atoms

Na- concentration of ionized acceptor atoms
 Complete Ionization and Freez-out

The probability function for electrons in the donor energy state was just given by

If we assume that (Ed-EF) >> kT, then

If (Ed-EF) >> kT, Boltzmann approximation also valid for electron in the conduction band, so that

We can determine the relative no. of electrons in the donor state compared with the total no. of electrons;
therefore, we can consider the ratio of electrons in the donor state to the total no. of electrons in the
conduction band + donor state.
Dividing by the numerator term, we obtain

The factor (Ec - Ed) is just the ionization energy of the donor electrons.

At room temperature, complete ionization of the acceptor atoms.

At 0K, no electrons from the donor state are thermally elevated into the conduction band; this
effect is called freeze-out.
At room temperature, complete
ionization of the acceptor
atoms.

At T = 0K,
nd = Nd & Nd+ = 0
So exp(-∞) = 0,
E F > Ed
Determine the fraction of total electrons still in the donor states at T = 300 K. Consider
phosphorus doping in silicon, for T 300 K, at a concentration of Nd = 1016 cm-3. (Pg No:
133)
 Charge Neutrality - Compensated SC
• Contains both donor and acceptor in same region
• Formed by diffusing acceptor impurities in n-type or donor impurities in p-type material

• Nd > Na – n-type compensated

• Nd < Na – p-type compensated
• Nd = Na – completely compensated
 Equilibrium Distribution of Electron and Hole Concentrations

The charge neutrality condition is expressed by equating the density of negative charges to the density
of positive charges.
or

where n0 and p0  thermal-equilibrium concentrations of electrons and holes in the CB and VB.
nd  concentration of electrons in the donor energy states,
so Nd+ = Nd - nd  concentration of positively charged donor states.
Similarly, pa  concentration of holes in the acceptor states,
so Na- = Na - pa  concentration of negatively charged acceptor states.
For complete ionization, nd = pa
𝑛0 + Na = P0 + Nd

Since, n0p0 = ni2 𝑛𝑖2

𝑝0 = (Use to calculate the minority carrier)
𝑛0
Sub,

Positive sign in the quadratic formula, since Nd > Na (since for intrinsic Nd = Na = 0 ; n0 = ni

the above eqn. is used to calculate the electron concentration for an n-type semiconductor when Nd > Na

Similarly for p-type SC, 𝑛𝑖2

𝑛0 = (Use to calculate the minority carrier)
𝑝0
p02 - (Na - Nd)p0 – ni2 =0

the above eqn. is used to calculate the hole concentration for a p-type semiconductor when Na > Nd
Intrinsic : Nd =Na = 0 ; then n= p= ni

N-type : Nd >> Na; if Nd-Na >> 2ni, then n = Nd and p = ni2/Nd

P-type : Na >> Nd; if Na - Nd >> 2pi ; then p = Na and n = ni2/Na

For complete ionization and if Na-Nd >> ni ; then p0 = Na - Nd

Therefore, minority carrier electron concentration in p-type semiconductor is

𝑛𝑖2 𝑛𝑖2
𝑛0 = =
𝑝0 𝑁𝑎 − 𝑁𝑑
Electron Conc. Vs. Temp.
Determine the thermal-equilibrium electron and hole concentrations in silicon at T=300 K
for given doping concentrations. (a) Let Nd = 1016 cm-3 and Na = 0. (b) Let Nd = 5 ×1015 cm-3 and
Na = 2 ×1015 cm-3 . (ni = 1.5 ×1010 cm-3 in silicon at T 300 K. (Pg. No:137)

Find the thermal-equilibrium electron and hole concentrations in silicon with doping concentrations
of Nd = 7 × 1015 cm-3 and Na = 3 × 1015 cm-3 for (a) T = 250 K and (b) T = 400 K.
 Drift velocity and mobility
Absence of Electric field Presence of Electric field

• Mean free time & Mean free path - Avg. time & Avg. distance between collisions
• vth – thermal velocity & vd – drift velocity
• Net e- velocity = vth + vd
• Increase in velocity -> Reduction in mean free time -> Energy loss to lattice due to
frequent collision
• At equilibrium, avg. drift velocity is acquired.
• In steady state, momentum gained between collisions is lost to lattice;
me* vd = -eEτc

vd = -(eτc/ me*)E = -μnE

μn -> Mobility of electrons

• For holes, vd = (qτc/ mh*)E = μpE

• Generally, me* < mh* & μn > μp
Effect of temperature and doping on mobility
 Drift Current Density
• Current density for a positive volume charge density ρ moving at vd is
Jdrf = ρvd
• Considering the charge to be holes, (p = number of holes)
Jp|drf = (ep)vdp
• Eqn. of motion of the hole under an electric field,
F = mp*a = eE
• Velocity should increase for constant E-field; but doesn’t due to collisions
• Due to collisions, charges attain a avg. drift velocity,
vdp = μpE
• Combining prev. eqns., hole drift current density
Jp|drf = epμpE
• Similarly for electron, (n = number of electrons)
Jn|drf = enμnE
• Total drift current density
Jdrf = e(nμn + pμp)E = σ E , σ -> Conductivity
• J = I/A, I = JA
• E = V/L
• We know, Jdrf = σ E
• Hence, (I/A) = σ (V/L)

• i.e., V = (L/ σA) I

V = (ρL/A)I = IR - OHM’S LAW

 Carrier Diffusion

Diffusion coefficient; indicates how well carrier move as a result of density gradient.
 Diffusion current density
• e- conc. varies in 1-D; T const

• x = -l & x = +l

• Rate of e- flow in the +x direction at x = 0,

Fn = ½ {n(-l)vth} – ½ {n(+l) vth}
= ½ vth { n(-l) – n(+l)}

• If we expand the electron concentration in a

Taylor series about x = 0 keeping only the first two terms, then
Fn = ½ vth { [n(0) – l(dn/dx)] – [n(0) + l(dn/dx)] }
Fn = - vth l (dn/dx)
• Electron diffusion current is given by
J = -eFn = +evth l (dn/dx)
• For a 1-D diffusion of electrons, the electron diffusion current density is
Jnx|dif = eDn (dn/dx)
Dn Electron diffusion coefficient
• Similarly, hole diffusion current density will be
Jpx|dif = - eDp (dp/dx) Drift current is the flow of charge
Dp Hole diffusion coefficient carriers (electrons and holes) caused
by an external electric field, moving
carriers from a region of high potential
• Total Current Density to low potential, while diffusion
current is the flow of charge carriers
resulting from a non-uniform
J = eExnμn + eExpμp + eDn (dn/dx) - eDp (dp/dx)
concentration of carriers, where
carriers move from a region of high
• In 3-D, concentration to low
concentration. The total current in a
semiconductor is the sum of both drift
J = eEnμn + eEpμp + eDn ∇n – eDp ∇p and diffusion currents.
Again at thermal equilibrium the total electron current is zero. Therefore,
 Generation, Recombination and Injection of charge carriers

• The carrier generation is the process whereby electrons and holes are created.
• The recombination is the process whereby electrons and holes are annihilated.

Basically, there are three types of carrier generations.

(i) Photogeneration

(ii) Thermal excitation

(iii) Impact ionization

 Photogeneration

In photogeneration, light of frequency v falls on a semiconductor. Let hv be the energy of light photon greater than the
bandgap of the semiconductor.

By absorption of light photon, one electron jumps from valence band to conduction band generating an electron-hole pair.

For different wavelengths of light with different energies (hv2, hv3) it can take an electron in higher conduction band
states.

hν ν3
ν2
I
ν1

mA

νc ν
Thermal excitation

• With increase in temperature of the semiconductor, lattice vibrations increase which give rise to more phonons.
• Due to more lattice vibrations, covalent bonds in the semiconductor break down and electron-hole pairs are
generated.
 Impact ionization

In this process, one energetic charge carrier will create another charge carrier.

When a semiconductor is under an electric field, electrons gain energy from the applied electric field and hit other Si-atoms.

In this process, a bond breaks out generating more carriers. very high electric field, it results in a avalanche breakdown.
 Recombination

In recombination, a pair of electron and hole gets recombined. When a free electron in the conduction
band falls to valence band and recombines with a hole, it becomes a bound electron in valence band.

Recombination occurs in three ways:

(a) Radiative Recombination

(b) Non-radiative (Shockley-Read-Hall) Recombination

(c) Auger Recombination

Radiative Recombination

It occurs for direct band semiconductors (like GaAs). In this process, electrons from conduction band minimum
falls to valence band maximum without changing the momentum. In this process, one photon of energy hv (=
Eg) is emitted.

Electrons which are excited to higher energy states in conduction band will come to the conduction band
minimum by releasing energy as heat.
Non-radiative (Shockley-Read-Hall) Recombination

• In this recombination process, electrons from conduction band minimum come to a defect level
intermediate between Ec and Ev by radiating energy as photons or phonons. Then, electron turns from
that intermediate level to the valence band.

• This type of recombination is basically seen in impure semiconductor which has defect levels. Generally,
the defect level lies in the middle of the forbidden gap.
Auger Recombination

• In Auger recombination, three carriers are involved. In this process, an electron and a hole recombine and
the energy is given to the third free electron in the conduction band.

• Then, the third excited electron comes back to the conduction band edge by emitting energy as heat.
Generally, an Auger recombination occurs for heavily doped material.