Blood Components
Normally, 7-8% of human body weight is from blood. In adults, this amounts
to 4.5-6 quarts of blood. This essential fluid carries out the critical functions of
transporting oxygen and nutrients to our cells and getting rid of carbon
dioxide, ammonia, and other waste products. In addition, it plays a vital role in
our immune system and in maintaining a relatively constant body
temperature. Blood is a highly specialized tissue composed of more than
4,000 different kinds of components. Four of the most important ones are red
cells, white cells, platelets, and plasma. All humans produce these blood
components--there are no populational or regional differences.
Red Cells
Red cells, or erythrocytes , are relatively large microscopic cells without
nuclei. In this latter trait, they are similar to the primitive prokaryotic cells of
bacteria. Red cells normally make up 40-50% of
the total blood volume. They transport oxygen
from the lungs to all of the living tissues of the
body and carry away carbon dioxide. The red
cells are produced continuously in our bone
marrow from stem cells at a rate of about 2-3
million cells per second. Hemoglobin is the gas
transporting protein molecule that makes up 95%
of a red cell. Each red cell has about 270,000,000 Human erythrocytes or "red cells"
iron-rich hemoglobin molecules. People who are (cell diameter about .0003 inches)
anemic generally have a deficiency in red cells, and subsequently feel
fatigued due to a shortage of oxygen. The red color of blood is primarily due
to oxygenated red cells. Human fetal hemoglobin molecules differ from those
produced by adults in the number of amino acid chains. Fetal hemoglobin has
three chains, while adults produce only two. As a consequence, fetal
hemoglobin molecules attract and transport relatively more oxygen to the cells
of the body.
White Cells
White cells, or leukocytes , exist in variable numbers and types but make
up a very small part of blood's volume--normally only about 1% in healthy
people. Leukocytes are not limited to blood. They occur elsewhere in the
body as well, most notably in the spleen, liver, and lymph glands. Most are
produced in our bone marrow from the same kind of stem cells that produce
red blood cells. Others are produced in the thymus gland, which is at the
base of the neck. Some white cells (called lymphocytes ) are the first
responders for our immune system. They seek out, identify, and bind to alien
protein on bacteria, viruses, and fungi so that they can be removed. Other
white cells (called granulocytes andmacrophages ) then arrive to
surround and destroy the alien cells. They also have the function of getting rid
of dead or dying blood cells as well as foreign matter such as dust and
asbestos. Red cells remain viable for only about 4 months before they are
removed from the blood and their components recycled in the spleen.
Individual white cells usually only last 18-36 hours before they also are
removed, though some types live as much as a year. The description of white
cells presented here is a simplification. There are actually many specialized
sub-types of them that participate in different ways in our immune responses.
Platelets
Platelets , or thrombocytes , are cell
fragments without nuclei that work with blood
clotting chemicals at the site of wounds. They do
this by adhering to the walls of blood vessels,
thereby plugging the rupture in the vascular wall.
They also can release coagulating chemicals
which cause clots to form in the blood that can erythrocyte (left), thrombocyte
plug up narrowed blood vessels. Thirteen (center), and leukocyte (right)
different blood clotting factors, in addition to
platelets, need to interact for clotting to occur. They do so in a cascading
manner, one factor triggering another. Hemophiliacs lack the ability to
produce either blood factor 8 or 9.
Platelets are not equally effective in clotting blood throughout the entire day.
The body's circadian rhythm system (its internal biological clock) causes the
peak of platelet activation in the morning. This is one of the main reasons that
strokes and heart attacks are more common in the morning.
Recent research has shown that platelets also help fight infections by
releasing proteins that kill invading bacteria and some other microorganisms.
In addition, platelets stimulate the immune system. Individual platelets are
about 1/3 the size of red cells. They have a lifespan of 9-10 days. Like the
red and white blood cells, platelets are produced in bone marrow from stem
cells.
Plasma
Plasma is the relatively clear, yellow tinted water (92+%), sugar, fat, protein and salt
solution which carries the red cells, white cells, and platelets. Normally, 55% of our
blood's volume is made up of plasma. As the heart pumps blood to cells throughout
the body, plasma brings nourishment to them and removes the waste products
of metabolism. Plasma also contains blood clotting factors, sugars, lipids, vitamins,
minerals, hormones, enzymes, antibodies, and other proteins. It is likely that plasma
contains some of every protein produced by the body--approximately 500 have been
identified in human plasma so far.
Agglutination
Sometimes when the blood of two people is mixed together, it clumps or forms visible
islands in the liquid plasma--the red cells become attached to one another. This is
agglutination.
Unagglutinated blood smear Agglutinated blood
When different types of blood are mixed within the body, the reaction can be a
bursting of the red cells as well as agglutination. Different types of blood are
recognized on the molecular level and sometimes rejected by being destroyed
and ultimately filtered out by the kidneys in order to expel them from the body
along with urine. In the case of a transfusion mistake, there can be so much
of the wrong type of blood in the system that it can result in kidney failure and
death. This is due to the fact that when the kidneys try to filter the blood, they
essentially become clogged as they are overwhelmed and cease being
effective filters. Additionally, there is a rapid depletion of blood clotting factors
which causes bleeding from every body orifice. In the United States, about 1
in 12,000 units of whole blood transfused is given to the wrong person.
Depending on the blood types of the donor and the recipient, this can result in
death or no problems at all.
The compositional difference between blood types is in the specific kinds
of antigens found on the surface of the red cells. Antigens are relatively large
protein molecules that provide the biological signature of an individual's blood type.
(not actual shape or size of antigens)
Within blood, there are substances called antibodies which distinguish particular
antigens from others, causing bursting or agglutination of the red cells when alien
antigens are found. The antibodies bind to the antigens. In the case of agglutination,
the antibodies "glue" together the antigens from different red cells thereby sticking the
red cells together (as shown below on the right).
Antibodies seeking specific antigens Antibodies agglutinating red cells
(not actual shape or size of antigens and antibodies)
As agglutination proceeds, millions of red cells are glued together into
clumps. This is not the same thing as clotting. When agglutination occurs,
the blood mostly remains liquid. With clotting, however, it does not.
The specific types of antigens on our red blood cells determine our blood
types. There are 29 known human blood systems, or groups, for which each
of us can be typed. As a result, there are one or more antigens for each of
these blood groups. Since many of these blood systems also are found in
apes and monkeys, it is likely that they evolved prior to the time that we
became a separate species.
White Cell Antibodies
The blood type antigen-antibody interaction is one of many similar recognition-
rejection phenomena in our bodies. Infectious microorganisms, such as viruses, also
carry foreign antigens which stimulate the production of white cell antibodies
(lymphocytes) that attack the antigens by binding to them as a way of getting rid of
the invading parasites. Once stem cells in our bone marrow produce antibodies to
identify a specific alien antigen, we have the ability to produce them more quickly and
in larger numbers. This results in the development of a long-term active immunity to
future invasions of the same kind of alien antigen. This is the key to successful
vaccination for viruses and some other microorganisms that invade our bodies.
White cell antibodies are also responsible for recognizing and rejecting alien
body tissues, or, more accurately, the antigens on their cells. This is the main
reason that organ transplants were most often unsuccessful in the past until
the creation of drugs that can suppress the immune system and thereby
prevent organ rejection. The immune system that is responsible is called
the human leukocyte antigen (HLA) system. This is by far the
most polymorphic of all known human genetic systems--there are more than
100 antigens on tissue cells in humans resulting in approximately 30,000,000
possible HLA genotypes. The chance of two unrelated people having the
same HLA genotypes is very slim. Subsequently, HLA incompatibility
between organ donors and recipients are common.
NOTE: Antibodies are also known as "agglutinins" and antigens as
"agglutinogens". This alternative terminology is not used here because of the
potential confusion of similar words.
NOTE: It is now known that the blood of some women who have been
pregnant can cause a life-threatening reaction in people who receive
transfusions from them. This reaction is known as "transfusion-related acute
lung injury" (TRALI). This can occur if the donor's blood contains antibodies
produced by her body during a pregnancy in order to prevent rejection of
blood cell antigens in male fetuses. The likelihood of this occurring apparently
is higher for women who have given birth more than once. TRALI apparently
is mainly a problem if the blood recipient receives plasma rather than whole
blood. Because of the risk, the American Red Cross is shifting to using 95%
male plasma donors. In the recent past, it has been 50% male.