Module 1: INTRODUCTION TO CONIC SECTIONS AND CIRCLES

I – LEARNING OUTCOMES OF THE LESSON

At the end of the lesson, the student is able to:
1. illustrate the different types of conic sections: parabola, ellipse, circle, hyperbola, and degenerate cases;
2. define a circle;
3. determine the standard form of equation of a circle; and
4. graph a circle in a rectangular coordinate system; and
5. solve situational problems involving conic sections (circles).

II – REFERENCES

Pelias, John Gabriel P. 2016. Pre – Calculus. Rex Book Store. Manila

Garces, Ian June L., Ph.D. 2016. Pre – Calculus. Published by the Commission on Higher Education in
collaboration with the Philippine Normal University.

III – LEARNING CONTENT

We introduce the conic sections, a particular class of curves which sometimes appear in nature and which
have applications in other fields. In this lesson, we discuss the first of their kind, circles. The other conic sections
will be covered in the next lessons.

An Overview of Conic Sections

We introduce the conic sections (or conics), a particular class of curves which oftentimes appear in nature
and which have applications in other fields. One of the first shapes we learned, a circle, is a conic. When you
throw a ball, the trajectory it takes is a parabola. The orbit taken by each planet around the sun is an ellipse.
Properties of hyperbolas have been used in the design of certain telescopes and navigation systems. We will
discuss circles in this lesson, leaving parabolas, ellipses, and hyperbolas for subsequent lessons.

• Circle (Figure 1.1) - when the plane is horizontal

• Ellipse (Figure 1.1) - when the (tilted) plane intersects only one cone to form a bounded curve

• Parabola (Figure 1.2) - when the plane intersects only one cone to form an unbounded curve

• Hyperbola (Figure 1.3) - when the plane (not necessarily vertical) intersects both cones to form two unbounded
curves (each called a branch of the hyperbola

We can draw these conic sections (also called conics) on a rectangular coordinate plane and find their
equations. To be able to do this, we will present equivalent definitions of these conic sections in subsequent
sections, and use these to find the equations.

There are other ways for a plane and the cones to intersect, to form what are referred to as degenerate
conics: a point, one line, and two lines. See Figures 1.4, 1.5 and 1.6.

1
Definition and Equation of a Circle
A circle may also be considered a special kind of ellipse (for the special case when the tilted plane is
horizontal). For our purposes, we will distinguish between these two conics.
See Figure 1.7, with the point C (3 ,1) shown. From the figure, the distance of A(−2, 1) from C is
AC=5 . By the distance formula, the distance of B(6 , 5) from C is BC= √ (6−3)2 +(5−1)2=5. There are other
points P such that PC =5. The collection of all such points which are 5 units away from C , forms a circle.

Definition
A circle is the locus of all points in the plane having the same fixed positive distances, called the radius,
from a fixed point, called the center. The point C is called the center of the circle.

The term radius is both used to refer to a segment from the center C to a point P on the circle, and the length of
this segment. See Figure 1.8, where a circle is drawn. It has center C (h , k ) and radius r >0 . A point P(x , y) is
on the circle if and only if PC =r . For any such point then, its coordinates should satisfy the following.
PC =r
√(x−h)2 +( y−k)2=r
2 2 2
( x−h) +( y−k ) =r

This is the standard equation of the circle with center C (h , k ) and radius r . If the center is the origin, then h=0
and k =0. The standard equation is then x 2+ y 2=r 2.

Example 1. In each item, give the standard equation of the circle satisfying the given conditions.

a. center at the origin, radius 4

b. center (−4 , 3), radius √ 7
c. circle in Figure 1.7
d. circle A in Figure 1.9
e. circle B in Figure 1.9
f. center (5 ,−6), tangent to the y−axis
g. center (5 ,−6), tangent to the x−axis
h. has a diameter with endpoints A(−1, 4) and B(4 , 2)

2
Solution:

2 2 2
a. x + y =r ~Equation with center @ origin
2 2 2
x + y =4
x ~Substituting the value of r
2 2
x + y =16
2 2 2
b. (x−h) +( y−k ) =r
~Equation with center at (h , k )
2
r =5 [ x−(−4 ) ]2 +( y−3)2=√ 7
● ~ Substituting h=−4 , k =3, and r =√ 7
(5 ,−6) 2 2
( x +4 ) +( y−3) =7 ~
Simplification

c. Center:C (3 ,1); h=3 and k =1

Point A (−2 , 1 ) ; x=−2 and y=1
r =AC =√ (x−h)2 +( y−k)2= √ (−2−3)2 +(1−1)2 =√−5 2=√ 25=5
2 2 2
( x−h) +( y−k ) =r ~Equation
2 2 2
(x−3) +( y−1) =5 ~ Substituting the value of h , k , and r .
2 2
( x−3) +( y−1) =25

d. By inspection, the center is (−2 ,−1) and the radius is 4

2 2 2
( x−h) +( y−k ) =r
2 2 2
[ x−(−2 ) ] +[ y− (−1 ) ] =4
2 2
( x +2) +( y +1) =16

e. Similarly, by inspection, we have C (3 , 2) and r =3.

2 2 2
( x−h) +( y−k ) =r
( x−3 )2 + ( y −2 )2=32
2 2
( x−3) +( y−2) =9

f. center (5 ,−6), tangent to the y−axis

The center is 5 units away from the y-axis, so the radius is r =5
y

3
 2 2 2
( x−h) +( y−k ) =r
2 2 2
(x−5) +[ y− (−6 ) ] =5
2 2
(x−5) +( y + 6) =25

g. center (5 ,−6), tangent to the x−axis

The center is 6 units away from the x-axis, so r =6 (try to sketch the graph)
2 2 2
(x−h) +( y−k ) =r
2 2 2
(x−5) +[ y− (−6 ) ] =6
2 2
( x−5) +( y + 6) =36

h. The center C is the midpoint of A(−1, 4) and B(4 , 2)

C= (
−1+ 4 4 +2
2
,
2
3 6
= , = ,3
2 2
3
2)( )( )
2 2
(x−h) +( y−k ) =r
2
√ 3 2
r =AC =√ (x−h)2 +( y−k)2= (−1− ) +(4−3)2=
2
25
4
+1=
29
4 √ √
√
2 2
3 2 29
(x− ) +( y−3) =
2 4
2
3 2 29
(x− ) +( y−3) =
2 4
More Properties of Circles
After expanding, the standard equation
2
3 2 29
(x− ) +( y−3) =
2 4
can be rewritten as
2 2
x + y −3 x−6 y−5=0 ,
an equation of the circle in general form.

If the equation of a circle is given in the general form

2 2
A x + A y +Cx + Dy+ E=0 , A ≠ 0
2 2
or x + y +Cx + Dy+ E=0
we can determine the standard form by completing the square in both variables.

Example 2. Identify the center and radius of the circle with the given equation in each item. Sketch its graph, and
indicate the center.

a. x 2+ y 2−6 x=7
b. x 2+ y 2−14 x +2 y=−14
c. 16 x 2+ 16 y 2+ 96 x−40 y=315
d. x 2+ y 2+ 6 x−10 y+ 34=0

Solution:
a. x 2+ y 2−6 x=7
2 2
(x −6 x )+ y =7 ~ Group terms with the same variable and transpose constant to
the right side
( x 2−6 x +9 ) + y 2=7+9 ~ Completing the square (Review lectures from grade 9)
2 2
(x−3) + y =16 ~ Standard Form of the equation
4
 C ( 3 , 0)
2
r =16 ,r =4

2 2
b. x + y −14 x +2 y=−14
(x ¿¿ 2−14 x )+( y ¿¿ 2+2 y )=−14 ¿ ¿ ~ Group terms with the same variable and transpose
constant to the right side
(x ¿¿ 2−14 x + 49)+( y ¿¿ 2+2 y +1)=−14+ 49+1 ¿ ¿ ~ Completing the square
2 2
( x−7) +( y+ 1) =36 ~ Standard Form of the equation

C ( 7 ,−1 )
2
r =36 ,r =6

2 2
c. 16 x + 16 y + 96 x−40 y=315
2 2
(16 x + 96 x)+(16 y −40 y )=315
2 2 5
16(x +6 x )+16 ( y − y )=315 ~ Factor out 16 from both group
2
5
16 ( x 2 +6 x+ 9 ) +16 y 2− y +
2 (
25
16 ) 25
=315+16 ( 9 ) +16 ( )
16
2
2 5
16(x +3) +16 ( y− )
4 484
=
16 16
2
2 5 121
(x +3) +( y− ) =
4 4

(
C −3 ,
5
4 ) ●
(−3 , 5 )
r 2=
121
4
,r=
121 11
4
= =5.5
2 √
In the standard equation (x−h)2 +( y−k )2=r 2, both the
two squared terms on the left side have coefficient 1. This is the
reason why in the preceding example, we divided by 16 at the last
equation.

5
 2 2
d. x + y + 6 x−10 y+ 34=0
(x ¿¿ 2+6 x)+ ( y 2−10 y )=−34 ¿
(x ¿¿ 2+6 x +9)+ ( y 2−10 y +25 ) =−34+ 9+25 ¿
2 2
(x +3) +( y−5) =0

C (−3 , 5 ) , r =0
The graph is just a single point since r =0.

Note: The graph of an equation is an EMPTY SET if r <0 .

Situational Problems Involving Circles

Example 3. A street with two lanes, each 10 ft wide, goes through a semicircular tunnel with radius 12 ft . How
high is the tunnel at the edge of each lane? Round off to 2 decimal places.

Solution:
We draw a coordinate system with origin at the middle of the highway, as shown.
 Because of the given radius, the tunnel’s boundary is on the circle x 2+ y 2=122.
 Point P is the point on the arc just above the edge of a lane, so its x−¿ coordinate is 10 . We need its y-
coordinate.
 We then solve 102 + y 2=122
2 2 2
y =12 −10
2
y =144−100=44
y= √ 44=6.63 ft ~ Height of the tunnel at the edge of each lane

Module 2: PARABOLAS

I – LEARNING OUTCOMES OF THE LESSON

At the end of the lesson, the student is able to:
1. define a parabola;
2. determine the standard form of equation of a parabola;
3. graph a parabola in a rectangular coordinate system; and
4. solve situational problems involving conic sections (parabolas).

II – REFERENCES

Pelias, John Gabriel P. 2016. Pre – Calculus. Rex Book Store. Manila

Garces, Ian June L., Ph.D. 2016. Pre – Calculus. Published by the Commission on Higher Education in
collaboration with the Philippine Normal University.

II – LEARNING CONTENT

6
Introduction
A parabola is one of the conic sections. We have already seen parabolas which open upward or
downward, as graphs of quadratic functions. Here, we will see parabolas opening to the left or right. Applications
of parabolas are presented at the end.

Definition and Equation of a Parabola

Definition
A parabola is the locus of all points in the plane whose distances from a fixed point F and a fixed line l
are the same. The fixed point is called the focus, while the fixed line is called the directrix.

A parabola always opens in the direction where the focus is situated (hence the names “focus”). That is,
the focus is always on the concave side (the inside) or, in more dramatic terms, a parabola always “devours” its
focus. The line that passes through the focus and is perpendicular to the directrix is called the axis of the
parabola. A parabola is always symmetric about its axis. Also, the axis will always hit the parabola at exactly one
point V. This point is called the vertex of the parabola. The segment having endpoints on the parabola passing
through the focus and parallel to the directrix is called the parabola’s latus rectum.

Latus Rectum

As shown in the graph:

~Vertex V: (0,0) ~Latus Rectum: |4 c|=|8|=8 units
~Focus F: (0,2) *Endpoints: ( 4 , 2 )∧(−4 ,2)
~c=2 units ~Axis of Symmetry: x=0
~Directrix: y=−2
Derivation of the Equation
PF=P Pl
(by distance formula)
√ x 2+( y−c)2= y −(−c)
√ x 2+( y−c)2= y +c
√ x 2+( y−c)2 =( y+ c)2
2

2 2 2 2 2
x + y −2 cy +c = y +2 cy +c
2
x =4 cy
Equation of a Vertical or horizontal Parabola with Vertex at the Origin

7
GRAPH 2
y =−4
2 cx
l y =4 cx l
2
x =4 cy
l
lF
FF
F
2
x =−4 cy
EQUATI 2 2 2 2
ON x =4 cy
x =−4 cy
y =4 cx
y =−4 cx
FOCUS
F
F (0 , c)F (0 ,−c)
F (c ,0)F (−c , 0)
DIRECT
RIX l
l : y=−c
l : y=c l : x=−c
l : x=c
AXIS OF
SYMME x=0 x=0 y=0 y=0
TRY
LATUS
RECTU |4 c| |4 c| |4 c| |4 c|
M

Example 1: Determine the focus and directrix of the parabola with the given equation. Sketch the graph, and
indicate the focus, directrix, vertex, and axis of symmetry.

2 y
a. x =12 y
Solution:
a. V (0 ,0)
A.S: x=0
L.R: |4 c|=|12|=12

4 c 12 LR=12
c= = =3 ● ●F ●
4 4 2
x =12 y
Opens upward
c
F ( 0 , c )= ( 0 ,3 )
x
l : y=−c=−3
c
l : y=−3

y
b. b. y 2=−6 x

Solution:
V (0 ,0) ●
A.S: y=0 2
y =−6 x
L.R: |4 c|=|−6|=6 3
l : x=
−4 c −6 3 ●F 2 x
c= = =
−4 −4 2 LR=6
Open ¿the ¿
−3 ●
F (−c , 0 )=( , 0)
2

8
 3
l : x=c=
2

Example 2: Find an equation of the parabola

a. with focus at ( 0 , 2 ) and directrix y=−2
b. with focus at (−1 , 0 ) and directrix x=1

Solution:
a. Focus is in the form of F ( 0 , c ) and therefore the equation must be applied is
2
x =4 cy . Substituting the value of c which is 2, we have
2
x =4 cy
2
x =4 (2) y
2
x =8 y
b. Focus is in the form of F (−c , 0 ) and therefore the equation must be applied is
2
y =−4 cx . Substituting the value of c which is 1 we have
2
y =−4 cx
2
y =−4(1) x
2
y =−4 x

Equation of a parabola with vertex at (h , k )

9
 The following observations are worth noting.
• The equations are in terms of x−h and y−k : the vertex coordinates are subtracted from the
corresponding variable. Thus, replacing both h and k with 0 would yield the case where the vertex is the
origin. For instance, this replacement applied to (x−h)2=4 c ¿) (parabola opening upward) would yield
2
x =4 cy , the first standard equation we encountered (parabola opening upward, vertex at the origin).
• If the x−¿ part is squared, the parabola is “vertical”; if the y−¿part is squared, the parabola is
“horizontal.” In a horizontal parabola, the focus is on the left or right of the vertex, and the directrix is
vertical.

• If the coefficient of the linear (non-squared) part is positive, the parabola opens upward or to the right; if
negative, downward or to the left.

Example 3: The figure shows the graph of parabola, with only its focus and vertex indicated. Find it standard
equation. What is its directrix and axis of symmetry?

Solution: From the given V ( 5 ,−4 ) and F (3 ,−4), we determined that h=5, k =−4 , and c=2 (the
distance of the focus from the vertex). Since the parabola open to the left, we use the template
2
( y−k ) =−4 c (x−h). Substituting the value of h, k , and c , our equation is:
2
( y−k ) =−4 c ( x−h)
2
[ y−(−4 ) ] =−4 (2)( x−5)
2
( y + 4) =−8( x−5)

Its directrix is c=2 units to the right of , which is x=7 . Its axis is the horizontal line through V : y=4 .

The standard equation ( y + 4)2=−8( x−5) from the preceding example can be rewritten as
2
y +8 x+ 8 y−24=0 , an equation of the parabola in general form.
Example 4: Determine the vertex, focus, directrix, and axis of symmetry of the parabola with the given equation.
Sketch the parabola, and include these points and lines.

(a) y 2−5 x +12 y=−16 (b) 5 x 2+30 x +24 y =51

Solution:
2
a. y −5 x +12 y=−16 ~Given
2
y +12 y=5 x−16 ~ y is being squared. Put all terms that contains y on the left
side.
2 2
2
~completing the square. Add ( ) =(
b 12
y +12 y+ 36=5 x−16+ 36 ) =36 to both side
2 2
(where b is the coefficient of y)
2
( y +6) =5 x +20
10
 2
( y +6) =5 (x+ 4) ~Factor out 5 from both terms on right side.

( y +6 )2=5 ( x + 4 )
2
[ y−(−6k )] =5 4 c [x−( −4 h ) ]
Therefore:
V (−4 ,−6)
A.S: y +6=0 or y=−6
L.R: |4 c|=5 units
5 1
c= ∨1
4 4
Open to the right

( 5
)
F ( h+ c , k )= −4+ ,−6 =(−2.75 ,−6)
4
5 1
l : x=h−c=−4− =−5 ∨x=−5.25
4 4

b. 5 x 2+30 x +24 y =51 ~Given

2
5 x +30 x=−24 y +51 ~ x is being squared. Put all terms that contains x on the
left side.
5(x ¿¿ 2+6 x )=−24 y +51 ¿ ~Factor out 5 from both terms on the left.
5(x ¿¿ 2+6 x +9)=−24 y+ 51+ 5(9) ¿ ~Completing the Square.
2
5 ( x+ 3 ) =−24 y + 96
2
5 ( x+ 3 ) =−24 ( y−4) ~ Factor out -24 from both terms on right side
−24
( x +3 )2= ( y −4) ~divide both side by 5.
5

¿
Therefore:
V (−3 , 4)
A.S: x +3=0 or x=−3

L.R: |4 c|= | |
−24 24
5
= units
5
−24
5 24
c= =
−4 20
6
¿ units below the vertex
5
Open downward

( 6
F ( h , k −c )= −3 , 4−
5 )
=(−3 , 2.8)
6 26
l : y=k + c=4 + = ∨ y=5.2
5 5

Example 5. A parabola has focus F (7 , 9) and directrix y=3 . Find its standard equation.

Solution: The directrix is horizontal, and the focus is above it. The parabola then opens upward and its
standard equation has the form (x−h)2=4 c ( y −k ). Since the distance from the focus to the directrix is

11
 2 c=9−3=6, then c=3 .Thus, the vertex is V (7 ,6), the point 3 units below F. The standard equation is
then
( x−h )2=4 c ( y−k )
2
(x−7) =4(3)( y−6)
2
( x−7) =12( y−6)

Situational Problems Involving Parabolas

Example 6. A satellite dish has a shape called a paraboloid, where each cross-section is a parabola. Since radio
signals (parallel to the axis) will bounce off the surface of the dish to the focus, the receiver should be
placed at the focus. How far should the receiver be from the vertex, if the dish is 12 ft across, and 4.5 ft
deep at the vertex?

Solution:
The second figure above shows a cross-section of the satellite dish drawn on a rectangular
coordinate system, with the vertex at the origin. From the problem, we deduce that (6,4.5) is a point on
the parabola. We need the distance of the focus from the vertex, i.e., the value of c in x 2=4 cy .
2
x =4 cy
2
6 =4 c( 4.5)
4 c ( 4.5 ) 6
2
=
4 (4.5) 4( 4.5)
36
c= =2
18
Thus, the receiver should be 2 ft away from the vertex.

Example 7: The cable of a suspension bridge hangs in the shape of a parabola. The towers supporting the cable
are 400 ft apart and 150 ft high. If the cable, at its lowest, is 30 ft above the bridge at its midpoint, how
high is the cable 50 ft away (horizontally) from either tower?

Solution:
Refer to the figure above, where the parabolic cable is drawn with its vertex on the y-axis 30 ft
above the origin. We may write its equation as ( x−0)2=a( y−30) ; since we don’t need the focal
distance, we use the simpler variable a in place of 4 c . Since the towers are 150 ft high and 400 ft apart,
we deduce from the figure that (200,150) is a point on the parabola.
2
x =a ( y−30)
2
200 =a(150−30)

12
 a ( 150−30 ) 200
2
=
(150−30) (150−30)
40000 1000
a= =
120 3
2 1000
The parabola has equation x = ( y−30), or equivalently, y=0.003 x 2 +30. For the two points on
3
the parabola 50 ft away from the towers, x=150 or x=150 . If x=150 , then
2
y=0.003 (150 )+30=97 .5 .

Thus, the cable is 97.5 ft high 50 ft away from either tower. (As expected, we get the same answer from
x=150 .)

Module 3: ELLIPSES

I – LEARNING OUTCOMES OF THE LESSON

At the end of the lesson, the student is able to:
1. define an ellipse;
2. determine the standard form of equation of an ellipse; and
3. graph an ellipse in a rectangular coordinate system.

II – REFERENCES

Pelias, John Gabriel P. 2016. Pre – Calculus. Rex Book Store. Manila

Garces, Ian June L., Ph.D. 2016. Pre – Calculus. Published by the Commission on Higher Education in
collaboration with the Philippine Normal University.

III – LEARNING CONTENT

An ellipse is one of the conic sections that most students have not encountered formally before, unlike
circles and parabolas. Its shape is a bounded curve which looks like a flattened circle. The orbits of the planets in
our solar system around the sun happen to be elliptical in shape. Also, just like parabolas, ellipses have reflective
properties that have been used in the construction of certain structures (shown in some of the practice problems).
We will see some properties and applications of ellipses in this section.

Definition and Equation of an Ellipse

Consider the points F 1(−3 , 0) and F 2(3 ,0), as shown in Figure 1.19. What is the sum of the distances
ofA(4 , 2.4) from F 1 and from F 2? How about the sum of the distances of B andC (0 ,−4) from F 1 and from F 2?
A F 1+ A F 2=7.4+ 2.6=10
B F 1 +B F 2=3.8+6.2=10
C F 1+ C F2 =5+5=10
There are other points P such that P F1 + P F2=10 . The collection of all such points forms a shape called an
ellipse.

Definition

13
 An Ellipse is the locus of all points in the plane the sum of whose distances from two fixed points F 1 and
F 2 is a constant. Each of the two fixed points is called a focus of the ellipse; together, we refer to them as foci.

 Just like the parabola, an ellipse always “devours” its foci.

 The line that passes through the foci is called the principal axis of the ellipse.
 An ellipse is always symmetric about its principal axis.
 The principal axis will always hit the ellipse at exactly two points V 1 andV 2. Each of these two points is
called a vertex of the ellipse; together, they are called vertices.
 An ellipse always has two foci and two vertices.
 The midpoint C of F 1 F 2, which is also the midpoint of V 1 V 2, is called the center of the ellipse.

Equations of an Ellipse with center at the origin, in Standard Form

√
Let a> c> 0 and b= a2−c2 . An equation of the ellipse with center at the origin, and with
1. foci at F 1(−c ,0) and F 2(c , 0) and vertices at V 1 (−a ,0) and V 2 (a ,0) is:
2 2
x y
2
+ 2 =1
a b

2. foci at F 1(0 ,−c ) and F 2(0 , c) and vertices at V 1 (0 ,−a) and V 2 (0 , a) is:
2 2
y x
2
+ 2 =1
a b

ADDENDA:
 How are a , b , and c are related? The definition of b can be rewritten as b 2=a2−c 2 , or
2 2 2
a =b +c . Thus, a is always the largest among the three quantities.
 The distance between the two foci is 2 c .
 The segment V 1 V 2 is called the major axis of the ellipse. Its length is always 2 a . Now, the
segment of length 2 bthat perpendicularly bisects and is perpendicularly bisected by the major
axis is called the minor axis,W 1 W 2 . Its endpoints will also be on the ellipse.
 Points W 1 and W 2 , are called the covertices of an ellipse.

2 2
x y
Example 1. Give the coordinates of the foci, vertices, and covertices of the ellipse with equation + =1.
25 9
Sketch the graph, and include these points.

Solution:
 a 2=25 , thus a=√ 25=5
 b 2=9 , thusb=√ 9=3
√
 c= a 2−b2 =√ 25−9=√ 16=4

14
 2 2
x y
 Form of Equation: 2
+ 2 =1 (a 2=25 , thelargestquantity is together with x 2 . ¿
a b
o Foci: F 1 (−4 , 0 )∧F 2 (4 , 0)
o Vertices: V 1 (−5 ,0 )∧V 2 (5 , 0)

( )
2
9 b 9
o Covertices: W 1 ( 0 ,−3 )∧W 2 (0 ,3) 4 , ; y= =
5 a 5

Example 2. Find the (standard) equation of the ellipse whose foci are F 1(−3 , 0) and F 2(3 ,0), such that for any
point on it, the sum of its distances from the foci is 10. See Figure 1.19.

(Defined from the sum of whose distances from the foci is 10)
Solution:

(observed from the coordinates of the foci)

 2 a=10 ,thus a=5
 c=3
2
√
 b= a −c =√ 25−9=√ 16=4
2

2 2
x y
 Form of Equation: 2
+ 2 =1 (c is onthe x−coordinate ,together with a ¿
a b
2 2 2 2
x y x y
o 2
+ 2
=1 → + =1
5 4 25 16

More Properties of Ellipses

15
 √
In all four cases above, a> b andc= a 2−b2 . The foci F 1and F 2are c units away from the center. The
vertices V 1and V 2are a units away from the center, the major axis has length 2 a, the covertices W 1 and W 2 are b
units away from the center, and the minor axis has length2 b. Recall that, for any point on the ellipse, the sum of
its distances from the foci is2 a.
In the standard equation, if the x−¿ part has the bigger denominator, the ellipse is horizontal. If the y−¿
part has the bigger denominator, the ellipse is vertical.

Example [Link] the coordinates of the center, foci, vertices, and covertices of the ellipse with the given equation.
Sketch the graph, and include these points.

2 2
( x +3) ( y −5)
a. + =1
24 49
Solution:
 a 2=49 , thus a= √ 49=7
 b 2=24 , thus b= √ 24 ≈ 4.9
√
 c= a 2−b2 =√ 49−24= √ 25=5
2 2
( y −k ) (x−h)
 Form of Equation: + =1
a2 b2
(vertical; y− part has the greatest denominator).
o Center: (−3 , 5)
o Foci: F 1 (−3 , 0 )∧F 2 (−3 , 10)
o Vertices: V 1 (−3 ,−2 )∧V 2 (−3 ,12)
o Covertices: W 1 (−3−4.9 , 5 )∧W 2(−3+4.9 , 5)
W 1 (−7.9 ,5 )∧W 2 (1.9 , 5)

b. 2 2
9 x + 16 y −126 x+ 64 y=71
Solution:
We first change the given equation to standard form.
2 2
(9 x −126 x)+(16 y +64 y )=71 Grouping
2 2
9( x −14 x)+16( y + 4 y )=71 Factoring
9 ( x −14 x + 49 ) +16 ( y +4 y+ 4 )=71+9 ( 49 ) +16(4) Completing the Square
2 2

2 2
9(x−7) 16 ( y +2) 576
+ = Divide by 576 to make the coefficient on
576 576 576
the right side equal to 1.
2 2
( x−7) ( y +2)
+ =1
64 36
2
 a =64 , a=8
2
 b =36 , b=6
 c= √a 2−b2 =√64−36=√ 28 ≈ 5.3
 The ellipse is horizontal; x-part has the greatest denominator.
o Center: (7 ,−2)
o Foci: F 1 ( 7−5.3 ,−2 ) ∧F 2 (7+ 5.3 ,−2)
F 1 ( 1.7 ,−2 )∧F 2 (12.3 ,−2)
o Vertices: V 1 ( 7−8 ,−2 )∧V 2 (7 +8 ,−2)

16
 V 1 (−1,−2 )∧V 2 (15 ,−2)
o Covertices: W 1 ( 7 ,−2−6 ) ∧W 2 (7 ,−2+ 6)
W 1 ( 7 ,−8 )∧W 2(7 , 4)

Example [Link] foci of an ellipse are (−3 ,−6) and(−3 , 2). For any point on the ellipse, the sum of its distances
from the foci is 14 . Find the standard equation of the ellipse.

Solution:
 Center is the midpoint of foci.

C= ( −3+2(−3) , −6+2
2 ) =(
2 2 )
−6 −4
, =(−3 ,−2 )
 The ellipse is vertical (because the foci are vertically aligned).
c=4 ; distance ¿ the center ¿ the foci .
From the given sum, 2 a=14 so a=7
b=√ a2−c2 =√7 2−4 2=√ 49−16=√33
2 2
( y −k ) (x−h)
 Equation: + =1 →¿ ¿ ¿
a2 b2
Example [Link] ellipse has vertices (2− √ 61 ,−5) and(2+ √ 61 ,−5), and its minor axis is 12 units long. Find its
standard equation and its foci.

Solution:
 The midpoint (2 ,−5) of the vertices is the center of the ellipse, which is horizontal
 Each vertex is a=√ 61 units away from the center
 From the length of the minor axis, 2 b=12 sob=6 .
2 2
( x−2) ( y+ 5)
o Equation: + =1
61 36
 √
Each focus is c= a 2−b2 =√ 61−36=√ 25=5 units away from (2 ,−5).
o Foci: F 1 ( 2−5 ,−5 )∧F 2 (2+5 ,−5)
F 1 (−3 ,−5 )∧F 2 (7 ,−5)

Situational Problems Involving Ellipses

Example 6.A tunnel has the shape of a semi ellipse that is 15 ft high at the center, and 36 ft across at the base.
At most how high should a passing truck be, if it is 12 ft wide, for it to be able to fit through the tunnel? Round off
your answer to two decimal places.

Solution. Refer to the figure above. If we draw the semi ellipse on a rectangular coordinate system, with its center
at the origin, an equation of the ellipse which contains it, is
2 2
x y
2
+ 2 =1
18 15

17
To maximize its height, the corners of the truck, as shown in the figure, would have to just touch the ellipse. Since
the truck is 12 ft wide, let the point (6 , n) be the corner of the truck in the first quadrant, where n> 0, is the
(maximum) height of the truck. Since this point is on the ellipse, it should fit the equation. Thus, we have
2 2
6 n
2
+ 2 =1
18 15

( )
2
2 2 6
n =15 1− 2
18
n=√ 200≈ 14.14 ft

Module 4: HYPERBOLAS

I – LEARNING OUTCOMES OF THE LESSON

At the end of the lesson, the student is able to:
1. define a hyperbola;
2. determine the standard form of equation of a hyperbola; and
3. graph a hyperbola in a rectangular coordinate system.

II – REFERENCES

Pelias, John Gabriel P. 2016. Pre – Calculus. Rex Book Store. Manila

Garces, Ian June L., Ph.D. 2016. Pre – Calculus. Published by the Commission on Higher Education in
collaboration with the Philippine Normal University.

III – LEARNING CONTENT

Introduction
A hyperbola is one of the conic sections that most students have not encountered formally before, unlike
circles and parabolas. Its graph consists of two unbounded branches which extend in opposite directions. It is a
misconception that each branch is a parabola. This is not true, as parabolas and hyperbolas have very different
features.

Definition and Equation of a Hyperbola

Definition
A hyperbola is the locus of all points in the plane; the absolute difference of whose distances from two
fixed points F 1 and F 2 is a constant. Each of the two fixed points is called a focus of the hyperbola (Foci, plural
form).

Consider the points F 1(5 ,0) and F 2(5 ,0) as shown in Figure 1.21. What is the absolute value of the difference
of the distances of A(3.75 ,−3) from F 1 and from F 2? How about the absolute value of the difference of the
distances of B ¿from F 1 and from F 2?
| A F 1− A F2|=|9.25−3.25|=6
¿ A F1 −A F 2∨¿∨9.25−3.25∨¿6

There are other points P such that ¿ PF 1−PF 2∨¿ 6 . The collection of all such points forms a shape called a
hyperbola, which consists of two disjoint branches. For points P on the left branch, |PF 2−PF 1|=6; for those on
the right branch, ¿ PF1−PF 2∨¿ 6 .

18
  Center – midpoint of F 1 and F 2 or V 1 and V 2.
 Principal Axis of the Hyperbola – is a line that passes through the foci.
 A hyperbola is always symmetric about its principal axis.
 The principal axis will always hit the parabola at exactly two points V 1 and V 2 which are called the
vertices of the hyperbola.
 The hyperbola shares a lot in common with the ellipse except the ellipse is closed while the hyperbola
consists of two branches opening indefinitely in opposing directions.

Equations of a Hyperbola with center at the origin

√
Let c >a> 0 and b= c 2+ a2. An equation of the hyperbola whose center is at the origin with:
1. foci at F 1 (−c , 0 ) and F 2 ( c , 0 ) and vertices V 1 (−a , 0 ) and V 2 ( a , 0 ) is:

2 2
x y
2
− 2 =1
a b

2. foci at F 1 ( 0 , c ) and F 2 ( 0 ,−c ) and vertices V 1 ( 0 , a ) and V 2 ( 0 ,−a ) is:

19
 2 2
y x
2
− 2 =1
a b

ADDENDA
 The above forms of the equation of a hyperbola are referred to as the standard forms.
 How are a , b , and c are related? We note that b 2=c 2−a 2. That is, c 2=a2+ b2. Thus, c is always the
largest among these three quantities.
 As with the ellipse, the foci are still separated by a distance of 2 c .
 The segment v 1 v 2 is called the transverse axis of the hyperbola. Like the ellipse’s major axis, its length
is always 2 a . Now, the segment of length 2 b that perpendicularly bisects and is perpendicularly
bisected by the transverse axis is called the conjugate axis. Unlike an ellipse’s minor axis, the
endpoints of the conjugate axis will not be on the hyperbola. In fact, the conjugate axis will never
hit the hyperbola. Unlike in the case of an ellipse, there is no immediate comparison between the
sizes of a and b ; all we know is that c is the largest. Thus, the transverse axis may or may not be
longer than the conjugate axis. To distinguish a from b in the equation, you have to check which
term is involved with the minus sign and which is not. Note that the one together with the minus
sign is always b .
 Indeed, the greatest deviation of the hyperbola from the ellipse is this: a< c . This time, the foci are farther
from the center than the vertices. Since the hyperbola must “devour” the foci, the hyperbola then
“devours” away from the center, explaining why its branches open in opposite directions.
b −b
 Asymptotes: y= x and y= x , the lines l 1 andl 2in Figure [Link] asymptotes of the hyperbola are
a a
two lines passing through the center which serve as a guide in graphing the hyperbola: each
branch of the hyperbola gets closer and closer to the asymptotes, in the direction towards which
the branch extends. (We need the concept of limits from calculus to explain this.). An aid in
determining the equations of the asymptotes: in the standard equation, replace 1 by 0 , and in the
2 2
x y
resulting equation 2
− 2 =0, solve for y. To help us sketch the asymptotes, we point out that
a b
the asymptotes l 1 andl 2 are the extended diagonals of the auxiliary rectangle drawn in Figure
1.24. This rectangle has sides 2 a and 2 b with its diagonals intersecting at the center C . Two
sides are congruent and parallel to the transverse axis v 1 v 2 . The other two sides are congruent
and parallel to the conjugate axis, the segment shown which is perpendicular to the transverse
axis at the center, and has length 2 b.

Example 1.
2 2
x y
Determine the foci, vertices, and asymptotes of the hyperbola with equation − =1 . Sketch the
9 7
graph, and include these points and lines, the transverse and conjugate axes, and the auxiliary rectangle.

Solution:
 a 2=9 then a=3
b =7 then b=√ 7
2

 c= √ a 2+ b2= √ 9+7=√ 16=4
 Foci: F 1(−4 ,0) and F 2(4 ,0)
 Vertices: v 1(−3 ,0) and v 2( 3 ,0)

 Asymptotes: y=
√ 7 x and y= −√ 7 x .
3 3

20
 The graph is shown at the right. The conjugate axis drawn has its endpoints b=√ 7 ≈ 2.7 units above and
below the center

Example 2.
Find the (standard) equation of the hyperbola whose foci are F 1(−5 ,0) and F 2(5 ,0), such that for any
point on it, the absolute value of the difference of its distances from the foci is 6. See Figure 1.21.

Solution:
 2 a=6 , thereforea=3 ~Dividing both side of the equation by 2.
 c=5 ~Distance from the center to the foci.
√
 b= c 2−a2 = 5 2−32√
¿ √ 25−9=√ 16=4
2 2 2 2
x y x y
 2
− 2
=1 2
− 2
=1 ~Substituting the value of a and b to the
a b 3 4
equation.
2 2
x y
¿ − =1
9 16
Seatwork/ Homework:
2 2
y x
1. Determine foci, vertices, and asymptotes of the hyperbola with equation − =1 . Sketch the graph,
16 20
and include these points and lines, along with the auxiliary rectangle.
2. Find the equation in standard form of the hyperbola whose foci are F 1(−4 √ 2 , 0) and F 2(4 √ 2 , 0), such
that for any point on it, the absolute value of the difference of its distances from the foci is 8.

More Properties of Hyperbolas

21
 √
In all four cases above, we let c= a 2+ b2. The foci F 1 and F 2 are c units away from the center C. The vertices
V 1and V 2are a units away from the center. The transverse axis v 1 v 2 has length 2 a. The conjugate axis has
length 2 b and is perpendicular to the transverse axis. The transverse and conjugate axes bisect each other at
their intersection point, C. Each branch of a hyperbola gets closer and closer to the asymptotes, in the direction
towards which the branch extends. The equations of the asymptotes can be determined by replacing 1 in the
standard equation by 0. The asymptotes can be drawn as the extended diagonals of the auxiliary rectangle
determined by the transverse and conjugate axes. Recall that, for any point on the hyperbola, the absolute value
of the difference of its distances from the foci is 2 a.
In the standard equation, aside from being positive, there are no other restrictions on a and b . In fact, a
and b can even be equal. The orientation of the hyperbola is determined by the variable appearing in the first term
(the positive term): the corresponding axis is where the two branches will open. For example, if the variable in the
first term is x, the hyperbola is “horizontal”: the transverse axis is horizontal, and the branches open to the left and
right in the direction of the x-axis.

Example 3. Give the coordinates of the center, foci, vertices, and asymptotes of the hyperbola with the given
equation. Sketch the graph, and include these points and lines, the transverse and conjugate axes, and the
auxiliary rectangle.

2 2
( y +2) ( x−7 )
1. − =1 2. 4 x 2−5 y 2+32 x +30 y=1
25 9

Solution:
1.
 a 2=25 , thereforea=√ 25=5
b =9 , b= √ 9=3
2

 c= √ a 2+ b2= √ 52 +32= √ 25+ 9=√ 34 ≈ 5.8
 The hyperbola is vertical.
2 2
( y +2) ( x−7 )
 Asymptotes: − =0
25 9
( y+ 2 )2 ( x−7 )2 9 ( y +2 )2 25 ( x−7 )2
= → =
25 9 9 9
→ √ ( y +2)2=
5
√
25
9
(x−7)2

y +2=± (x−7)
3
22
 y=± ( 53 x− 353 )−2
y 1=+ ( 53 x− 353 )−2= 53 x− 353 − 63
5 41
y 1= x−
3 3
y 2=− x−(5
3
35
3 )
−2=
−5
3
x+ −
35 6
3 3
−5 29
y 2= x+
3 3
 Center: C (7 ,−2)
 Foci: F 1(7 ,−2−√ 34 )≈ (7 ,−7.8) and F 2(7 ,−2+ √ 34) ≈(7 ,3.8)
 Vertices: V 1 (7 ,−7) and V 2 (7 , 3)
 The conjugate axis drawn has its endpoints units to the left and right of the center.

2.
We first change the equation to its standard form
 ( 4 x 2+32 x ) +(−5 y 2+30 y )=1 ~Group terms with the same variable
2 2
 4 ( x +8 x)−5( y −6 y )=1 ~ Factor out the common in both terms
 4 ( x + 8 x +16 )−5 ( y −6 y + 9 )=1+ 4 ( 16 ) −5(9)
2 2
~Completing the Square
2 2
 4 ( x+ 4 ) −5 ( y−3 ) =20
2 2
4 ( x + 4 ) 5 ( y −3 ) 20
 − = ~Divide all terms by 20 to make the term on the
20 20 20
right side equal to 1
( x+ 4 )2 ( y−3 )2
 − =1
5 4

 a 2=5 , a= √ 5 ≈ 2.2 c= √ a 2+ b2= √ 5+ 4=√ 9=3

2
b =4 ,b=2
 The hyperbola is horizontal.
( x+ 4 )2 ( y−3 )2
 Asymptotes: − =0
5 4
2 2 2 2
( y −3) (x + 4) 5( y −3) 4 ( x +4)
= → =
4 5 5 5

√ [
√( y −3)2= 54 (x+ 4)2 → y −3=± 25 ( x + 4)
√ ]
2
y=±
5 [√ ]
( x+ 4) +3 and solve for y

2x 8 −2 x 8
y 1= + +3 and y 2= − +3
√ 5 √5 √5 √5
 Center: C (−4 , 3 )
 F 1(−7 , 3)∧F 2 (−1 , 3)
Foci: ~ Add c units to both x -coordinates of foci.
 Vertices: V 1 (−4−√ 5 , 3) and V 2 (−4+ √ 5 , 3) ~ Add a units to both x -coordinate of vertices.
V 1 (−6.2 , 3) and V 2 (−1.8 , 3)
23
  The conjugate axis drawn has its endpoints b=2 units above and below the center.

Example 4: The foci of a hyperbola are (−5 ,−3) and (9 ,−3). For any point on the hyperbola, the absolute
value of the difference of its of its distances from the foci is10. Find the standard equation of the hyperbola.

Solution:
 The midpoint (2 , 3) of the foci is the center of the hyperbola. The x−¿ coordinate of 2 was obtained by
getting the average of x−¿ coordinate of foci.
 Each focus is c=7 units away from the center.
 From the given difference, 2 a=10 soa=5.
 b 2=c 2−a 2=49−25=24
 The hyperbola is horizontal (because the foci are horizontally aligned), so the equation is
( x−h )2 ( y−k )2
− =1
a2 b2
 Substituting the value of a 2 , b2 , h ,∧k , the standard equation of the parabola is
( x−2 )2 ( y +3 )2
− =1
25 24

Example 5. A hyperbola has vertices (−4 ,−5) and (−4 , 9), and one of its foci is (−4 , 2−√ 65). Find its
standard equation.

Solution:
 The midpoint (−4 , 2) of the vertices is the center of the hyperbola. Y −¿coordinate of 2 was obtained by
getting the average of y−¿coordinates of the vertices.
 Each vertex is a=7 units away from the center.
 The given focus is c= √ 65 units away from the center.
 b 2=c 2−a 2=65−49=16
 The hyperbola is vertical because the vertices are vertically aligned, so the equation is
( x−h )2 ( y−k )2
− =1
a2 b2
 Substituting the value of a 2 , b2 , h ,∧k , the standard equation of the parabola is
( y−2 )2 ( x + 4 )2
− =1
49 16

Situational Problems Involving Hyperbolas

Example [Link] explosion is heard by two stations 1200 m apart, located at F 1(−600 , 0) and F 2(600 , 0) . If the
explosion was heard in F 1 two seconds before it was heard in F 2, identify the possible locations of the explosion.
Use 340 m/s as the speed of sound.

24
Solution. Using the given speed of sound, we deduce that the sound traveled 340(2)=680 m farther in reaching
F 2 than in reaching F 2. This is then the difference of the distances of the explosion from the two stations. Thus,
the explosion is on a hyperbola with foci are F 1 and F 2, on the branch closer to F 1.

We have c=600 and 2 a=680, so a=340 and b 2=c 2−a 2=244400. The explosion could therefore be
2 2
x y
anywhere on the left branch of the hyperbola − =1.
115600 244400

Module 5: MORE PROBLEMS ON CONIC SECTIONS

I – LEARNING OUTCOMES OF THE LESSON

At the end of the lesson, the student is able to:
1. recognize the equation and important characteristics of the different types of conic sections; and
2. solve situational problems involving conic sections.

II – REFERENCES

Pelias, John Gabriel P. 2016. Pre – Calculus. Rex Book Store. Manila

Garces, Ian June L., Ph.D. 2016. Pre – Calculus. Published by the Commission on Higher Education in
collaboration with the Philippine Normal University.

III – LEARNING CONTENT

Introduction
Inspecting the equation can lead us to the right conic section for its graph, and set us on the right step
towards analyzing it. We will also look at problems that use the properties of the different conic sections, allowing
us to synthesize what has been covered so far.

Identifying the Conic Section by Inspection

Let us recall the general form of the equations of the other conic sections. We may write the equations of
conic sections we discussed in the general form
2 2
A x + B y +Cx+ Dy + E=0
Some terms may vanish, depending on the kind of conic section.
1. Circle: both x 2 and y 2 appear, and their coefficients are the same.
2 2
A x + A y +Cx + Dy+ E=0
Examples:
General Form Standard Form Graph
2 2 2 2
x + y −4 x+8 y −5=0 ( x−2) +( y + 4) =25 Circle
Exception: These are referred to degenerate cases.

( )( )
2 2
1 3
2 2
2 x +2 y −2 x +6 y +5=0 x− + y + =0 Point
2 2

25
 2 2 2 2
x + y −6 x−8 y +50=0 (x−3) +( y−4 ) =−25 Empty Set

2. Parabola: exactly one of x 2 or y 2 appears.

Ax 2+Cx+ Dy + E=0 ( D ≠ 0, opens upward or downward)
By 2+Cx+ Dy + E=0 (C ≠ 0 , opens to the right or left)
Examples:
General Form Standard Form Graph
−2
2
2
3 x −12 x +2 y +26=0 (x−2) = ( y−7) Parabola Opens Downward
3
2 3
2
−2 y + 3 x +12 y−15=0 ( y +3) = (x+1) Parabola Opens to the Right
2

3. Ellipse: both x 2 and y 2 appear, and their coefficients A and B have the same sign and are unequal.
Examples:

General Form Standard Form Graph

2 2
2 2 ( x +2) ( y−1)
2 x +5 y +8 x−10 y−7=0 + =1 Horizontal major axis
10 4
2 2
2 2 ( x−2) ( y−3)
4 x + y −16 x −6 y +21=0 + =1 Vertical major axis
1 4
Degenerate cases
2 2
( x−2) ( y+ 1)
2 2 + =0 One Point: (2 ,−1)
4 x + 9 y −16 x +18 y +25=0 32 22
2 2
( x−2) ( y+ 1)
2 2 + =−1
4 x + 9 y −16 x +18 y +61=0 32 22 Empty Set

If A=B , we will classify the conic as a circle, instead of an ellipse.

4. Hyperbola: both x 2 and y 2 appear, and their coefficients A and B have different signs.
Examples:
General Form Standard Form Graph
2 2
( x−2) ( y +3)
2 2 − =1
5 x −3 y −20 x−18 y−22=0 3 5 Horizontal transverse axis

2 2
( x−2) ( y +3)
2 2 − =1
−4 x + y +24 x + 4 y−36=0 3 5 Vertical transverse axis

Degenerate case
2
( x−2) ( y +1)
2 INTERSECTING LINE
− =0 2
2
4 x −9 y −16 x−18 y +7=0
2
32 22 Two Lines: y +1=± (x−2)
3

A Note on Identifying a Conic Section by Its General Equation:

It is only after transforming a given general equation to standard form that we can identify its graph either
as one of the degenerate conic sections (a point, two intersecting lines, or the empty set) or as one of the non-
degenerate conic sections (circle, parabola, ellipse, or hyperbola).

26
Module 6: SYSTEMS OF NONLINEAR EQUATIONS

I – LEARNING OUTCOMES OF THE LESSON

At the end of the lesson, the student is able to:
1. illustrate systems of nonlinear equations;
2. determine the solutions of systems of nonlinear equations using techniques such as substitution,
elimination, and graphing; and
3. solve situational problems involving systems of nonlinear equations.

II – REFERENCES

Pelias, John Gabriel P. 2016. Pre – Calculus. Rex Book Store. Manila

Garces, Ian June L., Ph.D. 2016. Pre – Calculus. Published by the Commission on Higher Education in
collaboration with the Philippine Normal University.

III – LEARNING CONTENT

OVERVIEW
System of equations is a set of many equations involving many variables as well. To solve the system,
we mean looking for values for all the variables that will satisfy all the given equations in a set. That is, a solution
of system of equations is a point of intersection of many curves. Hence, if a system of equations has no solution,
then the corresponding graphs do not intersect.

Review of Techniques in Solving Systems of Linear Equations

Recall the methods we used to solve systems of linear equations. There were three methods used:
substitution, elimination, and graphical.

For example 1 and 2, we will consider System of Linear Equations

Example 1. Use the substitution method to solve the system, and sketch the graphs in one Cartesian plane
showing the point of intersection.

{54xx+3+ y=6
y=4
(1)
(2)
Solution :
4 x+ y=6 (1) ~Solve for y in equation 1.
y=−4 x +6

5 x+ 3 y=4 (2)
5 x+ 3 (−4 x +6 )=4 ~Substitute the value of y in (1) into the equation(2).
5 x−12 x +18−4=0 ~Solve for x.
−7 x +14=0
−7 x −14
=
−7 −7
x=2

27
 y=−4 (2)+6
y=−2
GRAPH:

Example 2. Use the elimination method to solve the system, and sketch the graphs in one Cartesian plane
showing the point of intersection.

{42xx+7=3 y (1)
+7 y=12 (2)
Solution:
We eliminate first the variable x.

{24x−3 y =−7
x +7 y=12
~Rewrite the first equation wherein only the constant term is on the right-hand side of the equation.

{( 2 x−3 y =−7 ) −2
4 x +7 y=12
~multiply equation (1) by −2 to get the additive inverse of 4 x in equation (2)

{−44 x+7
x +6 y =14
y=12
~add the equations

−4 x+ 6 y=14 GRAPH:
4 x+7 y=12
13 y=26
y=2
2 x+7=3 y (1)
2 x=−7+3 (2)
2 x=−1
−1
x=
2

Example for System of Nonlinear Equations.

Example 3. Solve the following system and sketch the graphs in Cartesian plane to show the point(s) of
intersection.

{ (1)
2 2
x + y =16
x− y =4 (2)
Solution:
We start by solving x in the equation (2)
x− y =4 (2) ~ We solve for x in terms of y in the equation (2), and substitute this expression to the
equation (1).
x= y + 4
2 2
x + y =16(1)
2 2
( y + 4) + y =16 ~substituting the value of x in (2) into equation (1).
2 2
y +8 y +16+ y =16 ~solve
2
2 y + 8 y=0 ~Factor the common in both terms.

28
 2 y ( y+ 4 )=0

Equate both factors to 0 GRAPH:

2y 0
= y + 4=0
2 2
y 1=0 y 2=−4

Solve for x using equation (2), x− y =4 .

y 1=0 y 2=−4
x−0=4 x−(−4 )=4
x 1=4 x 2=0
Solutions:
( 4 , 0 )∧(0 ,−4)

Example 4. Solve the following system.

{
2
y −4 x−6 y=11 (1)
2
4 (3−x )=( y−3) (2)
Solution:
I. Expand the equation (2)and make it simple by putting the constant on the right-hand side of the
equation.
2
4 (3−x)=( y−3)
2
12−4 x= y −6 y+ 9
2
− y −4 x +6 y=−3
2
y +4 x−6 y=3
II. Add the new resulting system of equations.

{
2
y −4 x−6 y=11 (1)
2
y + 4 x−6 y =3 (2)
2
y −4 x−6 y =11
2
y +4 x−6 y=3
2

III.
2 y −12 y=14 (3)
Solve for y in equation (3)
2
2 y −12 y=14
2
2 y −12 y −14 0
=
2 2
2
y −6 y −7=0
( y−7 ) ( y+1 )=0
IV. Equating both factor to 0 and solve for y .
y−7=0 y +1=0
y 1=7 y 2=−1

V. Solve for x using equation (1), y 2−4 x−6 y =11 by taking both value of y in step IV.
y 1=7 y 1=−1
2 2
7 −4 x−6 (7)=11 (−1) −4 x−6(−1)=11
49−4 x−42=11 1−4 x +6=11
−4 x=4 −4 x=11−7=4
x 1=−1 x 2=−1
Solutions: (−1 , 7 )∧(−1 ,−1)

29
Graph:

APPLICATIONS OF SYSTEMS OF NONLINEAR EQUATIONS

Example 5. Find two positive numbers whose difference is 4 and whose product is 32. (Do not graph).

Solution:
Let x be the 1st integer
y be the 2nd integer

System of Equation should be:

{x−xy =32
y=4 The difference of two number is 4
The product of two number is 32
Solving:
Solve for y in equation (2)
xy=32
32
y=
x
Substitute the value of y into equation (1)
32
[ x− =4] x
x
2
x −32=4 x
2
x −4 x−32=0
( x−8 )( x +4 )=0
We thus get x=8∨x=−4. Since the numbers have to be positive, we disregard the negative number
and must have x=8 .
32 32
Finally, y= = =4
x 8
Example 6. The screen size of television sets is given in inches. This indicates the length of the diagonal.
Screens of the same size can come in different shapes. Wide-screen TV’s usually have screens with aspect ratio
16 :9 , indicating the ratio of the width to the height. Older TV models often have aspect ratio 4 :3. A 40−inch
LED TV has screen aspect ratio 16 :9 . Find the length and the width of the screen.

30
Module 7: REVIEW OF SEQUENCES AND SERIES

I – LEARNING OUTCOMES OF THE LESSON

At the end of the lesson, the student is able to:
1. illustrate a series; and
2. differentiate a series from a sequence

II – REFERENCES
Garces, Ian June L., Ph.D. 2016. Pre – Calculus. Published by the Commission on Higher Education in
collaboration with the Philippine Normal University.

III – LEARNING CONTENT

Recall the following definitions:
 A sequence is a function whose domain is the set of positive integers
or the set {1, 2, 3, . . . ,n}.
 A series represents the sum of the terms of a sequence.
If a sequence is finite, we will refer to the sum of the terms of the sequence as the series
associated with the sequence. If the sequence has infinitely many terms, the sum is defined more
precisely in calculus.
A sequence is a list of numbers (separated by commas), while a series is a sum of numbers
−1 1 −1 1 1 1 7
(separated by “+” or “−” sign). As an illustration, 1, , , is a sequence, and 1− + − = is
2 3 4 2 3 4 12
its associated series.
The sequence with nth term a n is usually denoted by {an }, and the associated series is given by
S=a1 +a2 + a3 +·· ·+a n .

Example 1. Determine the first five terms of each defined sequence, and give their associated series.
1. {2−n } 3. {(−1)n }
2. {1+2 n+3 n }
2
4. {1+2+3+ ·· ·+n }
Solutions:
We denote the nth term of a sequence by a n, and S=a1 +a2 + a3 +a 4+ a5.
1. a n=2−n
n
3. a n={(−1) }
First five terms: First five terms:
a 1=2−1=1 a 1=(−1) =−1
1

a 2=2−2=0 2
a 2=(−1) =1
a 3=2−3=−1 3
a 3=(−1) =−1
a 4=2−4=−2 4
a 4=(−1) =1
a 5=2−5=−3 5
a 5=(−1) =−1
Associated series: Associated series:
S=a1 +a2 + a3 +a 4+ a5 S=a1 +a2 + a3 +a 4+ a5
¿ 1+0−1−2−3 ¿−1+1−1+1−1
¿−5 ¿−1

31
 4. a n=1+2+3+· ··+ n
2
2. a n=1+2 n+3 n
First five terms: First five terms:
a 1=1+2 (1 )+3 ¿ a 1=1=1
a 2=1+2 (2 )+ 3¿ a 2=1+2=3
a 3=1+2 ( 3 ) +3 ¿ a 3=1+2+3=6
a 4=1+2 ( 4 ) +3 ¿ a 4=1+2+3+ 4=10
a 5=1+2 (5 )+ 3 ¿ a 5=1+2+3+ 4+5=15
Associated series: Associated series:
S=a1 +a2 + a3 +a 4+ a5 S=a1 +a2 + a3 +a 4+ a5
¿ 6+17 +34+57+ 86 ¿ 1+3+6+ 10+15
¿ 200 ¿ 35

Module 8: SIGMA NOTATION

I – LEARNING OUTCOMES OF THE LESSON

At the end of the lesson, the student is able to use the sigma notation to represent a series.

II – REFERENCES
Pelias, John Gabriel P. 2016. Pre – Calculus. Rex Book Store. Manila

Garces, Ian June L., Ph.D. 2016. Pre – Calculus. Published by the Commission on Higher Education in
collaboration with the Philippine Normal University.

III – LEARNING CONTENT

Introduction
The sigma notation is shorthand for writing sums. In this lesson, we will see the power of this notation in
computing sums of numbers as well as algebraic expressions.

Writing and Evaluating Sums in Sigma Notation

Mathematicians use the sigma notation to denote a sum. The uppercase Greek letter Σ (sigma) is used to
indicate a “sum.” The notation consists of several components or parts.

Example 1: The following are sigma notations. Write the following series without the summation symbol.
4
1. ∑ k2
k =1
6
2. ∑ 1k
k =1

32
 2
3. ∑ (√ n− √n+ 1¿ )¿
n=0
Solutions:
4
1. ∑ k 2=12 +22 +32 +4 2
k =1
6
2. ∑ 1k =1+ 12 + 13 + 14 + 15 + 16
k =1
2
3. ∑ (√ n− √n+ 1¿ )=( √ 0− √1 ) +( √ 1− √2 ) +(√ 2−√ 3)¿
n=0

Example 2: Rewrite the given series in sigma notation

1. 2+ 4+6+ 8+10+12
2. a 2+ a4 + a6 +a 8+· · ·+ a20
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
3. 1+ + + + + + +
2 4 8 16 32 64 128
Solutions:
1. Note that the terms of the series are just the first 6 consecutive even positive integers. That is, they are all of the form 2 n, with n
ranging from 1 to 6. Thus, in summation notation, the given series is:
6

∑2n
n =1
2. a 2+ a4 + a6 +a 8+· · ·+ a20
¿ a 2(1)+ a2 (2) + a2(3) + a2(4 )+ ·· ·+ a2 (10)
10
¿ ∑ a2n
n=1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
3. 1+ + + + + + +
2 4 8 16 32 64 128
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
¿ 0+ 1+ 2+ 3+ 4 + 5+ 6+ 7
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
7
1
¿∑ n
n=0 2

Example 3. Expand each summation, and simplify if possible.

4 6
√n
1. ∑ 2 n+3 2. ∑ n+1
n =2 n =1
Solutions:
4
1. ∑ 2 n+3
n =2
¿ [2(2)+3]+[2(3)+ 3]+[2(4)+3]
¿ 7+ 9+11=27
6
2. ∑
√n
n =1 n+1
¿ √ + √ + √ + √ + √ + √
1 2 3 4 5 6
1+ 1 2+1 3+1 4+1 5+ 1 6+1
¿
√1 + √2 + √3 + √ 4 + √5 + √6
2 3 4 5 6 7
33
Example 4. Evaluate the following sum.

( )
24

∑ √1k − √k1+ 1
k =1

Solution:

( 1
−
1
+
1
−
)(
1
+
1
−
√1 √ 2 √ 2 √ 3 √3 √ 4
1
+. . .+
)( ) ( 1
−
1
√ 24 √ 25 )
Observe that the middle terms cancel out. Thus, we are left with the first and last addends only.

( )
24

∑ √1k − √k1+ 1 = √11 − √125

k =1
1
¿ 1−
5
4
¿
5
ADDENDUM
The previous is an example of a telescoping sum (or series), that is, a series where middle addends
cancel and only the first and the last terms remain.

34