SENII CONDUCTOR

CHAPTER 44

*/ Vacum tubes:
Iypes -
’ diod s (Cathode, ano de)
’ txiods
(cahode, plate, goid)

Eletxons are obtan Rsm aheated cathode and fow of

uedtso iS ontsoled bu vaxulna the voltage beween eectzods.
disadvanrage -
timited tite
Ectemely large in siee.
’ high
opesahing
’ low seliabili voltage.
* Bolid State etectxonte device:
Types
’ duncion diods
’ fsaYsiso
\ntegsated cixcuit (1c)
cCOsking -
Simple eritahon of electros by itght, voltage os heat,
Atvantaae i
’ high lieehime

Vexg mas im S12e

’ high eualbili

P.T.0.
¥ lassihcaion of sotids &
dy On the basis of
erectsieal poopey
iy Metal:

low sesistivity (6. 6nm)

high conduchvity (1o°. in Ron)
it Semiconducfos :
mode8ate sesiskveg ((0-1om)
modaxate conducivity (to'- os sfm)

high tesistvie (io'- o m)

louw conduchvity (to"- 619 S/)

* Cassificaion of semiconductot on basi of chemical conpesthen:

1> Elenment -
" Silieom (si)
Gesminium (Ge)

2 Comp0und
OsganC compoUn d eg: anthsacene
no3ganic compound eg: GaAS, Cds
0%ganic polymex eg' polgHeysole

*I Syoes of smiconduçtos on the basis of putt:

Q Bingic
-n-tyoe (entavalent deprng)
p-type (ivalent doping )
 +4
atoms. ne'ghbow ow, Heis with Shates
which
ik electxOns valance fowt has Qlom Ge O
shousqeneoaly
shows Gie ox SiC3ystal
of
likediamond a >
semicoducto (nhsin
Sic X
model& bond Valance
dopants called
conducivity aeatormgImpuoity
Inczease ’’
SeTnicomductu
pu impuziy
he to desiale addikon
oe poocess
of ’he
Dopmg:
atoms impusiky Hhe calisdue,
to Slectsi
pesitavalent
atom -’
txivalent,
ox impusiky
of with
puse thdoping
e adding. by
obrained ade,’hey
Semiconducto tsinsic |
electxon) (vacamcy
of holes of
bex num he equat
fo always eleckon
S Cxee7Numbexof
itation. thexmal to
qenexated
due axeelectson -’tsee
ducto. (nbsingtc calle
Semiconductos
d aHe Puze ’
semiconducfox: Inbsingic *
 AF low tempesatuse, Hhe bon xemain intact. But as
he tempesa tuze inCxeases, the hexmal enesgy of the
edson incxeases. As [Link] lt eectson may bxeak tsee
som its covalent bond to bRcOme fsee elechson. Zhus
each Cxee electsOn cseates a vacanat amd this (ack o*
Rlectson is cQled a hole
Sach hole is qenesatod bu a fsee eleehson .
nence. numbes of Gsee eleoson r's alway equal to namoeÝ
of holes.

see
4 ore

Fg Puxe, cemicondcc (ox at highos fempesahwe.

hotes as a chaxge caxxiex

An eleckzon fbom a neighbouxing place (fox eg: fxom Sit 2)
Cam jump to the eleckxon vacaney (eg: Site 1).. Zn his
t30nsihon an apaXamt movempmt of hole oom gite -1
to Site,-9kakes place. he ee eectxom does not take ang
Pat in the bsangfeX. Whe an appied electxic feld is
(nsoduced holes mOve, in the dize <tion of eletsc eerd.
Sns a CwULQnF is gemRKated texmed as no1e cwvenraIn)
Jhe movememt of Pee electon geneake the
e\eesiC ceusn (le)
 sire 1
Xhole
hule hole
Sire 2

Valance bond model fos [Link],

n- ype
Semiconduckor
8emiconducto axe, obtained by doping Si o g2
oltn a pentavakent impustty (eg: As, Sb, P)
COnen a pentaveten impw ke atom
g 6s Ge, fous
eleckons of the mpusi. Subsiudey ketxava lent
Covalemt bonds. But one, electson Goxms fouw
and Fhat electson is set see enains loose bounc
even at X00m
Fxee elecfxons ae genesated tempexature
Cue to the (mpuxi and thesmaly
hence numbex of Ssee
as ue1 03
Uways vexy- ezy g3eatex than nume electxons (S
ot holes in m- gpe
Semiconductox.

unboUn ded
Qasa e of Hhe
Imputiy atom.

unbounded
extsa R of the
impütthy am.
* valance bond model fos p. type Semicorm ducfox
P-type Semiconductoa ae obtained by dopmg 8 a
Ge cuiha txivalen t i'mpuxity (eg: B, AI, Jn ) Indium
AEBes dopina 3 electsons fon covalent bondS coim
Hhe nerghbow but 1 covalent lbond xemarn incoMPlere
hus t cxeate a hole. RVen when electxon s0)
neignbouaing site, Gu Hhe vacamcy., thage is a meu
VacanCy n the new site.
vdmbex holes is aways vey. veB4 gseates han
Mumboex elect0NS

Eneag bands in Soid

Hn extoemey lasge numbe of ensgy leve1S
COset Spaced (n a vexy Smal enexqy gange conshude
On eneIGy band.
ohe highest engsay level Gued coth valance electsons
is called valamce
band.
Sne lowest un Gilied ao wed enesgy level next to
he volance iS caled con ductron band.
Ohe gap between top of Valane band and
buttomn of conucto band in which no allow ec eneogy
(eyels oz electsong can eist is caled enesgy bamd gaP
*/ Ctaificakion în feNmg ol band theoxs -
-

1> Motal
Sh niefal conducho band is pasliaf tu Gued cwith eleckor
and Hhe bond Stxuctuse is of ten fypes
i Sn sOme melals thexe, is a Bmall enesgy 3op betwcen

He valomce band and the conducton bamd.

8: Goll, Silves, coppes, altyminium, Indium, Gatium.
( Sn Some otthe melas conduchon band and va lamcg
bamd prhally o vexlap each othes.
eg: Zinc, magnegium, Be (eesitum)
Why metals ase good conductos?

And eeekxony Gsom valamce, band can

easty go ro
Conduchon band wheneves hey ae erted.
conat is Pesmi-enexgg at OK
he highest enesgy iled wi th Gsee elecson is called
he Re*mi -level. he
ezmt eneg coBTOPOn ding_ enesgS
2 Insutatox
mslatos nave he conduction band empty bu a
COmpleely fued vaance bamd, he enesqy gap bekween
Conduehon band amd yalaneg band s moe han 3ev (elecor
Vole) Hence, eVm the high
o he onducton bamd . enetaehic electsons cannot Sump
HencR, ngulator ase vesy pOoT Condulto

Ev
 hehayO ingutatoa. As theoe s
At Ok 8emiconducfox
no fbee electon n Conduc tom band.
AF higihes tempebature, Some enesgetic ele0
the band gap
can jump to the conduchion band
Can
Xlatvely less. (g<Bev)

Eg<3ev

* Eneog4 band diagsam of Semiconductos :

electscn
enes9y

Ev

ig at T0K ig at TOk

led but he
Ar T:OK. valence band is competely
Condechon bond sempu . Hene, intoingic semi conduckos
behaves as an tngulatos at ok.
heomaly eied ond go
r TOK, 8gme electson get numbes o hoa
1Ohe Conduchon band by gengxahing equal
in the vauanco, band.
 ) n-type gomiconductog

Ec
E (Donos impualy
0.01ev

g: eneK94 bamd diagzam) at TOk

ln n-kPe Semionductos 5 electson ts vex4 weak4 attsachec

Og he dorox impusity. A vexy Small enesau xequised to fsee
hèy elecson fson Hhe donos ( 0.01 ev). his elecson w't
oCCp he lowest po sStbte enesay teuel in cOnduetion bamd.

H8 dÛn0a enegy (evel (E tes juut beloo the condu Chon

oand, fhis Smau gap con be easily covesed by thexnaly
genezated elechsoYa ar xo0m tenpesatuse.
SO, numtoe of electsons at conduchon ban
18 highet than holes n the valance band.

C) P- tyPe. Semi conducox

O5eV
0.01eV - O.

TS OK
g! eneS93 band diagtam a

P-tyPe semiconductoo, he aCCeptos eneagy evel E

S &lighHy abov the. fap level Ey of valan ce band. A very
Sa s4Pply of enexgy is enough to move leehony fom
Valanc, band to Ea level and ionise he aCCe ptos, (08
Can gay wih a vesy smalt gupply of eneHqy hole, Sink down
to vaene band.)
 At s00m fempexatwee most f the, accepos atomu
Jer imiged and hen ce valan eo band hav an abundanco
of holes.
thema
At con duchion band eleetso aNo due to
eci tohon, but holes at valan co band are qR to

imputi a weu as hotmal 2citah'on. Hene hole

CoMcontsa hon is hiahex han electson con cOntano

y ohat is P. n junchon ?
ginge csy8tal ol silicon ox Gcsmimium in ohich
Oe Side i do pod a p tupe and Hhe othey Bide is OPed

Ohy a p-njunchon camnof be

kogethex fuo gem fosmed by gg
e pkype
conduckos?
ate Semicendueto amd Q n-tupe semicon cuto3
gued togethex Ehen the glue, in the
act a potmt o con tact egion
discontinuaty
’ he
CoMcentakon o
m n-gide and electsom and hoe aee highur
p-side 3eSpecively Hence,
Hence, due fo
(Oncentxation
nSide, and
oadient holes drefesed om P. Side to
elecrsOn
On CWUmt due ko diffwsed Gsom n-Si de
dieusion i8 caled
to P- side.
difsion cuwUeYt.
*
Jeplehion segion
Se4on near the
:
ons Qnd jumcHon is (eft with immobie nagahve
Tegiom neae the juneh'on is (eet wtth
posiive ione. his Space chate segion iS immobile
Segon. Since te segi0T seduce he caed depletion
electso, hemee. teSn as de pletion moVement of dilfusd
segtm,
k Basaiex potential:
» Accumulahon of negahve change in the P-Segi0n ana
vositive Chaxge in [Link] dets up a potenha( dffeTenO
cCODSS the junehon. hi acks as a basxie and is
Coatle basxtex poomhal. Baxxiex potemhal dePends )
i> natue of Semi
ii teMeesa ku3e
conducto
iii
amount of
deping
ue ko immobi le positve Shrae on
n- Side. and immob7e
g4ce chavge on p- Side an electsic Grdd is deve lopecl.
Shus electson Fsom p-s'de mae to n-Sid. whrch s e t
in daiff current.

e diffteoiom
hole diEoien

de pleh on segioY)

e doit

hole sift
 fOB)aKd bias Revesse bias

(HA

porem ha
efEecive baUiies potenia * eteeeh've barie
decoeayes Ve- V meseases Ve +V

e tfeeive sestana ob jum ehoy eefechve seistam ce of yunchm

decxeaes
electson move eoom P to n
(minosity chacge caviex)
(majosikg eharge cosores)
width o deplehom 3egion * oidth of deple hon egon
deexeases. incoeases.

* VI chasackexishcs &
3o Sudg the Vl Chaxactesighis, the diocd is eonnecked
to a sheostar o Porentio merex) g hat applied vollage
Can be hanged

foswatd Revose

(mA)
NA)
 iy Ais wed Since, cuso ent (s
iS Telahiveg- nghex Rctoemey. low
iy P-n ii P.n juneton does not so ey ohms
Juneion does not obey
onms law. IHence (Qw. ence, ney a s non - ohmiC.
ase, non- ohmic. they
[Link] voltage

Cut in
voltage.
inihauy oith nctease in üis wuithe the ine%ease in
Voitage,Cwvent incseases megatiue
Volka9e cusxent qlmost seatn
negtgib ley, but a7tex a Same. hs cUISRnt iS called
Cestain voltage CuNLnt OvesSe, Saesnhon cusXens.
Bur atex a Getteum vae e
this voltage, is ealled.
Vo ltage, cus Bemt
to a vesySudden4.
Cut im volkaae (ea: Ge- 0.2
and 8i- o.4 V ) ncseare, high vottage.
this vol tage, is called Cut o vollege
bzRak down oltage.
Hale Oave xeces 8

Ac
Primany seconday
load geNsance

Step own
sanstosmes
input

A hauf wave eies congsts or

a
koangkoxme,
a load
a iunohom diode Dan d output
xesiskance [Link] s tue toamuÇosmen
conmeched to the Ac mains amd seom doy
o toansosm R and junchon dtode D
Conmeched n Sexte
are
 Snce. ac s SuPplied to the [Link]
volhage
6e the sansfosmet Supei'es destsed alteonahg
4C8O33 N and B. ahen the voltage at A i8 Posebv,
the diocde is owavd biased omd Cuxoemt I oOS
Mooss R. 0hen the voltape at A i negahve, ne
biase d an the8e
Elow thso ugh RL oRvesse eusxent ts neglig

Sn the postue half y ole these

Hee
Gutput voltage Qmd im negatve hale cycle
no owtput vol tage. output voltage depends
tS maini amd
PÖn he mput voltaqe fozm the ac
hence it is alo vaging
unicisechona
dince outeuh voltage 13
QPpeaL Qn ony 0ne hale cyele is it called
Omd
hale wave Xe cheies.

AC
SoXCe

D,

JsamSmes
(hee- down)
 Cwvcent
bhat covoxts the cormplete cyele se al ton a hng
(nto puuisatng DC.
3he cisuit of the fu cwave sechGes consts
Gf a Step down toan foxm@ and too diods thar ae
ConnecBed and cente tap Ped. he Outeut voltage
xeSrsto.
(8 obtained QcBosg he comnectd load

OO3KÜng: PSide of the tuo diods ae comected to

8ecwndasy of fTaNfoTMes. m- sides
the em ds of
conneced toqethes and uteut '8 taen oetw eon
ae
eOmmon pont of do des Qe Fhe midpotnt of the
ne
&econdaay
AF amy stant vol tage t end A Qnd end B cwil
0e out o phase. Juing Posthve hale cycle t ac "P
SupPOSe end A is PoS thve, hen end B orU be negatve.
S0, ode D, curu be foward biased and dode D, t!
xeveIsed biapd. Cwvent wcl Pow th30 ugh AD, xYT.
be
ac in put end A
dwing negahve hal cycle of Posikve.
e comeshio hme
becomes negatve Qnå endB
anc D, co t(4 bp fosward
bied
Biased
D) cotly be 3eveSe

Sn both hall cyck ewvm

fhe game d3echon X’y ana cwe geta pu(Sahng
de Vo (tage actOIS RL

Oubpet ('s o 6terno b bo h hale cy cte and

 Csequeneg highlolocks
dc. allow but ae
effechuely it 2xfl.
Jo, deacana
=x offess \mdato
Re
gfance xesr with Sesie, conneched
m (ductosS
D
xW
3esitancc
KL. loadh8ough
Gsequnay pay deohtle
caPaciBmce the
pased ene
ac de
es1skance
lo os high
Sbegumey hrgh sesgfance
for effeckve o,
egn seislano C
havecapacitamce capacro 4A
toansfoornes
X D,
tcapacitos
ox! a)
elkexing
ciocit
is lte&
obtadn to use
teut de Ciacuit ilte *|