Extrusion

Extrusion is a bulk forming process in which the work metal is forced or

compressed to flow through a die hole to produce a desired cross-sectional
shape. Example: squeezing toothpaste from a toothpaste tube.

Advantages :
- Variety of shapes are possible, especially using hot extrusion
- Grain structure and strength properties are enhanced in cold and warm
extrusion
- Close tolerances are possible, mainly in cold extrusion

Types of extrusion:
Direct or forward extrusion, Indirect or backward extrusion

Direct extrusion: - A metal billet is first loaded into a container having die
holes. A ram compresses the material, forcing it to flow through the die holes.

- Some extra portion of the billet will be present at the end of the process that
cannot be extruded and is called butt. It is separated from the product by
cutting it just beyond the exit of the die.
R. Ganesh Narayanan, IITG
 Direct extrusion

- In direct extrusion, a significant amount of friction exists between the billet

surface and the container walls, as the billet is forced to slide toward the die
opening. Because of the presence of friction, a substantial increase in the ram
force is required.
- In hot direct extrusion, the friction problem is increased by the presence of
oxide layer on the surface of the billet. This oxide layer can cause defects in
the extruded product.
- In order to address these problems, a dummy block is used between the ram
and the work billet. The diameter of the dummy block is kept slightly smaller
than the billet diameter, so that a thin layer of billet containing the oxide layer is
left in the container, leaving the final product free of oxides.
R. Ganesh Narayanan, IITG
M.P. Groover, Fundamental of modern manufacturing Materials, Processes and systems, 4ed
 Making hollow shapes using direct
extrusion

Hollow sections like tubes can be made using direct extrusion setup shown in
above figure. The starting billet is prepared with a hole parallel to its axis. As
the billet is compressed, the material will flow through the gap between the
mandrel and the die opening.

Indirect extrusion: - In this type, the die is mounted to the ram and not on the
container. As the ram compresses the metal, it flows through the die hole on
the ram side which is in opposite direction to the movement of ram.
- Since there is no relative motion between the billet and the container, there is
no friction at the interface, and hence the ram force is lower than in direct
extrusion.
- Limitations: lower rigidity of the hollow ram, difficulty in supporting the
extruded product at the exit R. Ganesh Narayanan, IITG
 Indirect extrusion: solid billet and hollow billet

Simple analysis of extrusion

Pressure distribution and billet dimensions in direct extrusion

R. Ganesh Narayanan, IITG
Assuming the initial billet and extrudate are in round cross-section. An
important parameter, extrusion ratio (re), is defined as below:
A0 A0 - CSA of the initial billet
re 
Af Af - CSA of the extruded section
True strain in extrusion under ideal deformation (no friction and redundant
work) is given by,
A0
  ln( re )  ln( )
Af
Under ideal deformation, the ram pressure required to extrude the billet
through die hole is given by,
Note: The average flow stress is found out
A0 K n
p  Y f ln( re )  Y f ln( ) where Y f  by integrating the flow curve equation
Af 1 n between zero and the final strain defining
the range of forming
Where Yf is average flow stress, and  is maximum strain value during the
extrusion process.

The actual pressure for extrusion will be greater than in ideal case, because
of the friction between billet and die and billet and container wall.
R. Ganesh Narayanan, IITG
There are various equations used to evaluate the actual true strain and
associated ram pressure during extrusion. The following relation proposed
by Johnson is of great interest.
 x  a  b ln re  a  b p  Yf  x

Where  x is extrusion strain; a and b are empirical constants for a given die
angle. Typical values are: a = 0.8, b = 1.2 - 1.5.

In direct extrusion, assuming that friction exists at the interface, we can find
the actual extrusion pressure as follows:

billet-container friction force = additional ram force to overcome that

friction
p f D0
2
Where pf is additional pressure
peD0 L  required to overcome friction, pe is
4 pressure against the container wall

The above eqn. assume sliding friction condition. Assuming sticking friction at the
interface, we can write:
p f D0 2
KD0 L  Where K is shear yield strength & m = 1
4
The above eqn. gives, 4 KL
pf 
D0

2L
we get, p f  Y f
Yf
Assuming, K 
2 D0
This is the additional pressure required to
overcome friction during extrusion.

Now the actual ram pressure required for

direct extrusion is given by,
 2L  The shape of the initial pressure build up
p  Y f   x   depends on die angle. Higher die angles
 D0  cause steeper pressure buildups.

L is the billet length remaining to be extruded,

and D0 is the initial diameter of the billet. Here
p is reduced as the remaining billet length
decreases during the extrusion process.

Ram pressure variation with stroke for direct

and indirect extrusion is shown in Figure.
R. Ganesh Narayanan, IITG
M.P. Groover, Fundamental of modern manufacturing Materials, Processes and systems, 4ed
Sliding friction

p
  p 

Sticking friction

  mK
R. Ganesh Narayanan, IITG
A billet 75 mm long and 25 mm in diameter is to be extruded in a direct
extrusion operation with extrusion ratio re = 4.0. The extrudate has a round
cross section. The die angle (half angle) is 90°. The work metal has a
strength coefficient of 415 MPa, and strain-hardening exponent of 0.18.
Use the Johnson formula with a = 0.8 and b=1.5 to estimate extrusion strain.
Find the pressure applied to the end of the billet as the ram moves forward.

R. Ganesh Narayanan, IITG

 Empirical formulae for extrusion pressure

Hot extrusion of Al alloys:

For extrusion of pure Al, Al-Zn alloy, Al-Zn-Mg alloy in the temperature range of 50-
500°C.
pe /  0  0.52  1.32 ln R for values of R from 1 to 100 Here R = 1/(1-r)
where ‘r’ is the
relative reduction
pe /  0  13  4.78 ln R for values of R from 100 to 1000 in area

Cold extrusion of steel:

N A1  A2
pe  0.262 F ( Ar ) 0.787
(2 ) 0.375
Where Ar = percent reduction in area =
A1
 100
mm2
Yield strength of steel
F
Yield strength of lead

R. Ganesh Narayanan, IITG

[Link], Fundamental of metal forming processes,2ed
 Extrusion dies
- Two important factors in an extrusion die are: die angle, orifice shape.

- For low die angles, surface area of the die is large, resulting in increased
friction at the die-billet interface. Higher friction results in higher ram force.

- For a large die angle, more turbulence in the metal flow is caused during
reduction, increasing the ram force required.

- The effect of die angle on ram force is a U-shaped function, shown in

Figure. So, an optimum die angle exists. The optimum angle depends on
various factors like work material, billet temperature, and lubrication.

R. Ganesh Narayanan, IITG

- The extrusion pressure eqns. derived earlier are for a circular die orifice.

- The shape of the die orifice affects the ram pressure required to perform an
extrusion operation, as it determines the amount of squeezing of metal billet.

-The effect of the die orifice shape can be assessed by the die shape factor,
defined as the ratio of the pressure required to extrude a cross section of a
given shape relative to the extrusion pressure for a circular cross section of
the same area.
2.25
 cx 
k x  0.98  0.02 
 cc 
Where kx is the die shape factor in extrusion; Cx is the perimeter of the
extruded cross section, and Cc is the perimeter of a circle of the same area as
the actual extruded shape.
cx
varies from 1 to 6.
cc

R. Ganesh Narayanan, IITG

M.P. Groover, Fundamental of modern manufacturing Materials, Processes and systems, 4ed
 Die materials

For hot extrusion - tool and alloy steels.

Important properties of die materials are high wear resistance, high thermal
conductivity to remove heat from the process.

For cold extrusion - tool steels and cemented carbides.

Carbides are used when high production rates, long die life, and good
dimensional control are expected.

R. Ganesh Narayanan, IITG

 Other extrusion processes
Impact extrusion:
- It is performed at higher speeds and shorter strokes. The billet is extruded
through the die by impact pressure and not just by applying pressure.
- But impacting can be carried out as forward extrusion, backward extrusion,
or combination of these.

forward extrusion Backward extrusion

R. Ganesh Narayanan, IITG combined extrusion

- Impact extrusion is carried out as cold forming. Very thin walls are possible
by backward impact extrusion method. Eg: making tooth paste tubes,
battery cases.
- Advantages of IE: large reductions and high production rates

Hydrostatic extrusion:

Hydrostatic extrusion

R. Ganesh Narayanan, IITG

M.P. Groover, Fundamental of modern manufacturing Materials, Processes and systems, 4ed
In hydrostatic extrusion, the billet is surrounded with fluid inside the
container and the fluid is pressurized by the forward motion of the ram.

There is no friction inside the container because of the fluid, and friction is
minimized at the die opening. If used at high temperatures, special fluids
and procedures must be followed.

Hydrostatic pressure on the work and no friction situation increases the

material’s ductility. Hence this process can be used on metals that would
be too brittle for conventional extrusion methods.

This process is also applicable for ductile metals, and here high reduction
ratios are possible.

The preparation of starting work billet is important. The billet must be

formed with a taper at one end to fit tightly into the die entry angle, so that
it acts as a seal to prevent fluid leakage through die hole under pressure.

R. Ganesh Narayanan, IITG

 Defects during extrusion
Centerburst:
- This is an internal crack that develops as a result of tensile
stresses along the center axis of the workpiece during
extrusion. A large material motion at the outer regions pulls
the material along the center of the work. Beyond a critical
limit, bursting occurs.
Centerburst
- Conditions that promote this defect are: higher die angles,
low extrusion ratios, and impurities in the work metal. This is
also called as Chevron cracking.

Piping: It is the formation of a sink hole in the end of the

billet. This is minimized by the usage of a dummy block
whose diameter is slightly less than that of the billet.
Piping

Surface cracking: This defect results from high workpiece

temperatures that cause cracks to develop at the surface.
They also occur at higher extrusion speeds, leading to high
strain rates and heat generation. Higher friction at the
surface and surface chilling of high temperature billets in hot
extrusion also cause this defect.
Surface cracking

R. Ganesh Narayanan, IITG