Eminent College of Pharmaceutical Technology

B. Pharm, 1st Year, 1st Semester, Session: 2024-2025

1. Explain in detail any one method employed for the measurement of radioactivity.
OR, Write the construction, working principle of the Geiger-muller counter with a
neatly labelled diagram.
Measurement of Radioactivity
For measuring radioactivity, three types of devices are available:
i. Gas-filled tube counters e.g. the Geiger Muller Counter
ii. Scintillation Counters
iii. Semi-conductor Detectors
i. A Geiger-Muller counter is a device used for the detection and measurement of
ionizing radiation. It is mainly used for applications like the nuclear industry,
radiological protection, radiation dosimetry, and experimental physics. It is one of the
best devices for the detection of radiation, in the world.
Construction:

 It consists of a cylinder 1-2 cm in diameter of stainless steel or glass coated with silver on inner
side which acts as cathode.
 Internally a tungsten wire is suspended which is mounted at one end with a glass bead, act as
anode.
 Cylinder is filled mixture of gas (argon and helium generally used) at low pressure which also
contains a small amount of quenching vapours.
Principle:
 A GM counter consists of a GM tube, sensing element which detects the radiation and
processing electronics which displays the result. The GM tube is filled with an inert gas
such as Helium, Neon or Argon at low pressure, to which a high voltage (450-500 V) is
applied.
 The tube conducts electrical charge when a particle or photon of incident radiation makes
the gas conductive by ionization. The ionization considerably amplified within the tube to
produce easily measured detection pulse, which is fed to processing electronics and
display the result.
Working:

 Radiations when enter the tube through a thin section also called as window causes the
ionization of gas molecules. From these ionized atoms or molecules, an electron is
knocked out of the atom and the remaining atom is positively charged.
 When the high voltage is applied across the electrode (300-1300), the electrons and
positively charged ions are attracted towards anode and cathode respectively.
 Hence, each particle of radiation produces a brief flow or pulse of current which can be
transmitted to radioactive sensor via an interface, which is finally recorded in computer.
 All pulses from a GM counter are of same amplitude for any incident radiations.
2. Describe the precautions for storage and handling of radioisotopes.
Precautions for Storage of Radioactive Substances
 Radiopharmaceuticals should be kept in well-closed containers and stored in an area
assigned for the purpose. The storage conditions should be such that the maximum
radiation dose rate to which persons may be exposed is reduced to an acceptable level.
 Care should be taken to comply with national regulations for protection against ionizing
radiation.
 Radiopharmaceutical preparations that are intended for parenteral use should be kept in
a glass vial, ampoule or syringe that is sufficiently transparent to permit the visual
inspection of the contents. Glass containers may darken under the effect of radiation.
Precautions for Handling Radioactive Substances
 The following guidelines provide information on the safe handling of radioactive
 substances. They are based on the relevant legislation and on the Code of Practice for
Handling Radioactive Substances.
 The radioactive substances used should comply with the following characteristics:
 Radiotoxicity must be as low as possible.
 Short-living isotopes are preferred to long-living ones
 The amounts used must be kept to a minimum.
 Never work alone in a radioactive lab, especially not outside normal working hours.
Always make sure to have someone nearby in case of emergency.
 Take all precautions to prevent radioactive contamination:
 Always separate radioactive activities from non-radioactive activities.
 As far as possible, limit the area where radioactive substances are used and
mark the area, e.g. by using containers with absorbent paper.
 Apply a radiation symbol to any containers and items that have come into
contact with radioactive substances.
 Never bring documents such as notes into the radioactive zone.
 When handling radioactive materials, always wear the appropriate protective clothing:
 Wear a lab coat. If there is a risk of serious contamination, wear disposable
clothing. Store your lab coat away from your regular clothes.
 Always wear gloves when handling radioactive substances. Regularly check
the radiation level of these gloves. Never touch anything with potentially
contaminated gloves; use paper tissues instead.
 Wear shoe covers in rooms where the floor may be contaminated.
 Keep personal items such as handbags, etc., outside the lab.
 Use appropriate radiation shields. Return the stock solution to storage immediately after
removing the amount needed.
 To avoid internal contamination, strict hygiene is essential when handling radioactive
materials
 Eating, smoking, drinking, and applying cosmetics are prohibited in radioactive
labs.
 Never pipette by mouth. Use pipetting devices instead.
 Wash your hands thoroughly when you leave the lab.
  Regularly check the radiation level of your working area and all objects used, or at
least at the end of each working day. Replace contaminated absorption paper.
Decontaminate contaminated objects.
 Dispose of all radioactive waste in the appropriate containers. Limit the amount of
waste to a bare minimum. Separate short-living and long-living radioactive waste.
3. Describe the properties of a, ß and y radiations.
Properties of α, β, γ radiations:
- All substances are made of atoms. These have electrons (e) around the outside, and a
nucleus in the middle. The nucleus consists of protons (p) and neutrons (n), and is
extremely small. (Atoms are almost entirely made of empty space!).
- In some types of atom, the nucleus is unstable, and will decay into a more stable atom.
This radioactive decay is completely spontaneous.
- When an unstable nucleus decays, there are three ways that it can do so. It may give out:-
 an alpha particle (α)
 a beta particle (β)
 a gamma ray (γ)

 Alpha particles
o Alpha particle radiation consists of two neutrons and two protons, as they are charged
they are affected by both electric and magnetic fields.
o The speed of the  -particle depends very much on the source, but typically is about 10% of
the speed of light.
o The capacity of the  -particle to penetrate materials is not very great, it usually penetrates
no more than a few centimeters in air and is absorbed by a relatively small thickness of
paper or human skin. However, because of their speed and size, they are capable of
 ionizing a large number of atoms over a very short range of penetration.
o This makes them relatively harmless for most sources that are about a meter or more
away, as the radiation is easily absorbed by the air.
o But if the radiation sources are close to sensitive organs  -particle radiation is extremely
dangerous.
 Beta particles
o Beta-particle radiation consists of fast moving electrons. Every -particle carries either
one negative or one positive electronic charge ( 1.6 × 10-19 coulomb: -e, +e). They are
affected by electric and magnetic fields.
o The speed depends on the source, but it can be up to 90% of the speed of light.
o  particles can penetrate up to 1 m of air. They are stopped by a few millimeters of
aluminium or perspex.
o Their ionizing capacity is much less than that of -radiation. They are very dangerous if
ingested.
 Gamma rays
o Gamma radiation does not consist of charged particles; it is a form of very short
wavelength electromagnetic energy. They travel at the speed of light (3 × 108 m/s).
o Gamma radiation is very difficult to stop; it takes up to 30mm of lead. Although the
ionizing capacity of  radiation is considerably smaller than that of beta-radiation, their
high penetration power means that they are dangerous even at a distance.
o They can penetrate our bodies and hit sensitive organs. They are particularly dangerous if
ingested or inhaled.
Property α ray β ray  ray
Positive charged particles, 2He 4 Negatively charged particles Uncharged ~0.01a,
Nature
nucleus (electrons). electromagnetic radiation
Charge +2e –e 0
Mass 6.6466 × 10–27 kg 9.109 × 10–31 kg 0
Natural Excited nuclei formed as a result
By natural radioisotopes e.g.92U236 By radioisotopes e.g.29Co68
Sources of α, β decay
 4. Explain the diagnostic and therapeutic applications of radioisotopes in Detail. OR
Write the pharmaceutical application radioactive substances.
Pharmaceutical Application of Radioactive Substances
 Treatment of Cancers and Tumours
o Americium 241 used as antineoplastic.
o Californium 252 used as antineoplastic."
o Cobalt 60 used as antineoplastic.
o Gold 94 used as antineoplastic.
o Holmium 66 (26 h) being developed for diagnosis and treatment of liver tumours.
o Iodine-125 (60 d) used in cancer brachytherapy (prostate and brain).
 Treatment of Thyroid Disease with Iodine 131
o Iodine-131 is therapeutically used for to treat thyroid cancer, hyperthyroidism
(including Graves’ disease, toxic multinodular goiter, and toxic autonomously
functioning thyroid nodules), and Nontoxic multinodular goiter.
 Palliative Treatment of Bone Metastasis
o Various radioisotopes and pharmaceuticals are used to deliver palliative treatment of
bone metastases, including samarium-153 (Sm-153), strontium-89 (Sr-89) chloride,
and phosphorus-32 (P-32) sodium phosphate. The two most common side effects
occurring from radiopharmaceutical therapy for metastatic bone disease are initial
increased bone pain (flare) and a decrease in WBC and platelet counts.
 Treatment of Arthritis
o Erbium-169: Use for relieving arthritis pain in synovial joints
 Diagnostic Radiopharmaceuticals
o Ammonia N 13 Injection used for diagnostic coronary artery disease.
o Chromium 51 used for diagnosis of pernicious anemia.
o Holmium 166 used for diagnosis and treatment of liver tumours.
o Iodine 125 used diagnostically to evaluate the filtration rate of kidneys.
 5. Write a note on radiopharmaceutical sodium iodide I131.
SODIUM IODIDE (I131):
Synonym: Radioactive iodine
Out of all radioactive isotopes of Iodine, I 131 is most commonly used. It is used as an aqueous
solution of sodium iodide having sodium thiosulphate in addition as a reducing agent.
Standards: It should not contain less than 90% and not more than 110% of labelled amount of
Iodine-131 as iodide which is expressed in microcuries or millicuries at the time indicating in the
labelling.
Method of Preparation:
 The first production of Iodine-131 took place in France in the year 1949 at the Fort de
Chatillon, the site of the first Zoe atomic reactor, before it was transferred to the nuclear
research centre at Saclay. The isotope has been used since 1942, however, in the
treatment of thyroid cancer.
 Most I-131 is prepared in nuclear reactor by neutron-irradiation of a natural Tellurium
target. Irradiation of natural tellurium produces almost entirely I-131 as the only
radionuclide with a half-life longer than hours. Ultimately in 8.02 days it gets converted
into Xenon-131 (stable isotope).

Properties:
 It forms a colorless solution.
 I 131 have half-life of 8.4 days and emit beta and gamma radiations.
 Its solution is having pH range of 7 to 10.
Assay:
It is possible to determine its activity, using suitable counting equipment by comparison with a
standardized I-131 solution or by measurement of an instrument calibrated with the aid of such
solutions. Iodine-131 has been emitting both beta and gamma particles in its decay process.
Radioactivity has to be recorded on a counting assembly which is having either a Geiger-Muller
counter or a scintillation detector used as a sensing unit and an electronic sealing device.
Hyperthyroidism Treatment by I131:
 Iodide inhibits the release of thyroid hormone and forms the basis for its use in
 hyperthyroidism. All the isotopes of iodine are rapidly taken up by thyroid follicles.
Radioactive iodine i.e. I131 is available as NaI131 solution and is administered orally.
 The absorption of I131 leads to highly localized destruction of thyroid follicles due to β-
particles emission. This property of I131 has promoted radioactive iodine as a therapeutic
alternative in surgical removal of the gland. The radio iodine therapy is considered
advantageous over surgery because of the simplicity of its procedure, its applicability to
patients, avoidance of surgical risks and complications.
Sodium iodide-131 solution and capsule:
 Sodium iodide (I131) are suitable both for oral or i.v. administration. The solution is clear
and colourless, but as the time passes both the solution and glass may get darken due to
the effect of radiation. The pH of solutions varies between7.5-9.0.
 For injection, a suitable preservative such as benzyl alcohol is added. A reducing agent
such as sodium thiosulphate is also added to the solution, to prevent the oxidation of
sodium iodide in aqueous solutions.
 Potassium salt, iodide and iodate have been acting as a carrier for iodide ions and for
iodate ions present in the sodium iodide I131 solutions.
 Sodium iodide (I131) capsules are prepared by evaporating an alcoholic solution of
sodium radio-iodide directly on the walls of the capsule or on inert capsule filling
material.