Purva Mimaansa Vol. 8 No. 1-2, March-Sep.

2017
A Multi-discipinary Bi-annual Research Journal ISSN : 0976-0237
(Double Blind Peer Reviewed)

Ethical and Logical Explanation of Sixteen Substances

of Nyaya-Vaisheshika in the contemporary Age.
Rajeev Kumar

ABSTRACT
Nyaya is the logical system of Indian Philosophy. It proves everything on base of
logic. According to Nyaya, attaining the liberation (Apavarga/Moksha) is the
ultimate goal of a man. For this, Nyaya prescribed sixteen substances/category of
reality. These categories are essential for the better human life and ultimate goal.
Modern age is the age of reason and ration. Advancement in the life is the main
purpose of each man. A man can make his life better through applied these sixteen
substances/categories; because these are based upon logic and reality. My
research paper is mainly aim at methods and procedure of advancement of man in
life and this world.
KEYWORDS---Sixteen Substance, Pramana, Ethics, Moksha, Hetvabhasa,
Evolutionism, Kant.

Philosophy is nothing but the human quest for truth. From every remote time Indians are blessed
with the spontaneous curiosity about what truth is. The main purpose of Philosophy is to make
character of a man perfect. Man is the ultimate reality of this world. Whole world is a publication
of human understanding and enterprises. The very first stanza of Nyaya-Sutra is stated as: ---
“Praman-prmeya-sanshay-pryojana-drishanta-siddhanta-avyava-tark-nirnaya-vada-jalpa-
vitanda-hetvabhasa-chhala-jati-nigrahasthananam-tatvagyangni-shreysadhigam””
[Which means Supreme felicity is attained by the knowledge about. the true nature of sixteen
categories, viz., means of right knowledge (Pramana), object of right knowledge (Prameya),
doubt (Samshaya), purpose (Prayojana), familiar instance (Drstanta), established tenet
(Siddhanta), components (Avayava), confutation (Tarka), ascertainment (Nirnaya), discussion
(Vada), wrangling (Jalpa), cavil (Vitanda,), fallacy (Hetvabhasa), quibble (Chhala), futility (Jati),
and occasion for rebuke (Nigrahasthana).]
The second stanza is stated the general condition of the world.....
“Dukha-janam-pravritti-dosha-mithyagyanana-muktotarapaye-tadantra-apaya-apvarga”
[Pain (Dukha), birth (Janma), activity (Pravrtti), faults (Dosha)and misapprehension
(Mthyagyana)—on the successive annihilation of these in the reverse order, there follows

UGC Research Fellow, Dept. of Philosophy, Panjab University Chandigarh

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Purva Mimaansa Vol. 8 No. 1-2, March-Sep. 2017
A Multi-discipinary Bi-annual Research Journal ISSN : 0976-0237
(Double Blind Peer Reviewed)
release.]
Misapprehension, faults, activity, birth and pain—these in their uninterrupted course constitute
the "World". Release, which .consists in the soul's getting rid of the world, is the condition of
supreme felicity marked by perfect tranquillity and not tainted by any defilement. A person, by the
true knowledge of the sixteen categories, is able to remove his misapprehensions. All systems of
Indian philosophy begin with the problem of suffering–Dukkha. The goal of the Nyaya is to
enable us to attain the highest goal of life which is Liberation from Dukkha and the attendant
cycle of births and deaths—Mokṣa, variously known as 'release', 'freedom', 'emancipation' or
Nirvāṇa – the state of non-return to birth/death. Buddhist also talk about the problem of suffering
but in a different manner, they used suffering as lack of human destiny, but Nyaya regards
suffering as a part of human life beyond which is release or liberation or Moksha. According to
Nayayikas the world presents itself us as a chain of consequences which needs to be broken in
order to attain Liberation from suffering.
1. Misapprehension [Ajnana]
2. Imbalance [Doṣa]
3. Activity [Karma]
4. Rebirth [Janma]
5. Suffering [Dukkha]
Cessation of the suffering is utmost goal of human understanding and intellectual. Because all the
suffering is a furious stage of human life. As mentioned above suffering is caused by
Misapprehension, which is prima origene of human down fall. According to Nyaya,
Misapprehension can be reduced or ceased through the proper knowing of sixteen substances
(Sodash Padarthah)
Sodash Padarthah---As mentioned above Nyaya prescribed sixteen Substances necessary for
better human living. A man can make his life better by applying these sixteen substances in
general ways of life. A brief sketch of substance is following-----
Pramana is that through which or by which the Prama (valid knowledge) is received. It is the last
of Nyaya's philosophical divisions to be discussed. There are four distinct fountains of correct
knowledge. These four Pramanas are: perception (Pratyaksa); Inference (Anumana);
Comparison (Upamana); and Testimony (sabda). Before discussing these sources of knowledge,
the nature or definition of knowledge should first be examined and the method for distinguishing
correct knowledge from false knowledge should be determined.
Prameya or object of Knowledge may be translated as "that which is knowable," or "the object of
true knowledge." That which is the object of cognition is Prameya, and whatever is
comprehended or cognized by Buddhi is categorized into the twelve objects of cognition known
as the Prameyas. These twelve divisions are: Atman--the self; Sarira-the body-the abode of the
experience of pain and pleasure that is the seat of all organic activities; Indriyas--the five senses--
smell, taste, sight, touch and hearing--which contact external objects and transmit the experience
to the mind; Artha , the objects of the senses; Buddhi--cognition; Manas--the mind--the internal
sense that is concerned with the perception of pleasure, pain, and all other internal experiences

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A Multi-discipinary Bi-annual Research Journal ISSN : 0976-0237
(Double Blind Peer Reviewed)
and that, according to Nyaya , limits cognition to time and space. The mind is compared to an atom
because it is minute, everlasting, individual, and all-pervading; Pravrtti--activity-vocal, mental,
and physical; Dosa , mental defects that include attachment (Raga), hatred (Dvesa), and
infatuation or Delusion (Moha); Pretyabhava , Rebirth or life after death; phala , the fruits or
results of actions experienced as pain or pleasure; Dukha , suffering- the bitter or undesired
experiences of mind; and Apavarga , liberation or complete cessation of all suffering without any
possibility of its reappearance.
Samsaya means "doubt." It is the state in which the mind wavers between conflicting views
regarding a single object. In a state of doubt, there are at least two alternative views, neither of
which can be determined to lead to a state of certainty. Samsaya is not certain knowledge; neither
is it a mere reflection of knowledge; nor is it invalid knowledge. It is a positive state of cognition,
but the cognition is split in two and does not provide any definite conclusions.
Prayojana means "aim." Without an aim or a target, no one can perform any action. It does not
matter whether that aim is fully understood or just presumed.
Drstanta is the use of an example to illustrate a common fact and establish an argument. This is a
very important aspect of reasoning, for frequently a useful example can be accepted by both
parties involved in a discussion without any disputation or difference of opinion.
Siddhanta means "doctrine." It is an axiomatic postulate that is accepted as the undisputed truth
and that serves as the foundation for the entire theory of a particular system of philosophy. This
accepted truth might be derived either from direct experience or from reasoning and logic.
Avayaya literally means "constituents" or "parts," and in this context it refers to the constituents
of inference. This is an important topic in Nyaya philosophy because nyaya strongly emphasizes
describing the minute complexities of the Pramanas , the sources or methods of receiving correct
knowledge. Among these methods, inference is the most important source of correct knowledge,
and Nyaya therefore provides a technical method to test the validity of inference. If an inference
contains five necessary constituents, then it can give correct know ledge. These five requisite
components of inference are Pratijna (statements); Hetu (reason); Udaharana (example);
Upanaya (universal proposition); and Nigamana (conclusion).
Tarka may be translated as "hypothetical argument. Tarka is the process of questioning and cross-
questioning that leads to a particular conclusion. It is a form of supposition that can be used as an
aid to the attainment of valid knowledge. Tarka can become a great instrument for analyzing a
common statement and for discriminating valid knowledge from invalid knowledge.
Nirnaya, conclusion, is certain knowledge that is attained by using legitimate means. If the mind
has doubts concerning the correctness or validity of a conclusion it has drawn, then employing the
process of Tarka (hypothetical argument) can help to resolve those doubt.
Vada, discussion, is a kind of debate between two parties--the exponent and the opponent--on a
particular subject. Each party tries to establish its own position and to refute that of the other,
arguing against any theory propounded by the other. Both, however, are trying to arrive at the truth
by applying the methods of reasoning and logic.
Jalpa , or wrangling, is the process by which the exponent and opponent both try to attain victory
over the other without making an honest attempt to come to the truth; there is an involvement of

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A Multi-discipinary Bi-annual Research Journal ISSN : 0976-0237
(Double Blind Peer Reviewed)
ego instead of a search for knowledge. Jalpa contains all the characteristics of a valid debate
except that of aiming to discover truth.
Vitanda is irrational reasoning. Specifically, it is argumentation that is aimed exclusively at
refuting or destroying an antagonist's position and that is not at all concerned with establishing or
defending one's own position. It is mere destructive criticism of the views of one's opponent.
Hetvabhasa means "irrational argument." It is reasoning that appears to be valid but is really
unfounded. This specious reasoning is a fallacy of inference, and it is therefore discussed later in
this chapter in the section on inference.
Chhala means "unfair reply." Here it is used to designate a statement that is meant to cheat or to
fool someone. In unfair reply one takes a word or phrase that has been used in a particular sense,
pretends to understand it in a sense other than that which was intended, and then denies the truth of
this deliberate misinterpretation of the original speaker's words.
Jati means generality, but as used here,it is a technical term used to describe a debate in which an
unfair reply or conclusion is based on a false analogy.
Nigrahasthana or "the grounds on which a person is defeated in his argument." When a
proponent misunderstands his own or his opponent's premises and their implications, then he
becomes helpless and must eventually admit his defeat in the debate. The point at which he
accepts his defeat is called Nigrahasthana
The Nyaya is the India's rational and convincing answer to those people who dismiss Nyaya as a
corpus of blind beliefs. The Nyaya systems of philosophy are the profound expositions of the
manifold meanings of the Vedic texts. The Nyaya laid bare to the world the deep scientific thought
and wisdom contained in the Vedas. Firmly planting themselves on the three principles of theism,
inner vision and the Vedas, the sages handed over to mankind a profound system of philosophy
that never changes in all the three times of past, present and future. Plumbing the very depths of
humanity, Nyaya dispelled the doubt and the fear, the sorrow and the anxiety, deep seated in the
human heart. Keeping the welfare of humanity uppermost in its mind, the Nyaya gifted to the
world a philosophy of hope, well-being and serenity, showing to mankind the art of self-
purification. Nyaya is the science of logic, and provides the only sound methodology of
philosophical inquiry into the nature of knowledge and the objects of knowledge. It is the means
to obtain Right Knowledge (Prama) about the Self and to discover the purpose of life. The only
way to impart our experience to others and to elucidate their implications for the rest of our life
and defend their validity against hostile criticism is by means of logic.
A Contemporary Debate---The Nyaya system groups all the objects of the world into twelve
major categories: Soul, Body, Senses, Objects of the Senses, Cognition (Buddhi), mind (Manas),
activity, mental modifications, rebirth, feelings, suffering, and absolute freedom from all
sufferings. Not all these objects of knowledge are found in the physical world because the
physical world is composed only of the four gross elements -- earth, water, fire, and air. Although
the soul and the mind are involved in the physical world, they are not physical elements. Likewise,
time and space are completely nonmaterial, but they nonetheless belong to the physical world.
Akasa (space or ether) is considered to be a physical substance, but it is not considered to be a
productive cause of anything In fact, the ultimate constituents of earth, air, fire, and water are

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A Multi-discipinary Bi-annual Research Journal ISSN : 0976-0237
(Double Blind Peer Reviewed)
eternal and unchanging atoms. Ether and time and space are also eternal and infinite substances,
each being one single whole.
The doctor's diagnosis involves three elements, all based in perception—the proposition (possible
diagnosis), reason, and analogy, reflecting Nyaya's Paksha (proposition), Hetu (reason) and
Sadhya (example). The doctor's goal, as in Nyaya, is even “fruitful” activity. In more effective
way, The goal of Nyaya is “Discussion, inquiry, and consensus.” Categorical theory of Nyaya
resembles both practical and speculative reasoning, applying precedent and analogy to specific
cases—without applying a general principle. It blends theory and practice, intellectual grasp and
technical skill, and is thus ideal for studying how practical reasoning works in context. It involves
perception and analogous pattern recognition. The important point in this connection is not
however mere pre-dominance in practice, which is after all a matter of temperament but what
might be called the right to predominance; these things are linked together only to a certain extent.
Doubtless recognition of superiority is one of the tendency which lead to its maximum
development of self; but in practice it is nonetheless true that the particular capacity of each person
has to be taken into account, and the places held by contemplation and action in the life of a man or
a people will therefore always be to a great extent determined by his or their pristine nature. This is
that knowing the self or reality is through knowledge is the supreme goal of Nyaya. Influence of
the very recent idea of 'progress', 'philosophies of becoming' have, in modern times, taken on a
special form that theories of the same type never had among the ancients: this form, although it
may have multiple varieties, can be covered in general by the name 'evolutionism'. This leads us to
repeat an essential point on which not the slightest ambiguity must be allowed to persist:
intellectual intuition, by which alone metaphysical knowledge is to be obtained, has absolutely
nothing in common with this other 'intuition' of which certain contemporary philosophers speak.
The main aim of Nyaya is to enter into the investigation of any topic by first considering the
etymology of the fundamental constituents defining that topic. Topics pertaining to right
knowledge should be tested using the tenets of logic. Spiritual questions should be pondered with
discrimination, distinguishing truth from falsehood. In the Nyaya, the Science of Psychology, the
Science of Logic, The Science of Spirituality, and the Vedanta Scriptures have been discussed.
These sixteen substances are the utmost tools of logic, reality and spirituality.
Kant, in foundation of his famous postulates of morality or categorical imperative narrates that the
reason is the basic need of a man. Kant's famous categorical imperative is not really a rule for
determining moral right and wrong. Rather, it is a rule for determining the rules of morality. It is a
rule-generating rule. The famous postulates of morality are---
l Act only according to that maxim by which you can at the same time will that it should
become a universal law.
l Try to make perfect himself and produce like conditions for the betterment of others because
You can't make a person perfect.
l Act like a member of kingdom of ends.
These three postulates are the base of modern ethical theories. Kant's categorical imperatives may
be put as follows: -- A 'maxim' will give an actual moral duty if and only if both of two further

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A Multi-discipinary Bi-annual Research Journal ISSN : 0976-0237
(Double Blind Peer Reviewed)
conditions are met:
· One can consistently will a social system where everyone accepts and operates on that
maxim.
· One cannot consistently will a social system where everyone rejects and does not operate
on that maxim.
Kant seems to have intended 'can will' in a particularly strong sense. It was not for him a matter of
what one's peculiar psychological nature is capable of accepting. Rather, he seems to have been
concerned with cases where what is willed involves some conceptual absurdity, or an essentially
self-defeating state of affairs. It is a matter of what one can consistently will.
In the contrast to Kant, Nyaya theory of sixteen substances is to wider in nature. The existence of
life is the most important phenomenon in our Universe. The existence of life anywhere or in
anything indicates it to be a living being. Man is an excellent being in the material world because
of his/her spiritual and material properties and dimensions. Man, contrary to other beings have
unique properties that include origin and creation, mundane life and evolution, resurrection and
final goal. Man has birth, life, death and aims for himself. But all these properties, especially man's
soul corporeal creation and spiritual evolution, are on the basis of living in the material world. The
material world is the only base and background of man's soul's creation and evolution and through
its utilisation, man can reach his/her spiritual aims. Nyaya's theory of sixteen substances has more
prominenence that have special properties such as: the principality of existence, the gradation of
existence, the unity between intelligent and intelligible, the universe temporal creation, the soul
corporeal creation and its incorporeal permanence, the principle of unity in plurality, the principle
of ultimate in the world system and corporeal resurrection, and so on. This provides theoretical
and practical frameworks which draw the line of the creation and evolution of man's existence.
The importance of man's creation and his/her spiritual subsistence and corporeal creation lies in
his/her life in this world and his/her complete motion on the basis of his/her acquired abilities in
the material world. And these can be attaining by the theory of Sixteen Substances in general,
because these solves the practical problem of a Man.
Conclusion---The Nyaya Sutra begins: “Supreme felicity is attained by the knowledge about the
true nature of the sixteen categories”. “Felicity” means liberation from ignorance and release from
the common human condition of desire and fear. Nyaya methods originated in rhetorical concerns
regarding debate (Katha) and honest discussion (Vada). Applying the sixteen categories implies
release, or Moksha—“Pain, Birth, Activity, Faults, and misapprehension—on the successive
annihilation of these in the reverse order, there follows release”. Nyaya is the rational system of
Indian philosophy; tries to find out the path of realisation of self through the logic, because the
logic is very simple to common man and especially nyaya uses very simple logic. Sixteen
substances are very essential for a man dealing with worldly purpose. Modern time is time of
reason and ration, science and technology and knowledge. With the help of nyaya a better world
can make; because a better world is the need of all of Us.

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A Multi-discipinary Bi-annual Research Journal ISSN : 0976-0237
(Double Blind Peer Reviewed)
References
l Vidyabhushan Satish Chandra (1930), The Sacred Texts of The Hindus—Volume-VIII:
The Nyaya Sutra of Gautama (Tr.), Modern Printing Press: Allahabad.
l Vidyabhushan Satish Chandra (1913), The Sacred Texts of The Hindus—Volume-VIII:
The Nyaya Sutra of Gautama (Tr.), Indian Press: Allahabad.
l Wells John (2012), The Nyaya Darshana - The Six Darshanas: Modern translations,
http//:[Link] /The%20Nyaya%[Link].
l Dr. Swami Satya Prasad Das Ji (2010), Indian Philososphy, Sadguru Mahant Swani Sri
Dharmnandan dasji Shree Swaminarayan Mandir-Bhuj.
l Tapovanachari Suhotra Dasa (2007), The Six Systems of Vedic Philosophy,
[Link]
l Frankena William (1973), Ethics, Springer: Berlin.

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