CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 GENERAL OVERVIEW
Rocks and minerals constitute the essential framework of the Earth’s crust, serving as the basis for
geological, mining, and engineering investigations. The ability to accurately identify rocks is a vital
component of these studies, as it enables the systematic classification of rocks according to their
physical attributes, mineral makeup, and origin. Proper identification provides valuable information
about an area’s geological evolution, the Earth’s internal structure, and the likelihood of locating
exploitable natural resources.
1.2 AIM AND OBJECTIVE

AIM:
• To provide adequate exposure of mining methods to students such as
quarrying and open cast mining
• For student to get a first hand experiences using some engineering
• equipments and tools.
• To prepare students to be acquainted to the nature of job they are likely to
• meet in the future.
• To enable students to meet and interact with professional engineers from
• other engineering discipline.
• To build personal experience for students.

OBJECTIVES:
At the end of the field work, the students are able to;
• Unambiguously distinguish between open pit and open cast mining
• Use some engineering equipments and tools such as the GPS, compass, total station, level, etc.
• Explain and comprehend the process of processing cement using limestone and some additives
such as gypsum
• Carry out engineering survey successfully on their own using different ngineering equipments.
• Explain explicitly the process of dimension stone quarrying and the criteriain choosing a
dimension stone.
• Explain the operational function of the national Metallurgical
• Development Center (NMDC) Jos.
• Give an overview of the Nigerian Institute Of Mining and Geosciences (NIMGS) and it’s mode
of operation.

1.3 STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY AND FIELD MAPPING

Rocks are generally divided into three primary categories:
1. Igneous rocks – formed through the cooling and crystallization of molten magma or lava.

1
 2. Sedimentary rocks – created by the accumulation, compaction, and cementation of sediments
derived from pre-existing rocks.
3. Metamorphic rocks – developed when existing rocks undergo transformation due to heat,
pressure, and the influence of chemically active fluids.
Identifying these rock groups involves careful examination of properties such as color, grain size,
hardness, texture, cleavage, and specific mineral content.
In field identification, granite is easily recognized by its interlocking mineral crystals of quartz,
feldspar, and mica, combined with its notable hardness and resistance to abrasion. Granitic terrains
often host hydrothermal activities that concentrate metallic minerals, making granite not only a
common rock type but also a significant geological indicator for mineral prospecting.
At the investigated site, the granite samples were carefully examined and classified according to
textural characteristics, color variation, mineral composition, and weathering degree.

1.3.1 Engineering and Economic Significance

• Construction material: Granite is extensively employed in building foundations, bridge piers,
monuments, and as dimension stone for tiles and countertops due to its high durability and
attractive appearance.
• Aggregate: When crushed, granite serves as an important material for road base, railway
ballast, and concrete production.
• Mineralization indicator: Granite masses are frequently linked with valuable ore deposits such
as tin, tungsten, uranium, and rare earth elements, hence their importance in mineral
exploration.

1.3.2 Field Identification Revealed the Presence of Various Types of Granite Such As:

Medium-Grained Granite
• Definition: This variety contains mineral crystals—quartz, feldspar, and mica—that are easily
visible to the naked eye, yet smaller than those in coarse-grained forms, typically ranging
between 2 mm and 5 mm.
• Texture: Usually equigranular, meaning the grains are approximately equal in size, but it can
also exhibit a slightly porphyritic texture with larger crystals embedded in a finer matrix.
• Formation: Formed from magma that cooled at a moderate rate within the crust—slower than
fine-grained types but faster than coarse-grained ones.
• Appearance: Displays a balanced and uniform look with evenly distributed minerals.
• Uses: Commonly utilized as construction stone, aggregates, and slabs because of its strength,
uniform texture, and aesthetic consistency.

2
Among the various samples observed during the field study, medium-grained granite was identified,
showing well-interlocked quartz, feldspar, and mica crystals ranging from 2 mm to 5 mm in size.

Fig. 1.0 Medium Grained Granite

Fine-Grained Granite
• Definition: A type of granite characterized by very small mineral crystals, generally less than 2
mm, often indistinct without magnification.
• Texture: Possesses a smooth, compact texture, making mineral identification possible mainly
with the aid of a hand lens or microscope.
• Formation: Develops when granitic magma cools relatively quickly, usually at shallower
crustal levels compared to medium- or coarse-grained granite.
• Appearance: Displays uniform coloration and smoothness, often appearing greyish, whitish, or
pinkish depending on feldspar content.
• Uses: Ideal for polished surfaces, decorative tiles, and monuments due to its fine, smooth
polish.
• Field Identification: Hardness between 6 and 7 on Mohs scale, an interlocking crystal texture,
and massive structure confirm its granitic nature despite its fine grain size.
Fine-grained granite was also detected at the location, recognized by its compact, interlocking mineral
structure with crystal sizes below 2 mm, giving it a dense and smooth appearance.

3
 Fig. 1.1 Fine Grained Granite

Weathered Granite
• Definition:
Weathered granite refers to granite that has undergone both physical and chemical weathering,
resulting in the alteration and gradual breakdown of its primary minerals.
• Processes:
• Chemical weathering: Feldspar minerals decompose into clay minerals such as
kaolinite and illite, while quartz largely remains unaltered. Biotite and mica commonly
oxidize to form iron-rich residues.
• Physical weathering: The presence of joints and fractures allows moisture penetration,
promoting mechanical disintegration into sand- or gravel-sized fragments.
• Appearance:
• Softer, crumbly texture compared to unaltered granite.
• Original gray or pink coloration transitions to yellowish-brown or reddish hues due to
oxidation of iron-bearing minerals.
• Grains become weakly bonded, causing the rock to crumble with ease.
• Engineering and Geological Significance:

4
 • The weathering process reduces both strength and durability of the rock.
• Produces loose sandy materials (grus) often used as construction fill.
• Increased porosity makes weathered granite a potential aquifer material in groundwater
studies.
• Field Identification:
Easily recognized by its weak bonding between grains, discoloration, soft texture, and ease of
scratching or crumbling.
At the study site, weathered granite was observed showing visible discoloration and the conversion of
feldspar minerals into clay. Grain boundaries were loose, and the rock exhibited significantly lower
strength than fresh granite.

Fig. 1.2 Weathered Granite

Quartz-Grain Granite
• Definition:
Quartz-grain granite is a variety distinguished by a high quartz content, typically comprising
25–40% of the total mineral composition.
• Composition:
• Quartz: Abundant, imparting a translucent and glass-like luster.
• Feldspar (orthoclase and plagioclase): Present in smaller quantities than in typical
granite.

5
 • Mica (biotite or muscovite): Minor constituents that produce dark specks within the
rock.
• Appearance:
• Generally light in color—ranging from whitish to gray.
• Sparkling, glassy quartz grains are distinctly visible.
• Grain size varies from medium to coarse, depending on the cooling rate of the magma.
• Properties:
• Exhibits high hardness (quartz has a Mohs hardness of 7).
• Displays excellent resistance to chemical alteration.
• Breaks into angular fragments due to the dominance of quartz.
• Formation:
• Originates from the slow crystallization of silica-rich magma.
• Elevated silica levels promote the formation of abundant quartz crystals.
• Uses:
• Extensively used as dimension stone for flooring, countertops, and monuments.
• Crushed quartz-rich granite serves in concrete and road aggregate production.
• Acts as a guide rock for mineralization zones containing tin, tungsten, or gold.
At the field site, a quartz-rich granite variety was identified by its light coloration, visible glassy quartz
grains, and its notable resistance to weathering—signifying a silica-rich magmatic source.

Fig. 1.3 Quartz Grain Granite

6
1.4 VEINS AND JOINTS

1.4.1 DEFINITION OF VEINS

Veins are elongated, narrow bodies of mineral material that fill cracks or fractures within existing rock
formations. They vary widely in thickness—from a few millimeters to several meters—and can extend
across significant distances.

1.4.2 FORMATION OF VEINS

Veins form through a series of geological mechanisms, including:
• Hydrothermal Processes: Most veins result from the movement of hot, mineral-charged fluids
through fractures in the Earth’s crust. These fluids dissolve minerals from the host rock and
deposit them as they migrate into cooler regions, sealing the openings.
• Cooling and Crystallization: As these fluids cool, minerals begin to precipitate out of solution,
forming solid mineral layers within the cracks. The resulting mineral types depend on the
composition of the fluids and the prevailing temperature and pressure.
• Tectonic Activity: Movement of the Earth’s plates generates fractures and stress zones, creating
pathways for hydrothermal fluids to circulate and form vein structures.

1.4.3 TYPES OF VEINS

Veins are categorized based on mineral content and the processes responsible for their development:
• Quartz Veins: Composed mainly of quartz; these are common in many geological settings and
often mark areas of precious metal mineralization, especially gold.
• Metallic Veins: Contain economically important metals such as gold, silver, copper, lead, and
zinc, usually deposited by hydrothermal solutions.
• Gangue Minerals: Non-valuable minerals like quartz, calcite, and various silicates that
accompany ore minerals within the vein.

1.4.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF VEINS

• Texture: The internal texture may range from coarse- to fine-grained depending on the rate of
mineral crystallization.
• Color: Coloration varies according to mineral chemistry—quartz veins are typically white or
clear, while iron-bearing veins may exhibit reddish or brownish tones.
• Orientation: Veins commonly display distinct directional trends that provide clues about the
stress regimes and tectonic movements responsible for their formation.

7
 Fig. 1.4 Typical Example of a Vein

1.4.5 FIELD AND DATA TABLES

Table 1: Coordinates and Elevation of mapping points
Points Latitude (°) Longitude (°) Elevation (m) Distance (m)
A 09° 56' 48" N 08° 54' 25" E 117 121
B 09° 56' 44"N 08° 54' 25" E 1183 48

C 09° 56' 44" N 08° 54' 27" E 1206 58

D 09° 56' 45" N 08° 54' 28" E 1203 52
E 09° 56' 47" N 08° 54' 29" E 1202 84
F 09° 56' 48" N 08° 54' 25" E 1195 65

Table 2: Coordinates of samples

Samples ID Latitude (°) Longitude (°) Elevation (m)
Quartz 1 09° 56' 47" N 08° 54' 27" E 1207
Weathered Rock 2 09° 56' 45" N 08° 54' 27" E 1212
Biotite 3 09° 56' 46" N 08° 54' 27" E 1206
Granite 4 09° 56' 45" N 08° 54' 27" E 1209

8
Table 3: Strike and Dip measurements of Veins
Station ID Strike Dip Angle/ Dip Direction
1 S 130° E 42° SE
2 S 240°W 44° SE
3 S 124° E 40° SE
4 S 186° W 24° SE
5 N 272° W 82° SW
6 N 254° W 48° SE
7 N 342° W 6°SW
8 S 266° W 20° SE
9 S 201° W 70° SW
10 S 182° W 58° SE
11 S 98° E 46° SE
12 S 130° E 46° SE
13 S 190° W 40° SW
14 S 160° E 60° SW
15 S 202° W 62° SE

Table 4:
Station Latitude Longitude Elevation
1 09° 57' 30" N 08° 54' 20" E 1270
2 09° 57' 29" N 08° 54' 20" E 1267
3 09° 57' 30" N 08° 54' 21" E 1264
4 09° 57' 29" N 08° 54' 21" E 1263
5 09° 57' 29" N 08° 54' 21" E 1263
6 09° 57' 29" N 08° 54' 21" E 1262
7 09° 57' 21" N 08° 54' 21" E 1261

8 09° 57' 29" N 08° 54' 21" E 1260

9 09° 57' 29" N 08° 54' 21" E 1261
10 09° 57' 29" N 09° 54' 22" E 1259
11 09° 57' 29" N 08° 54' 22" E 1257
Pit coordinates

9
1.4.6 DEFINITION OF JOINTS
Joints are naturally occurring fractures or cracks within rock masses where there has been no
observable displacement of the rock blocks on either side of the break. They vary greatly in scale; from
microscopic fissures to fractures extending several meters and can develop in multiple orientations
within a rock body.

1.4.7 FORMATION OF JOINTS

Joints originate from a range of geological processes that subject rocks to stress or deformation,
including:
• Tectonic Forces: Movements of the Earth’s crust caused by plate interactions generate stress
fields, compressional, tensional, or shear, that can lead to the fracturing of rocks without
significant movement along the fractures.
• Cooling and Contraction: During the cooling of igneous bodies, the reduction in temperature
causes contraction. This shrinkage produces joints, commonly seen in basaltic lava flows
forming characteristic hexagonal columnar patterns.
• Weathering and Erosion: Progressive weathering weakens rock integrity, initiating fractures
that may later be revealed at the surface through erosional processes.
• Pressure Release (Unloading): When overburden materials are eroded away, the reduction in
confining pressure allows underlying rocks to expand and fracture, giving rise to joints.

1.4.8 CHARACTERISTICS OF JOINTS

• Spacing: The distance between adjacent joints differs considerably, influencing the rock’s
mechanical strength and permeability.
• Surface Features: Joint surfaces can exhibit polished zones known as slickensides or contain
mineral infillings, both indicating past fluid movement or minor adjustments along the joint
plane.
• Width: Joint openings range from fine hairline cracks to wide gaps, affecting the rock’s
structural behavior and stability.

1.4.9 IMPORTANCE OF JOINTS

Joints play a critical role in both geological and engineering contexts:
• Hydrology: They serve as conduits for groundwater movement, influencing subsurface flow
and surface drainage patterns.
• Rock Stability: Knowledge of joint orientation and spacing is essential for evaluating slope
stability and planning underground excavations.

10
 • Mineral Exploration: Many mineralized veins and ore deposits occur along joint planes,
making them valuable guides in mining exploration.
• Geotechnical Engineering: Understanding joint systems assists in the safe design of
foundations, tunnels, and other structures built in or on rock formations.

1.5.0 MINERAL PROCESS IN GRANITE ROCK

Granite is an intrusive igneous rock that forms when silica-rich magma cools slowly beneath the
Earth’s surface. The mineral processes related to granite include:

1. Crystallization (Primary Process)

• Granite minerals develop as molten magma cools deep within the crust.
• Quartz, feldspar (both orthoclase and plagioclase types), and mica solidify together, forming an
interlocking crystalline texture.
• The size of the grains (fine, medium, or coarse) depends mainly on how quickly or slowly the
magma cools.

2. Alteration / Weathering (Secondary Process)

Once granite is uplifted and exposed on the surface, it experiences weathering and alteration.
• Chemical Weathering:
• Feldspar changes into clay minerals such as kaolinite and illite.
• Biotite transforms into iron oxides or hydroxides, giving the rock a reddish or yellowish
tint.
• Quartz remains largely unchanged because it is highly resistant to chemical breakdown.
• Physical Weathering:
• The rock expands, cracks, and eventually breaks apart into smaller fragments like sand
and gravel particles.

3. Mineralization (Ore Deposition)

Granite intrusions often interact with hydrothermal fluids—hot, mineral-rich solutions that flow
through fractures and concentrate valuable metals.
• Common ore minerals found include tin (Sn), tungsten (W), uranium (U), molybdenum (Mo),
gold (Au), and rare earth elements (REEs).
• Metallic minerals are frequently hosted in quartz veins located within or near the granite body.

11
4. Metasomatism (Chemical Replacement)
• Circulating hot fluids can replace existing minerals in the granite with new ones.
• For example, feldspar may be altered to sericite (a fine-grained mica) or kaolinite.
• This chemical exchange process can enrich specific areas with economically valuable minerals.

1.6 INTRODUCTION TO TIN

Tin (chemical symbol Sn) is a shiny, silvery-white metal known for its low melting point (232 °C),
excellent corrosion resistance, and usefulness in forming alloys. The main ore of tin is cassiterite
(SnO₂), which can contain up to 78.6% tin by weight. Historically, tin was a key component in bronze
(an alloy of copper and tin). In modern times, tin is essential in solder for electronics, tin plating on
steel, and the production of specialized alloys.

1.6.1 GEOLOGICAL OCCURRENCE OF TIN

Tin deposits generally occur in two main types:
• Primary deposits: Cassiterite appears in veins closely associated with granite intrusions.
• Secondary deposits (placers): Through weathering, cassiterite is released from its host rock
and, due to its high density, becomes concentrated in riverbeds and alluvial sediments.

Open-Pit Minning for Tin

Open-pit mining is widely used for shallow, near-surface cassiterite deposits that can be mined
efficiently on a large scale.

Step 1: Prospecting and Exploration

• Geological mapping, geophysical surveys, and drilling are performed to locate tin-bearing
zones.
• The ore grade, total reserves, and depth are analyzed to confirm economic viability.

Step 2: Mine Design and Planning

• Engineers design benches or stepped excavation levels with stable slope angles.
• Access roads for trucks and heavy equipment are constructed.
• Waste disposal areas and tailings ponds are carefully laid out.

Step 3: Overburden Removal

• Topsoil and non-ore material (overburden) are stripped using excavators, bulldozers, or
draglines.

12
 • The removed overburden is either stored for later land restoration or discarded as waste.

Step 4: Drilling and Blasting

• Holes are drilled into the ore and waste zones.
• Explosives are inserted and detonated to break the rock into fragments suitable for hauling.

Step 5: Loading and Hauling

• The broken material is loaded using hydraulic shovels or front-end loaders.
• Trucks carry the ore to the processing plant, while waste rock is transported to designated
dumps.

Step 6: Ore Processing

• Crushing and Grinding: The ore is broken down into smaller sizes for easier concentration.
• Concentration: Since cassiterite is dense, gravity separation methods are preferred.
• Techniques include jigs, shaking tables, spirals, and dense-media separation.
• Magnetic separators remove iron-bearing impurities, while flotation is occasionally used
for finer materials.

Step 7: Smelting and Refining

• Concentrated cassiterite is reduced with carbon in a furnace according to the reaction:
SnO₂ + 2C → Sn + 2CO
• This yields crude tin metal, which is further purified through:
• Liquation: Partial melting to remove impurities.
• Electrolytic refining: Produces tin of 99.9% purity.

1.6.2 ENVIRONMENTAL AND SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS

• Environmental: Open-pit mining often leads to deforestation, erosion, dust, noise pollution,
and contamination of water sources. Proper waste handling, land restoration, and water
treatment are vital.
• Safety: Mine operators must manage slope stability, blasting safety, dust control, and heavy
machinery hazards.
• Rehabilitation: After mining, pits can be filled, topsoil replaced, and vegetation replanted to
restore the ecosystem.

13
1.6.3 ECONOMIC AND INDUSTRIAL IMPORTANCE
• Tin plays a key role in electronics (soldering materials), food preservation (tin-plated cans),
alloy manufacture (bronze, pewter), and glass production.
• Open-pit methods make it possible to recover large volumes of ore efficiently, supporting global
tin demand.

14
 CHAPTER TWO
2.0 ENGINEERING SURVEY

2.1 INTRODUCTION
An engineering survey is a critical aspect of mining and civil engineering that involves the precise
measurement, mapping, and analysis of the earth’s surface to support design, construction, and
operational activities. It provides accurate data on distances, elevations, angles, and coordinates
necessary for planning engineering projects such as roads, dams, quarries, and mining sites.
The primary objective of the engineering survey carried out was to gain practical experience in field
measurement techniques and to understand the application of various surveying instruments including
theodolites, leveling equipment, tapes, and total stations. Through this exercise, students were able to
bridge theoretical knowledge from the classroom with real-life field operations, improving their
technical competence, teamwork, and problem-solving skills essential for professional practice.

2.2 PRACTICAL ONE – LEVELING

2.2.1 BRIEF REVIEW

This practical was carried out to obtain reduced levels (R.L.) of points on traverse, and establish/verify
a Temporary Benchmark (TBM).

2.2.2 AIM AND OBJECTIVES

Aim: To compute RLs for several points using the Height of Instrument (H.I.) method and verify
levelling closure.
Objectives: To determine the reduced level (elevation) of various points on a pre-marked traverse and
to establish the height of a temporary benchmark (TBM).

2.2.3 EQUIPMENT USED

Dumpy Level / Auto Level on tripod, Levelling staff with Tripod, Ranging poles, field book and
calculator.

2.2.4 FIELD PROCEDURE

 We established a temporary benchmark (TBM) at a stable, permanent feature (e.g., a concrete
step, a specific kerb), and assumed its Reduced Level (RL) to be 100.000 m.
 We Set up the level on the tripod at a point where we can clearly see the TBM and the first
change point (CP1). Also ensured the tripod is stable and the head is approximately level.
 Backsight (BS): We hold the staff vertically on the TBM. Took a reading through the level and
recorded it in the field book under the BS column.
 Foresight (FS): We then move the staff to a new point, CP1 (hammered a pole into the ground).
This is our first Change Point. We took a reading on CP1 and record it under the FS column.
 Move Instrument: We moved the level to a new position beyond CP1 from where we can see
CP1 and the next point.
 Backsight on CP1: Took a BS reading on CP1.
 Foresight on New Point: We took a FS reading on the next point and recorded all readings.

15
The process is repeated to establish RLs for at least 5 points (including the TBM and 4 other points),
creating a closed loop that ends back on our original TBM.

A 21m B

16m 14m

E C

14m 13.5m

D
Fig. 2.0

2.2.5 TABLE OF VALUES elevation = 1160

Backsight Intermediate Sight Foresight Height of Instrument Reduced Level

Station
(BS) (IS) (FS) (HI) (RL)
A 1.284 — — 101.845 100.000
B — 1.845 — — 99.439
C 1.564 — 1.953 100.987 99.423
D — 1.683 — — 99.304
E — — 1.675 — 99.312

Solution
• Height of Instrument (HI) = RL of known point + BS
• Reduced Level (RL) = HI – FS

Station A
Given:
• RL(A) = 100.000
• BS(A) = 1.284
HI at A = 100.000 + 1.284 = 101.284

16
Station B
IS = 1.845
RL(B) = HI(A) – IS(B)
= 101.284 – 1.845 = 99.439

Station C

Backsight = 1.564
HI(C) = RL(B) + BS(C)
= 99.439 + 1.564 = 101.003
Then Foresight (1.953) is used to find RL(C):
RL(C) = HI(C) – FS(C)
= 101.003 – 1.953 = 99.050

Station D
IS = 1.683
RL(D) = HI(C) – IS(D)
= 101.003 – 1.683 = 99.320

Station E
FS = 1.675
RL(E) = HI(C) – FS(E)
= 101.003 – 1.675 = 99.328

2.3 PRACTICAL TWO – TRIANGULATION

2.3.1 BRIEF REVIEW

Determining the horizontal distance and coordinates of an inaccessible point C by triangulation from a
known baseline AB.

2.3.2 AIM AND OBJECTIVES

Aim:
To determine the coordinates of point C using a measured baseline and two horizontal angles.
Objectives:
• To correctly set up the instrument.
• To measure the baseline AB accurately.

17
 • To measure horizontal angles at A and B to point C.
• To apply the sine rule in order to compute the distances AC and BC.
• Optionally, to compute the coordinates of point C.

2.3.3 EQUIPMENTS USED

Theodolite, Measuring Tape, Compass, Ranging Poles, Tripod, and Notebook.

2.3.4 RAW DATA

Baseline AB = 20.5 m
∠BAC = 45°47′00"
∠ABC = 65°41′00"
Bearing of AB = 140°00′00"
Assumed Coordinates: Point A = (1000.000 m E, 1000.000 m N)

CALCULATIONS
<BCA = 180 – (<BAC + <ABC)
<BCA = 180 – (
<BCA =
Bearing AC = Bearing AB + <A
Bearing AC =
Reverse Bearing BA = Bearing AB +

To find distance AC and BC, we use the sine rule:

For Distance BC:

BC = 19.44m

For Distance AC:

18
AC = 23.15m

To calculate the coordinates of C from A, we will need to find the change in northing and change
in easting

Coordinates of C from A:
Easting of C = Easting of A +
Easting of C = 1002.13m
Northing of C = Northing of A +
Northing of C = 976.95m
To calculate the coordinates of C from B, we will need to find bearing BC and then change in Northing
and Easting of AB and BC with coordinates B

Easting of B = Easting of A +
Easting of B = 1017.82m
Northing of B = Northing of A +
Northing of B = 988.43m
Calculating coordinates of C from B
Distance BC = 19.44m
Bearing BC = Bearing BA - <B =

Easting of C = Easting of B +
Easting of C = 1002.13m
Northing of C = Northing of B +
Northing of C = 976.95m

RESULTS
AC = 23.15m,
BC = 19.44m, Bearing BC

Coordinates of B (

Coordinates of C (

19
 Fig 2.1 – Satellite imagery of study area

2.4 SOURCES OF ERROR & IMPACT

Angular Error: May occur due to instrument misleveling or incorrect reading, leading to large
positional errors at point C.
Baseline Measurement Error: Could result from tape sag, incorrect tension, or thermal expansion,
causing scale errors in the computed distances.

2.5 MINING RELEVANCE

Triangulation is commonly used for establishing control points in mine pit layouts.
Any angular or baseline errors can lead to mislocation of benches, resulting in incorrect excavation and
unnecessary operational costs.

2.6 PRACTICAL THREE – CONTOURING (USING GRID METHOD)

2.6.1 BRIEF REVIEW
This practical exercise was carried out to prepare a topographic map of a 20m × 20m area by setting up
a grid network, determining spot heights (Reduced Levels) at the grid intersections, and then
interpolating and plotting contour lines at 0.5m intervals. The activity helped in understanding how
ground undulations are represented graphically for engineering and construction purposes.

20
2.6.2 AIM AND OBJECTIVES
Aim:
To produce contour lines that accurately depict the variation of ground levels across the surveyed area
for design and analysis purposes.
Objectives:
• To establish a 5m × 5m grid, resulting in 25 intersection points.
• To determine the Reduced Levels (RLs) of these points using a Dumpy or Auto Level.
• To interpolate contour lines at 0.5m intervals from the obtained RL data.
• To plot the contour map at a scale of 1:100 for clear visualization of terrain features.

2.6.3 EQUIPMENT USED

The following instruments and materials were employed during the exercise:
Dumpy/Auto Level, Leveling Staff, Measuring Tape, Floor Interlocks (used as Pegs – 25 pieces), Field
Book, and Graph Sheet.

2.6.4 FIELD PROCEDURE

• A 20m × 20m grid was laid out on the ground with 5m spacing, marking 25 intersection points
labeled A1 to E5.
• The leveling instrument was set up at a central position and back sight readings were taken on a
Temporary Bench Mark (TBM) of known RL.
• Fore sight readings were then observed on each grid point, and Reduced Levels were calculated
using the Height of Instrument (H.I.) method.
• A contour interval of 0.5m was adopted, and contours were interpolated and plotted accordingly
to represent the surface profile.

2. 6.5 RAW DATA

STATION BS (m) IS (m) FS (m) RL (m) Remarks
TBM 1.353 - - 1133.259 Known RL
A1 - - 2.280 1133.095 Grid Point
A2 - - 2.510 1132.915 Grid Point
A3 - - 2.660 1132.785 Grid Point
A4 - - 2.790 1132.655 Grid Point

21
 A5 - - 2.880 1132.565 Grid Point
B1 - - 2.120 1133.325 Grid Point
B2 - - 2.230 1133.215 Grid Point
B3 - - 2.110 1133.335 Grid Point
B4 - - 2.410 1133.035 Grid Point
B5 - - 2.860 1132.585 Grid Point
C1 - - 2.050 1133.395 Grid Point
C2 - - 2.200 1133.245 Grid Point
C3 - - 2.350 1133.095 Grid Point
C4 - - 2.510 1132.935 Grid Point
C5 - - 2.770 1132.675 Grid Point
D1 - - 1.920 1133.525 Grid Point
D2 - - 2.100 1133.345 Grid Point
D3 - - 2.250 1133.195 Grid Point
D4 - - 2.360 1133.085 Grid Point
D5 - - 2.650 1132.795 Grid Point
E1 - - 1.820 1133.625 Grid Point
E2 - - 2.010 1133.435 Grid Point
E3 - - 2.160 1133.285 Grid Point
E4 - - 2.330 1133.115 Grid Point
E5 - - 2.540 1132.905 Grid Point

CALCULATION
Interpolation
Level 1133.0 m on edge A1–B1

d=
Level 1133.0 m on edge B1–B2

d=
Level 1133.0 m on edge C1–C2

d=
Level 1133.0 m on edge D1–D2

d=
Level 1133.0 m on edge D2–D3

d=

22
Level 1133.0 m on edge D3–D4

d=
Level 1133.5 m on edge A4–B4

d=
Level 1133.5 m on edge A5–B5

d=

No valid crossings were found for 1132.5 m (level below lowest RL 1132.565). Many tested edges
gave d outside [0,1] and are therefore ignored.

RESULT

Fig. 2.2 Contour map with interpolated crossing points (levels from 1132.5m step 0.5m)

2.7 PRACTICAL FOUR – COORDINATE CALCULATION

2.7.1 INTRODUCTION
Coordinate calculation is an essential part of engineering surveying that involves determining the exact
positions of points on the earth’s surface using a defined reference system. These coordinates, usually
expressed in terms of Eastings (X) and Northings (Y), enable surveyors to locate points accurately for
mapping, design, and construction purposes. This practical focused on using measured baselines,
angles, and distances to compute the coordinates of unknown points relative to known control points.
The exercise also demonstrated how coordinate computation supports plotting, setting out, and other
geospatial applications in engineering projects.

23
2.7.2 EQUIPMENT USED
Theodolite (1)
Tripod (1)
Prismatic reflector and pole (1)
Ranging poles (5)
Measuring tape (100m)
Field book, pencil and eraser
Pegs/marking sticks (3)

2.7.3 AIM AND OBJECTIVES

Aim:
To compute the coordinates of unknown points using field data obtained from measured distances and
angles.
Objectives:
• To correctly record field data such as bearings, angles, and distances.
• To use trigonometric relationships in calculating coordinates from the known reference point.
• To understand the process of determining Eastings and Northings from observed data.
• To verify and plot the computed coordinates to ensure accuracy and consistency in results.

2.7.4 PROCEDURE
Step 1: Field Work – Data Collection
• A closed traverse consisting of four or five stations (A–B–C–D–E–A) was established on the
field, with pegs properly fixed at each station to serve as reference points.
• The instrument was first set up and leveled precisely over station A. Horizontal angles were
observed to station E (on the left face) and station B (on the right face). The horizontal distance
between A and B was measured using either the Electronic Distance Measuring Instrument
(EDMI) of a Total Station or a measuring tape.
• The instrument was then moved to station B, where the interior angle between A and C was
measured along with the distance BC.

24
 • This process was repeated successively for all remaining stations until the traverse was closed
back at station A, ensuring that each interior angle and line distance was carefully observed and
recorded.
• All field readings, including angles and distances, were properly entered into the field book for
further computation.
Step 2: Calculation and Adjustment
1. Checking Angular Misclosure:
• The sum of all measured interior angles should ideally be equal to (n – 2) × 180°, where n
represents the number of traverse sides.
• Any angular error detected is to be distributed equally among the measured angles to obtain
corrected values.
• Using the adjusted angles, bearings of all traverse lines were calculated beginning from an
assumed initial bearing for line AB (e.g., 0°00'00").
2. Computing Latitude (ΔN) and Departure (ΔE):
• The corrected distances and bearings were then used to calculate the Latitudes (Northings) and
Departures (Eastings) using the following formulas:
• ΔN = Distance × cos(Bearing)
• ΔE = Distance × sin(Bearing)
3. Checking Linear Misclosure:
• The total of all ΔN and ΔE values should theoretically sum to zero in a perfectly closed traverse.
• The linear misclosure is determined as the square root of the sum of the squares of misclosures
in Northing and Easting.
• The accuracy ratio is obtained as:
Accuracy Ratio = Linear Misclosure / Total Traverse Perimeter,
which should ideally not be less than 1:3000 for this practical.
4. Coordinate Adjustment:
• To correct for minor closure errors, adjustments were made using the Compass Rule
(Bowditch’s Method), distributing the misclosure proportionally to the length of each traverse
line.
• Finally, the corrected coordinates of all stations were computed, completing the coordinate
calculation process.

25
2.7.5 TABLE OF VALUES

LINE DISTANCE(M) FL FR BEARING

AB 11.9 113º12’0’’ 3º7’0’’ 110º5’0’’
BC 33.8 90º21’20’’ 2º7’10’’ 88º16”10”
CD 79.9 121º10’0’’ 0º18’3’’ 120º51’57’’
DE 44.5 125º51’2’’ 0º18’9’’ 125º55’2’’
EA 50.11 96º00’20’’ 1º8’5’’ 94º52’15’’
⅀ = 220.21 540º0’24’’
(actual)

Solution

1) Sum of measured interior angles (measured values)

Measured interior angles (computed as FL − FR):
AB = 113°12′00″ − 3°07′00″ = 110°05′00″ (110.083333°)
BC = 90°21′20″ − 27°10′00″ = 63°11′20″ (63.188889°)
CD = 121°10′00″ − 0°18′03″ = 120°51′57″ (120.865833°)
DE = 125°51′02″ − 0°18′09″ = 125°32′52″ (125.548056°)
EA = 96°00′20″ − 1°08′05″ = 94°52′15″ (94.870833°)
Sum of measured interior angles = 110°05′00″ + 63°11′20″ + 120°51′57″ + 125°32′52″ + 94°52′15″
= 514°33′25″ (514.556944°)
Theoretical sum for n = 5 sides: (n − 2) × 180° = (5 − 2) × 180° = 540°00′00″
2) Angular misclosure and equal distribution of error
Angular misclosure (error) = Theoretical sum − Measured sum
= 540°00′00″ − 514°33′25″ = 25°26′35″ (25.443056°)
Distribute this equally among the 5 interior angles:
Correction per angle = 25°26′35″ ÷ 5 = 5°05′19″ (5.088611°)
increase by +5°05′19″
Adjusted interior angles (measured + correction):
• AB (adj) = 110°05′00″ + 5°05′19″ = 115°10′19″ (115.171944°)
• BC (adj) = 63°11′20″ + 5°05′19″ = 68°16′39″ (68.277500°)

26
 • CD (adj) = 120°51′57″ + 5°05′19″ = 125°57′16″ (125.954444°)
• DE (adj) = 125°32′52″ + 5°05′19″ = 130°38′12″ (130.636667°)
• EA (adj) = 94°52′15″ + 5°05′19″ = 99°57′34″ (99.959444°)
⅀aject = 540°00′00”

3) Compute bearings starting from an assumed bearing for AB = 0°00′00″

I used the standard polygon/traverse relationship:
Bearing(next line) = Bearing(current line) + 180° − adjusted_interior_angle(current)
(all bearings reduced modulo 360°).
Starting with Bearing(AB) = 0°00′00″, the bearings for subsequent lines are:
• AB = 0°00′00″
• BC = 0°00′00″ + 180° − 115°10′19″ = 64°49′41″
• CD = 64°49′41″ + 180° − 68°16′39″ = 176°33′02″
• DE = 176°33′02″ + 180° − 125°57′16″ = 230°35′46″
• EA = 230°35′46″ + 180° − 130°38′12″ = 279°57′34″
Summary table (key results)

Line Measured interior angle Adjustment Adjusted interior angle Bearing (D°M′S″)
AB 110°05′00″ +5°05′19″ 115°10′19″ 0°00′00″
BC 63°11′20″ +5°05′19″ 68°16′39″ 64°49′41″
CD 120°51′57″ +5°05′19″ 125°57′16″ 176°33′02″
DE 125°32′52″ +5°05′19″ 130°38′12″ 230°35′46″
EA 94°52′15″ +5°05′19″ 99°57′34″ 279°57′34″
Sum 514°33′25″ +25°26′35″ 540°00′00″ —

LINE DISTANCE BEARING LATITUDE DEPARTURE BEARING

AB 11.9 110º4’55.2” -75.612 206.813 S 69º51’4.8” E
BC 33.8 88º16’5.2’’ 6.665 220.109 N 88º16’5.2’’ E
CD 79.9 120º51’52.2’’ -112.970 189.025 S 59º8’7.8’’ E
DE 44.5 125º54’57.2’’ -129.175 178.343 S 54º5’2.8’’ E
EA 50.11 94º52’10.2’’ -18.693 219.415 S 85º7’49.8’’ E
⅀ = 220.21 -329.785 1013.705

27
Solution
Lat_correction for line i = −LEC × (d_i / D)
Dep_correction for line i = −REC × (d_i / D)
where
LEC = ΣΔN (Latitude error of closure),
REC = ΣΔE (Departure error of closure),
d_i = length of line i,
D = total perimeter (Σd_i).

1. Lines: AB, BC, CD, DE, EA

Distances (m): 11.90, 33.80, 79.90, 44.50, 50.11
Previously computed latitudes (ΔN, m) and departures (ΔE, m):

Line ΔN (m) ΔE (m)

AB -4.086 11.177
BC 1.022 33.785
CD -40.068 69.127
DE -26.104 36.040
EA -4.254 49.929
Σ -73.490 200.057
Perimeter (D) = Σ distances = 220.210 m

2. Closure components (LEC & REC) and bearing of side error

LEC (ΣΔN) = −73.48984 m (southing error)
REC (ΣΔE) = +200.05693 m (easting error)
Tan θ = REC / LEC = 200.05693 / (−73.48984) = −2.7222479
θ (angle magnitude) = arctan(|Tan θ|) = 69.8295° = 69°49′46″

Bearing of side error = S 69°49′46″ E

Linear misclosure (L) = √(LEC² + REC²) = √((-73.48984)² + (200.05693)²) = 213.129 m
Accuracy ratio = Perimeter / Linear misclosure = 220.210 / 213.129 ≈ 1 : 1.033

28
3 Compass-rule corrections
Using your notation mapping:
• Let LEC = ΣΔN (latitude closure), REC = ΣΔE (departure closure).
• For line i of length d_i:
Lat_corri=−LECDdi,Dep_corri=−RECDdi
where
LEC = ΣΔN, REC = ΣΔE, d_i = line length, D = Σd_i (perimeter).
Line lengths (m): AB = 11.90, BC = 33.80, CD = 79.90, DE = 44.50, EA = 50.11
Perimeter D=220.21D = 220.21D=220.21 m.
Original latitudes (ΔN, m) and departures (ΔE, m)

Line Orig ΔN (m) Orig ΔE (m)

AB -4.086 11.177
BC 1.022 33.785
CD -40.068 69.127
DE -26.104 36.040
EA -4.254 49.929
Σ -73.490 200.057

So: LEC = ΣΔN = −73.48984 m and REC = ΣΔE = +200.05693 m.

Table of corrections and adjusted components (rounded)

Lat corr Dep corr Adj ΔN = Adj ΔE =

Line d (m) r = d/D
(m) (m) Orig+LatCorr (m) Orig+DepCorr (m)
AB 11.90 0.05403 +3.969 −10.811 −0.117 +0.366
BC 33.80 0.15356 +11.285 −30.730 +12.307 +3.055
CD 79.90 0.36280 +26.651 −72.594 −13.417 −3.467
DE 44.50 0.20198 +14.846 −40.404 −11.258 −4.364
EA 50.11 0.22762 +16.738 −45.517 +12.484 +4.412
Σ 220.21 1.00000 +73.4898 −200.0569 ≈0.000 ≈0.000

Final coordinates (assume A = (N=0.000, E=0.000))

Compute coordinates sequentially by cumulative summation of the adjusted ΔN, ΔE.

Station Cumulative Northing (N, m) Cumulative Easting (E, m)

A 0.000 0.000

29
 Station Cumulative Northing (N, m) Cumulative Easting (E, m)
B = A+AB −0.117 0.366
C = B+BC 12.190 3.421
D = C+CD −1.227 −0.046
E = D+DE −12.485 −4.409
Back to A (check) −0.001 (residual) +0.003 (residual)

Rounded to three decimals, the station coordinates are:

A: (N = 0.000 m, E = 0.000 m) — assumed
B: (N = −0.117 m, E = +0.366 m)
C: (N = +12.190 m, E = +3.421 m)
D: (N = −1.227 m, E = −0.046 m)
E: (N = −12.485 m, E = −4.409 m)

30
 CHAPTER 3

3.0 OBAJANA DANGOTE CEMENT PLANT, KOGI STATE

Geographic Coordinates: Latitude 7.927327° N, Longitude 6.425156° E.
3.1 BRIEF OVERVIEW
• Obajana Cement Plant is the flagship and largest integrated cement manufacturing plant of
Dangote Cement Plc, with a capacity of 16.25 million tonnes per annum (Mtpa) across five
production lines. It is located at Obajana town, Lokoja, Kogi State.
• It was commissioned in stages: the plant began in 2008 with two lines totalling about 5 Mtpa,
expanded in 2012 to 10.25 Mtpa after the third line; additional lines were added around 2014
and 2020 to raise capacity. In 2000, Dangote company acquired Benue cement company from
the federal government as part of its privatization exercise. Recommitioned in 2007 with
capacity of 4.0MTPA. In 2012, Dangote opened Ibese plant in Ogun State, near Lagos with 7
Mta, across two lines. They doubled capacity in 2014. Their newest plant is Okpella, Edo state,
in 2021 with a 3.0 Mtpa Line.
• Raw material resources are large: there are about 647 million tonnes of limestone reserves,
expected to serve the plant for roughly 45 years.
• The plant is supported by a large logistics operation, including a fleet of over 2,300 trucks to
move cement and raw materials. The plant operates 24/7 except when the plant needs to be
maintained. The plant currently operates on two shifts.

3.1.1 HEALTH AND SAFETY OF THE COMPANY

• Obajana Plant has implemented an Integrated Management System (IMS) Certification, which
includes compliance with Quality, Environmental, and Occupational Health & Safety (OHS)
standards, verified by the Standards Organization of Nigeria (SON).
• Road safety is emphasized: the company holds retreats for its drivers, monitors driver behavior
via “Control Towers,” performs road safety audits and maintains driver training programs to
reduce accidents involving its heavy trucks.
• Health and safety also extends beyond operations: there are awareness programmes for host
communities (around Obajana, Oyo, Iwa, etc.), particularly on issues like hygiene, food safety,
medical screening.
• The plant also engages in environmental and occupational safety compliance: there are policies
in place for safety of workers, equipment maintenance, regulatory compliance through IMS
certification, etc.

31
 Fig. 3.0 Drilling Process

3.2 FORMATION OF LIMESTONE

• Limestone at Obajana is the major raw material. Limestone is a sedimentary rock mostly made
of calcium carbonate (CaCO₃), often formed in marine environments by accumulation of
skeletal fragments of marine organisms (molusks, corals) or by chemical precipitation from
water. (General geology)
• At Obajana, the limestone deposits are very large (647 million tonnes) and are quarried. The
geological formation is likely part of the sedimentary sequences underlying that area of Kogi
State, laid down during past geologic time when the region was submerged under shallow seas,
allowing accumulation of carbonate sediments. (Inference from reserve size & sedimentary
nature)
• The quarry for limestone (at Oyo-Iwa village) is situated several kilometers from the Obajana
plant, showing that raw materials are mined then transported.
• Over time, processes like compaction, cementation, and lithification turned carbonate sediments
into solid limestone. Faulting or fracturing may aid quarrying. Weathering and erosion expose
the limestone layers as deposits accessible for mining.

32
3.3 METHOD OF MINING
• The Obajana plant obtains its major raw material, limestone, from quarry operations using
surface mining methods, specifically open-pit mining.
• In the quarry area, mining is carried out by removing overburden (soil, topsoil, non-limestone
materials) to expose the limestone bedrock. The exposed rock is drilled and blasted to break the
limestone into fragments manageable for haulage.
• The blasted rock is then loaded onto haul trucks or via conveyors, transported to crushing units,
then to raw mills for processing.
• Mining operations are supported by geological survey and resource estimation to ensure that
extraction is safe, sustainable, and matches material quality. Regular sampling ensures chemical
and physical properties (e.g. calcium carbonate content, impurity levels) meet the needed
requirements.

3.4 MAJOR OPERATION STAGES

While on the field trip, these are typical major stages observed or taught at the Obajana plant’s mining
and cement production process:
1. Exploration / Resource Evaluation
• Geological mapping, sampling, reserve estimation to assess quality and quantity of
limestone.
• Determining overburden thickness and topography to plan pit layout.
2. Quarrying / Mining
• Overburden removal, drilling, blasting, broken rock extraction.

Fig. 3.2 Quarrying activity

33
3. Haulage of Raw Material
• Transporting chopped limestone from open-pit to crushing station, often via trucks or
possibly conveyors if available.
4. Crushing and Pre-Grinding
• Primary crushers reduce large limestone blocks to smaller sizes; then secondary
crushing.

Fig. 3.3 Primary Crushing stage of raw materials

5. Raw Milling / Raw Mix Preparation
• Mixing limestone with other raw materials (clay, marl or shale, gypsum if needed) in
correct proportions.
6. Clinkering (Kiln Stage)
• Heating raw mix in rotary kilns to produce clinker at high temperature (~1450°C).
7. Finish Milling / Cement Grinding
• Grinding the clinker with gypsum and other additives to produce cement of desired
fineness.
8. Packaging and Dispatch
• Cement is bagged, stored, and delivered to markets; also loaded into bulk systems as
needed.

34
3.5 UNIT OPERATION
In terms of “unit operations” (the individual processes inside the major stages), during the field trip or
from company literature one can see:
• Drilling: Use of drill rigs (down-the-hole or DTH rigs) to create blast holes in the limestone for
explosive placement.
• Blasting: Controlled detonation of explosives to fragment the rock.
• Crushing / Size Reduction: Primary jaw crushers and/or impact crushers for coarse reduction;
secondary or tertiary crushers for finer size suitable for milling.
• Grinding / Milling: Raw mills where limestone and other raw inputs are ground to fine
powder; finish mills where clinker is ground.
• Kiln System: Rotary kiln(s) that heat the raw mix, plus associated pre-heaters, cyclones to
recover heat.
• Material Handling: Conveyor belts, stackers, reclaimers; stockpiling of raw mix, clinker,
finished cement.
• Quality Control: Laboratory analysis of raw material, clinker, and final cement product;
checking for chemical composition (CaCO₃ content, silica, alumina, iron), physical tests like
fineness, setting times, compressive strength.

3.6 STRIPPING AND OVERBURDEN

• Stripping refers to removal of the overlying material above the limestone deposit. At Obajana,
overburden includes topsoil, subsoil, clay, marl or non-limestone layers. This must be cleared
before mining the limestone.
• During early years of operation or in less steep parts of the deposit, overburden is removed in
layers; topsoil is preserved (where possible) for restoration after mining.
• Overburden may be stockpiled nearby for future rehabilitation or used in environmental bunds
or buffers. Some overburden portions may be used as corrective material in mixes or for
reclaiming exhausted parts of the quarry.
• The thickness and volume of overburden varies across the quarry; part of the planning stage
involves estimating volume, deciding where to put dumps (overburden storage), ensuring
stability of those dumps and safe access roads.

35
3.7 DRILLING OPERATION
• The drilling operation at Obajana uses Down-The-Hole (DTH) drilling in its limestone quarry.
This is a common method where the percussion (hammer) is positioned at the bit, driven by
compressed air, while drill rods transmit rotation and feed down-force.
• One of the drills used is the CM 785 drilling rig manufactured by Atlas Copco. It drills large
diameter holes for blasting. The drill bits used are about 152 mm (6 inches) in diameter.
• The drill string is extended as the hole gets deeper by adding rods. Dust suppression and
flushing are done via air or fluid to remove cuttings and keep the hole clean for accuracy. (From
general drilling practice: what students are taught in the mine operations lecture, corroborated
by local practice.)
• Drill holes are laid out in planned patterns, with bench designs, spacing, and depth determined
by geological information (structure of limestone, presence of faults, fractures), blast design,
and desired fragment size for efficient downstream crushing.

3.7.1 FACTORS AFFECTING DRILLING/BLASTING OPERATION

Drilling Factors:
• Rock hardness and structure: The nature of the limestone (how massive, presence of
fractures, bedding planes) affects penetration rate, drill bit wear, and drilling accuracy.
• Drill bit condition: If bits are worn or of poor quality, rate of penetration drops and energy cost
rises.
• Drilling parameters: Rotation speed, feed rate, air/hydraulic pressure, flushing (air or water)
determine efficiency of drilling.
• Hole diameter and depth: Larger or deeper holes require more time, stronger equipment, more
rods, better flushing and alignment.

Blasting Factors:
• Explosive type and quality: The choice of explosive, its energy output, and its consistency
affect fragmentation size, flyrock, and cost.
• Blast hole pattern: Spacing between holes, burden (distance to free face), bench height are
critical for good fragmentation.
• Timing and delay intervals: Proper delay ensures blast energy is used effectively, reduces
vibration and damage to nearby structures.

36
3.8 MUCKING AND HAULING
• Mucking refers to the removal of blasted rock fragments from the face after a blast. At
Obajana, this is done using large haul trucks and front-end loaders. The broken limestone is
loaded into trucks either directly from benches or via intermediate stockpiles. (From what is
typical in large open-pit limestone quarries; Obajana is large scale so equipment is heavy.)
• Hauling involves transporting the muck (broken stone) from the quarry to the primary crusher.
At Obajana, there are long haulage routes; in some cases conveyors are used for raw material
transport (for example, there are conveyor belts from mines to some parts of the plant) for raw
mix.
• Observed logistics: large fleets of heavy haul trucks, haul roads maintained; scheduled truck
movements to avoid congestion and minimize fuel consumption. Haul haul distance impacts
fuel cost, time, and efficiency.
• What was taught: that muck size and truck capacity must be matched; frequent maintenance of
roads; safety during loading and transportation; management of dump points and traffic flow.

3.9 CRUSHING PROCESS

• The crushing process at Obajana involves multiple stages: primary crushing of raw limestone to
reduce large blocks into smaller, manageable sizes, followed by secondary crushing to further
reduce fragment size to a level acceptable for raw milling.
• Obajana has recently ordered vertical roller mills (VRM) for raw material grinding, which feed
smaller or pre-crushed material into these mills. For instance, Loesche has been contracted for
raw material mills with high throughput; these mills require consistent feed size from the
crushers.
• The primary crusher is usually jaw crusher or gyratory crusher, which accepts large rock chunks
after blasting. Secondary crushers (impact, cone) or tertiary crushers reduce to finer sizes.
Observations might include large conveyor belts feeding crushers, screens separating acceptable
size rocks vs those needing re-crushing.
• Quality control at crushing stage is taught: monitoring particle size distribution; checking gravel
or large fragments that may cause damage to mills; ensuring moisture content is appropriate
(too wet causes clogging). Also dust control: dust suppression sprays around crushers,
enclosures, and water sprays.

3.9.1 PYRO PROCESSING

• Definition & purpose: Pyro processing in cement manufacture means heating the raw mix
(limestone, clay, etc.) in kilns to high temperatures (~1450 °C) to produce clinker. This step is

37
 energy-intensive and is central to the transformation of raw materials into the intermediate
product (clinker).
• At Obajana Dangote Cement Plant:
• The raw feed is pre-heated and passed through a multi-stage suspension preheater and
probably a precalciner. According to a source, Obajana uses rotary kilns combined with
precalciner systems to improve thermal efficiency.
• Fuel sources are varied: gaseous fuels (natural gas) are used, with low pour fuel oil
(LPFO) as backup in earlier years; coal mills have also been commissioned to serve
some lines (e.g. Line 3) to provide additional fuel flexibility.
• Process flow:
• Raw mix is crushed, pre-homogenized, then conveyed to the preheater.
• In the preheater/precalciner, partial decomposition of carbonates (calcination) occurs
before entering the rotary kiln.
• The rotary kiln burns the material at high temperature; chemical reactions form clinker
minerals (e.g. alite, belite, aluminates, ferrites).
• After the kiln, clinker is cooled rapidly in clinker coolers, recovering heat for reuse and
stabilizing the product.

3.9.2 CEMENT MILLING

• What is cement milling: Final stage grinding of clinker (with additives such as gypsum) to
produce the fine powder known as cement. This milling ensures required fineness, setting time,
strength, and workability.
• At Obajana Dangote Cement Plant:
• Obajana has contracted Loesche to supply vertical roller mills (VRMs) for both raw
material grinding and clinker/finish milling. For example, for the raw material mill, a
six-roller VRM with capacity around 580 t/hr has been used.
• Also, Loesche mills are equipped with classifiers (LDC classifier for the raw mill, etc.)
enabling control of particle size distribution and ensuring the correct fineness.
• Process flow:
• Clinker is cooled and then mixed with gypsum (to regulate setting) and possibly other
additives.
• The mixed clinker is fed into the cement mill (VRM or ball mill). Grinding proceeds
until the desired fineness (measured by Blaine number or other fineness metrics).

38
 • After milling, the cement passes through separators or classifiers to remove coarse
particles, re-grind them if needed.
• The ground cement is then stored in silos ready for packing or bulk dispatch.
• Quality considerations:
• Particle size distribution, moisture content, impurity levels, and energy consumption are
critical.
• The milling process is one of the most energy consuming stages; using efficient mills
(VRMs with good classifiers) reduces energy cost.

3.9.3 PACKING AND DISPATCH

Packing:
• After milling and storage in silos, cement is either packed into bags (e.g., 50 kg or other
weight size) or loaded in bulk depending on customer requirements.
• Bagging operations include weighers, bag filling machines, stitching/sealing, palletizing,
and storage in warehouses.
Dispatch:
• A large fleet of trucks serves dispatch. Obajana has about 2,370 trucks to move cement
and raw material in/out.
• Cement is delivered to wholesalers, retailers, and large customers. For bulk orders,
special bulk delivery systems may be used.
• Dispatch planning includes scheduling, loading, quality checks (cement strength,
moisture, packaging integrity), and documentation.
Observations:
• Delivery logistics is crucial: road conditions, truck reliability, scheduling to avoid
delays.
• Packing quality is important to avoid losses in transit (spillage, damage).
• The plant likely has dedicated storage yard(s) for bagged cement and bulk cement, and
parking zones for trucks waiting to be loaded.

3.9.4 EQUIPMENT USED

Equipment Purpose
Rotary kilns Central to pyro-processing – burning raw mix to produce clinker.

39
 Equipment Purpose
Preheater & precalciner Pre-heat raw mix and perform initial calcination, improving fuel
systems efficiency.
Vertical Roller Mills For raw mix grinding and finish cement milling; more efficient and less
(VRMs) energy intensive relative to older ball mills.
To separate fine vs coarse particles, ensure fineness and reduce energy in
Classifiers
over-grinding.
Coolers To cool hot clinker quickly to preserve clinker quality and recover heat.
Fans, induced-draft, forced- Airflow control in kiln, preheater, dust collection; driving combustion;
draft systems ventilating cooling zones.
Dust control / exhaust gas Bag filters, electrostatic precipitators, etc., to remove dust and harmful
cleaning equipment particulates from emissions.
For grinding coal used as fuel in specific lines. Obajana has a coal mill
Fuel mills / coal mills
serving Line 3, and plans to expand fuel source flexibility.
Conveyors, stackers, reclaimers, haul trucks, loaders for moving
Material handling systems
limestone, clinker, raw materials between processing units.
Bagging machines, silos For cement storage, bagging, packaging, readying for shipment.

40
 CHAPTER FOUR
4. 0 KOYLA ENERGY COAL MINE, KOGI STATE
4.1 OVERVIEW OF KOYLA ENERGY COAL MINE (KOYLA ENERGY LIMITED)
Koyla Energy Limited was established on February 7, 2017, with the core mission of responsibly
harnessing Nigeria’s vast coal reserves to meet the nation’s growing energy demand and support
industrial development.
• The mine is situated approximately 25 km from Ankpa Town, in Ankpa Local Government
Area, Kogi State.
• The company currently operates with over 50 pieces of mining and earth-moving equipment on
site, with more machinery being procured to boost production capacity.
• Koyla Energy supplies high-quality coal to major cement, steel, and chemical industries across
Nigeria.
• The company runs a modern “Coal Laboratory”, which ensures proper coal analysis, quality
testing, and grade control before supply.
• Koyla Energy has successfully completed an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) and
implements environmental protection and land rehabilitation measures at its mine sites.
• The company has also entered into Community Development Agreements (CDAs) with six host
communities, ensuring fair benefit sharing and social cooperation. Through these agreements,
Koyla Energy has been involved in local infrastructure projects, such as road rehabilitation,
drainage construction, and community support programs.
However, the company also faces a few challenges, including:
• Occasional disputes with local youth groups regarding employment opportunities and site
access.
• Government enforcement activities against illegal coal mining in Kogi State, during which
trucks carrying unlawfully mined coal were seized—an action publicly supported by Koyla
Energy.
• Environmental concerns in coal mining regions like Omala LGA, which led to temporary calls
from the Kogi State House of Assembly for suspension of mining pending proper
investigations.

4.2 FORMATION OF COAL

Coal forms from the accumulation and transformation of ancient plant material in swampy,
waterlogged environments over millions of years. The gradual process, known as coalification, occurs
in four major stages:

41
Peat Formation (Initial Stage) - Dead vegetation gathers in swampy or marshy areas, typically in
tropical climates. Low oxygen levels prevent full decay, producing peat, a soft, spongy substance rich
in organic matter. Peat generally contains about 60% carbon.
Lignite (Brown Coal) - With increasing burial under sediments, pressure and heat begin to compact
the peat. Moisture and gases are expelled, converting the peat into lignite, which is brown, soft, and
contains roughly 70% carbon.
Bituminous Coal (Soft Coal) - Further burial and higher temperatures transform lignite into
bituminous coal. It becomes harder, darker, and has a carbon content between 80–90%. Bituminous
coal is widely used in power generation and steel manufacturing.
Anthracite (Hard Coal) - Under extreme pressure and temperature, bituminous coal becomes
anthracite, the highest grade of coal. It is hard, shiny, and burns with little smoke, containing over 90%
carbon.
• It is the most efficient and clean-burning type of coal.
• Coal typically forms in deltaic and swampy depositional environments where the following
conditions are present:
• Abundant vegetation
• Oxygen-poor settings to slow decay
• Rapid burial by sediments to preserve organic matter

Fig. 4.1 Coal formation

42
4.3 METHOD OF MINING
• Koyla Energy primarily utilizes open-pit (surface) mining for its coal extraction because the
coal seams in the area are relatively near the surface and laterally extensive, making this method
economical and practical.
• In the open-pit approach, the overlying soil, dirt, and non-coal layers (the overburden) are first
removed to expose the coal seam.
• Once the coal seam is exposed, drilling and blasting may be used to fragment the coal into
manageable sizes.
• Excavators, loaders, and haul trucks are then used to extract and transport the broken coal to
processing or loading areas.
• The mining plan is designed to minimize environmental impact by preserving topsoil,
maintaining buffer zones, and ensuring safe slope stability.

Fig. 4.2 Koyla Energy Coal Mine

4.4 MAJOR APPROACHES AND STAGES

Below are the principal stages approached sequentially in the mining operation:
4.4.1 Exploration & Geological Survey
• Geological mapping, borehole drilling, and sampling are done to define coal seam
geometry, depth, thickness, and quality.
• Laboratory analyses determine coal characteristics like moisture, ash, calorific value,
sulfur, etc.

43
4.4.2 Permitting & Environmental Approvals
• Carrying out Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) and obtaining regulatory
clearances.
• Signing Community Development Agreements (CDA) with host communities, defining
benefit sharing and responsibilities.
4.4.3 Site Preparation & Access Development
• Construction of access roads, drainage channels, and site infrastructure (offices,
workshops).
• Setting up safety barriers, fencing, erosion control systems.
4.4.4 Overburden Removal / Stripping
• Systematic removal of the topsoil and barren layers (non-coal material) to expose the
coal.
• Overburden is stockpiled for later reuse in reclamation.
4.4.5 Extraction / Coal Mining
• Drilling and blasting (if needed), followed by excavation to remove the coal.
• Loading coal into trucks or conveyors for transport.
4.4.6 Coal Processing / Quality Control
• Crushing, screening, washing (if applicable) to remove impurities and improve coal
quality.
• Continuous sampling and testing in the coal lab to ensure the product meets industrial
specifications.
4.4.7 Haulage & Transportation
• Moving coal from mine site to storage or dispatch points.
• Managing logistics, scheduling trucks, maintaining haul roads.
4.4.8 Rehabilitation & Closure Planning
• Progressive reclamation of mined areas, re-spreading topsoil, planting vegetation,
restoring landscape.
• Ongoing monitoring of environmental parameters (water, air, soil) in reclaimed areas.

44
4.5 UNIT OF OPERATION
Mining operations at Koyla Energy Coal Mine, Ankpa, Kogi State, are carried out through several
coordinated units designed to ensure smooth production, environmental sustainability, and operational
safety. These units include:
4.5.1 Stripping and Overburden Removal
• This is the first stage of the surface mining process, involving the removal of the topsoil and
other waste materials (overburden) that lie above the coal seam.
• At Koyla Energy, hydraulic excavators, bulldozers, and dump trucks are used to remove and
transport the overburden.
• The stripped materials are temporarily stored in designated overburden dumpsites, to be later
used during land reclamation.
• Proper drainage systems are constructed to prevent erosion and runoff from the exposed
surfaces.
• Workers are trained to monitor slope stability and ensure that overburden piles are compacted to
prevent collapse.
4.5.2 Extraction of Mineral (Coal)
• After overburden removal, the coal seams are exposed for extraction.
• Drilling and controlled blasting are used to loosen the coal where it is too compact for direct
excavation.
• Excavators and loaders then scoop out the fragmented coal and load it into haul trucks.
• Quality control officers from the Coal Laboratory Unit take samples from different sections of
the seam to determine the grade and calorific value of the coal.
• The extracted coal is transported to the processing area, where it undergoes crushing and
screening before dispatch.
4.5.3 Reclamation
• Reclamation is an essential post-mining operation designed to restore the mined-out area to a
stable and environmentally acceptable condition.
• At Koyla Energy, the reclamation process starts with backfilling of mined-out pits using
overburden materials.
• The surface is leveled and topsoil, previously removed and stored, is replaced.
• Vegetation and tree planting are then carried out to stabilize the soil and restore the ecosystem.

45
 • The company also partners with the host community for monitoring and maintenance of
reclaimed lands, ensuring they can be used for farming or other community purposes in the
future.
4.5.4 Haulage
• The haulage unit is responsible for the transportation of coal and overburden materials within
and outside the mine site.
• Large articulated dump trucks and haulage lorries are used to move coal from the pit to the
stockyard or directly to customers.
• Internal haul roads are regularly maintained to ensure safety and reduce vehicle wear.
• Koyla Energy also implements a tracking and scheduling system to improve fuel efficiency and
reduce delays.
• The company emphasizes driver safety through routine training, speed regulation, and
equipment inspection.

4.6 EQUIPMENT USED

The mining and associated operations at Koyla Energy Coal Mine utilize a combination of heavy-duty
mechanical, electrical, and safety equipment. Some of the major equipment include:
Excavators: Used for digging, loading, and removing overburden and coal.
Bulldozers: Used for clearing vegetation, leveling surfaces, and pushing overburden.
Drilling Rigs: Used to drill blast holes into the coal seam before blasting.
Dump Trucks / Haulage Trucks: Used for transporting both coal and overburden.
Loaders (Wheel and Front-End): Used for loading coal into trucks.
Crushers and Screeners: Used in coal processing to achieve desired size and quality.
Generators and Compressors: Provide power for field operations and drilling equipment.
Water Tankers: Used for dust suppression on haul roads and in drilling areas.
Graders and Rollers: Used for road maintenance and compaction.
Personal Protective Equipment (PPE): Helmets, gloves, boots, reflective jackets, respirators, and
safety glasses used by all field workers.

46
Fig. 4.3 Excavator Fig. 4.4 Dump truck

47
 CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 INTRODUCTION TO ROCK MECHANICS
5.1 BRIEF OVERVIEW
Rock mechanics is the study of how rocks behave under different forces and environmental conditions.
It focuses on the strength, deformation, and failure of rock masses, which are important in mining,
tunneling, slope stability, and foundation design. The knowledge of rock mechanics helps engineers
predict rock behavior and design safe, stable, and efficient structures in both surface and underground
projects.

5.2 KEY TERMS IN ROCK MECHANICS

Orientation: The spatial position or attitude of a discontinuity (e.g., joint, fault, or fracture) within a
rock mass.
Spacing: The perpendicular distance between two adjacent discontinuities; affects rock strength and
stability.
Persistence: The extent or length of a discontinuity within a rock mass, indicating how continuous it is.
Roughness: The degree of unevenness or texture of a discontinuity surface, influencing friction and
stability.
Aperture: The gap or distance between the walls of an open discontinuity, which may be filled with air
or water.
Filling: The material that occupies a discontinuity (e.g., clay, sand, rock fragments), affecting shear
strength and water flow.

5.3 LECTURES ON MOHR’S CIRCLE

Mohr’s Circle, developed by Christian Otto Mohr in 1882, is one of the most significant concepts in the
field of rock mechanics, soil mechanics, and geotechnical engineering. Mohr, a German civil engineer,
introduced this graphical representation to simplify the complex problem of analyzing stresses acting
on a material element. Before his work, determining stress conditions and orientations in rock or soil
samples required extensive mathematical calculations. Mohr’s Circle revolutionized this by providing a
simple, visual, and geometric method to understand how normal and shear stresses interact within
materials.
Mohr’s Circle is primarily used to analyze the state of stress at a point in a body subjected to multiple
forces. It allows engineers to determine the principal stresses (maximum and minimum normal
stresses), the maximum shear stress, and the orientation of the planes on which these stresses act.

48
Through this representation, it becomes easier to visualize and interpret stress transformations, which is
especially important when studying rock deformation and potential failure in engineering projects.

5.3.1 APPLICATION OF MOHR’S CIRCLE:

Mohr’s Circle serves several critical functions in engineering analysis. It is used to:
• Visualize the stress state of a rock element under load.
• Determine the principal stresses, both maximum and minimum.
• Calculate stress invariants, which remain constant regardless of orientation.
• Evaluate potential failure conditions using failure criteria such as the Mohr-Coulomb criterion.
• Understand stress transformations, which describe how stress components change with different
plane orientations.
Because of these capabilities, Mohr’s Circle has become a standard analytical tool in rock mechanics,
geotechnical engineering, structural geology, petroleum engineering, and mining engineering. Its
importance in mining stems from its role in predicting rock mass behavior around excavations, tunnels,
and slopes, helping engineers design safer and more efficient structures.

5.3.2 MOHR’S CIRCLE AND STRESS TRANSFORMATION

The Mohr’s Circle is particularly effective for studying stress transformation, which describes how the
stresses acting on an element change when the plane of interest is inclined. It graphically represents the
normal and shear stress components for any possible plane orientation through the element.
Mathematically, the transformation equations for plane stress are expressed in graphical form by a plot
known as Mohr’s Circle. The graphical representation is extremely useful because it helps you
visualize the relationship between the normal and share stress, acting on various inclined means at a
point in a stressed body. Using Mohr’s Circle, you can aswel calculate the principal stress, maximum
share stresses and stressed on inclined plains:

49
For any plain inclined at an angle Ɵ from the major principal plain, the normal stress (σ) and shear
stress (τ) are given by:

a. If we
vary Ɵ from 0º to 360º, we will get all possible values for σx1 and τx1y1 for a given stress state. It will be
useful to represent σx1 and τx1y1 as functions of Ɵ in graphical form.
b. Eliminate 𝜃 by squaring both side of equations 1 and 2 and adding the two equations together it
becomes.

σx and σy = normal stresses in x and y directions

τxy = shear stress on the plain
Ɵ angle of inclination of the plain
σx +σy
if σavg = …(4)
2

𝑅 = 𝑥+ 𝑦
𝑅=𝑥 +𝑦

, = 𝐶 ±
1. Principal Stresses - 𝜎𝑅
2. 𝜏 = 𝑅 (𝑚𝑝𝑎)
3. 𝜎 = 𝐶 = =𝜎 50
5.3.3 PROCEDURE FOR CONSTRUCTING MORH’S CIRCLE

5.3.4 PROBLEMS
The state of stress at a point under plain stress condition is σx = 40mpa, σy = 100mpa, τxy = 40mpa, find
a radius of Morh’s Circle representing the given state of strength in mpa.

51
5.3.5 Example two: Draw a mohr circle of stress element as shown below. Determine the principal
stress and the maximum shear stresses

SOLUTION

5.3.6 PRINCIPAL STRESS

52
5.3.7 MAXIMUM SHEAR STRESS

53
 Figure 5.1

5.4 LECTURES ON STEREONET

The stereonet was first developed by William H. Miller in 1840. Miller, an English mathematician and
astronomer, introduced the stereographic projection as a method for representing spherical coordinates
on a two-dimensional plane. This innovation revolutionized the analysis of three-dimensional structural
data, particularly in geology, rock mechanics, and geotechnical engineering, by making it easier to
visualize and interpret orientation data such as planes, lines, and stress directions.
A stereonet is essentially a circular diagram that represents the orientation of geological or structural
features in a spherical coordinate system. The stereonet enables the plotting and analysis of planes and
lines as they would appear on the lower hemisphere of a reference sphere projected onto a flat plane.
In a standard stereonet:
• Azimuth (or strike direction) is represented on the circumference of the net.

54
 • Dip (the angle of inclination from the horizontal) is measured radially from the center of the net.

5.4.1 Functions and Uses of the Stereonet

Stereonets are widely used in structural geology, rock mechanics, and mining engineering for the
following purposes:
1. Plotting and Visualizing Orientation Data:
To graphically represent features such as fractures, bedding planes, faults, joints, and foliations.
2. Analyzing Spatial Relationships:
To study how structural features intersect or relate to one another in three-dimensional space.
3. Identifying Patterns and Trends:
To detect systematic orientations, clusters, or patterns in structural data, which can indicate
deformation processes or stress fields.
4. Determining Structural Characteristics:
Such as fold axes, fault orientations, slip directions, and principal stress trends.

5.4.2 Types of Stereonet

There are three common types of stereonet, each with specific applications and properties:
1. Equal-Area Stereonet (Schmidt Net):
This type of stereonet preserves area when projecting features from the sphere onto a plane. It is
useful for statistical analysis of large datasets because the density of points accurately reflects
the true spatial distribution of orientations.
2. Equal-Angle Stereonet (Wulff Net):
This stereonet preserves angular relationships between lines and planes, making it ideal for
structural analysis where maintaining true angular distances is important.
3. Polar Stereonet:
A variation of the equal-area net that uses polar coordinates to represent data. It is particularly
useful for plotting and analyzing lineations and features that trend toward a specific pole or
direction.

5.4.3 Example Illustration

Example 3:
Given the same stress element as in the previous example, determine the stress components when the
plane is inclined at 30° clockwise from the original position.
Additionally, draw the corresponding stress element and represent it on the stereonet.

55
Practical Task:
Using the stereonet, demonstrate and plot the planes and their intersections for the given dip and dip
direction. Then, determine the trend and plunge of each plane.
This exercise helps in understanding how planes and lineations intersect, and how stress directions and
magnitudes vary across inclined orientations, a skill essential in both field mapping and engineering
design within mining and rock mechanics.

Solution

POINT DIP DIP DIRECTION

A 50º 045º
B 60º 220º
C 70º 120º

Result

Fig. 5.2

INTERSECTION TREND PLUNGE

AB 132º 04º
BC 182º 52º
AC 57º 49º

56
5.4.4 MATERIALS USED
• Hemispherical stereonet (equal-area or equal-angle grid)
• Tracing paper (transparent)
• Thumb pin (for centre pivot)
• Masking tape (to secure tracing paper)
• Pencil (sharp HB or mechanical)
• Calculator (scientific or graphing)

5.4.5 USES AND APPLICATIONS OF STEREONET PROJECTION IN ENGINEERING

The stereonet projection is a fundamental graphical tool in structural geology and rock mechanics. It
converts three-dimensional orientation data (planes and lines on the lower hemisphere) into a two-
dimensional plot, allowing engineers and geoscientists to visualize the spatial distribution and
relationships of structural features. Key engineering applications include:
• Geological mapping: plotting bedding, joints, faults and measuring their statistical
distributions.
• Slope-stability analysis: identifying potentially unstable joint sets and kinematic failure modes
(planar, wedge, toppling).
• Tunnel and excavation design: assessing the orientation of discontinuities relative to tunnels to
predict wedge formation and support requirements.
• Foundation and retaining-structure design: evaluating block sizes, persistent joints, and
potential seepage pathways that affect foundation bearing and drainage.
• Hydrogeology and permeability studies: using pole concentrations and great circles to infer
preferred flow directions along discontinuities.
• Mining operations: planning pit slopes, bench orientation and pillar design by analyzing the
orientation and spacing of discontinuities.
Because stereonets preserve either area (equal-area / Schmidt net) or angle (equal-angle / Wulff net),
they are suitable for both statistical analyses (equal-area) and geometric/kinematic analyses (equal-
angle).

57
5.5 MEASUREMENTS TAKEN FROM THE FIELD FOR DIP AND DIP DIRECTION
In rock mechanics fieldwork, dip and dip direction are key orientation measurements used to describe
planar features (bedding, joints, faults, foliation). Accurate measurement and notation are essential for
later plotting on the stereonet and for kinematic/stability analyses.
• Dip (δ): the angle between the plane and the horizontal plane. It is measured in degrees (0° =
horizontal; 90° = vertical). Dip describes how steeply a plane inclines. Typical field
measurement is read with a clinometer on the steepest line of the plane.
Effects of dip:
• Controls the likely kinematic mode of failure (sliding, toppling, or rotational failures).
• Affects in-situ stress orientation influence on planar stability.
• Determines the potential for water to flow along the plane (higher dips often allow faster
lateral flow).
• Dip direction (or strike bearing): the azimuth (0°–360°) toward which the plane is inclined —
conventionally measured clockwise from north. Some field conventions record strike + dip
(e.g., strike 270°, dip 30° S), or record dip direction directly (e.g., dip direction 180° at 25° dip).
Effects of dip direction:
• Determines the orientation of discontinuities relative to loads (e.g., road cuts,
foundations).
• Influences the alignment of possible seepage and preferential flow along planes.
• Controls how structural sets interact — e.g., whether two joint sets will form wedges.

5.5.1 FIELD DATA (DIP AND DIP DIRECTION)

Below are the field station measurements recorded during the survey. Coordinates and elevations are
provided for traceability; dip directions are given in degrees (°) and dip magnitudes in degrees (°).

Station Elevation (m) Latitude (N) Longitude (E) Dip direction (°) Dip (°)
1 1137.56 10°02′37.23″ N 8°51′25.56″ E 92° 12°
2 1141.47 10°02′37.31″ N 8°51′25.55″ E 108° 43°
3 1135.47 10°02′37.24″ N 8°51′25.77″ E 102° 06°
4 1131.47 10°02′37.43″ N 8°51′24.86″ E 92° 73°
5 1138.47 10°02′37.50″ N 8°51′24.85″ E 90° 03°
6 1137.87 10°02′37.96″ N 8°51′24.23″ E 68° 40°
7 1136.87 10°02′37.94″ N 8°51′24.12″ E 08° 44°

58
5.5.2 DEFINITION OF MINERAL PROCESSING
Mineral processing is the scientific and technical process of separating valuable minerals contained in
ore from the unwanted materials known as gangue. It takes place after mining and before metallurgical
extraction (such as smelting or refining). The main goal of mineral processing is to produce a
concentrated product of the valuable minerals that can be further refined for industrial use. This process
ensures the maximum recovery of valuable materials while minimizing waste.

5.5.3 STAGES OF MINERAL PROCESSING

1. Comminution (Crushing and Grinding)
This is the first and most energy-intensive stage of mineral processing. The aim is to reduce large
pieces of mined ore into smaller, manageable sizes to liberate valuable minerals from the gangue.
• Crushing: Large chunks of ore are broken down into smaller fragments using crushers such as
jaw crushers, cone crushers, or gyratory crushers.
• Grinding: The crushed ore is further reduced into fine particles using ball mills or rod mills.
Purpose: To expose and liberate the valuable mineral particles, making them suitable for
subsequent separation and concentration.
2. Sizing (Screening and Classification)
After comminution, the next step involves separating the ore particles according to size.
• Screening: Uses vibrating or stationary screens with mesh or perforated surfaces to separate
particles based on size.
• Classification: Involves using water or air to separate particles according to both size and
density, often performed in hydrocyclones or classifiers.
Purpose: To ensure uniform feed to the next stage and improve separation efficiency.
3. Concentration (Separation of Valuable Minerals)
This stage aims to increase the grade (concentration) of valuable minerals by separating them from
gangue. Various physical and chemical properties of minerals are utilized here.
Common methods include:
• Gravity Separation: Separates minerals based on differences in specific gravity using
equipment such as jigs, spirals, or shaking tables.
• Magnetic Separation: Uses magnets to attract magnetic minerals like magnetite and separate
them from non-magnetic materials.
• Froth Flotation: A process that uses chemical reagents and air bubbles to attach to hydrophobic
mineral surfaces, allowing them to float and be collected.
• Electrostatic Separation: Separates minerals based on their electrical conductivity differences.

59
4. Dewatering (Removal of Water)
The concentrated mineral slurry obtained from separation processes often contains significant moisture
that must be removed.
Common dewatering methods:
• Thickening: Solids settle at the bottom of a tank while clear water overflows.
• Filtration: Filters or filter presses are used to physically separate water from solids.
• Drying: The final moisture is removed by applying heat or air circulation.
• Purpose: To produce a marketable concentrate suitable for transportation, storage, or further
metallurgical treatment.
5. Tailings Disposal (Waste Management)
The leftover material that contains mostly gangue minerals is called tailings. These materials must be
safely managed and disposed of to prevent environmental contamination.
• Tailings are commonly stored in tailings ponds, embankments, or dry stacks.
• Modern operations implement environmental management systems to reclaim water and
rehabilitate land affected by tailings disposal.

60
 CHAPTER SIX
6.0 INDUSTRIAL VISIT TO NATIONAL METALLURGICAL DEVELOPMENT CENTRE
(NMDC), JOS
6.1 BRIEF OVERVIEW
The NMDC was established in 1973 under the Federal Ministry of Mines and Steel Development. It
serves as a national research and development institute that promotes the growth of Nigeria’s solid
mineral and metallurgical industries. The National Metallurgical Development Centre (NMDC) is
located in Jos, Plateau State, Nigeria.
The purpose of our field trip was to gain firsthand exposure to mineral processing and metallurgical
operations. This visit allowed us to see how theories taught in class are applied practically, providing
insight into mineral beneficiation, metallurgical testing, and analytical procedures used in real
industrial laboratories.
The Centre’s mandate includes:
• Conducting research on mineral beneficiation and extractive metallurgy.
• Developing local metallurgical technologies for national use.
• Providing laboratory testing and certification for mineral samples.
• Supporting industries through technical training and consultancy services.
NMDC is equipped with modern laboratories, pilot plants, and testing units for different branches of
metallurgical processes such as foundry work, chemical analysis, mineral dressing, and metallurgical
engineering.

6.2 SECTIONS VISITED/ACTIVITIES OBSERVED

6.2.1 Mineral Museum
Our tour began at the Mineral Museum, where we observed an extensive collection of rock and mineral
samples from various parts of Nigeria. The exhibit showcased both metallic minerals (such as tin, lead,
zinc, and iron ore) and non-metallic minerals (such as barite, kaolin, and limestone).
Each specimen was accompanied by information on its composition, economic importance, and
industrial application.
6.2.2 Mineral Processing Section
After the museum, we visited the Mineral Processing Department, divided into dry and wet processing
areas.
6.2.3 Comminution Process
We observed the crushing and grinding of mineral ores, the initial stage of mineral processing aimed at
reducing the particle size to liberate valuable minerals from the gangue.

61
6.2.4 Separation Techniques Demonstrated
We were introduced to both dry and wet separation methods, each used depending on mineral
properties.
6.2.5 Equipment Demonstrated
• Air Flotation Machine: Used for separating minerals based on hydrophobic properties through
froth flotation.
• Magnetic Separator: Removes strongly magnetic materials like magnetite from the ore.
• WHIMS (Wet High-Intensity Magnetic Separator): Used to separate weakly magnetic minerals
such as hematite.
• Humphrey’s Spiral Concentrator: Utilized for gravity separation of heavy minerals from lighter
ones.
• Thickener: A large tank used for slurry concentration by allowing solids to settle and water to
overflow.
• Hydrocyclone: Used for particle classification based on size and density differences.
• Acrobat (Local Device): Observed in use as a filtering or drying unit for moisture reduction in
concentrate products.

Fig. 6.1 Processing section

6.3 METALLURGICAL SECTION

In the Metallurgical Section, we observed various processes involved in the extraction, purification,
and modification of metals. This section demonstrated the transformation of mineral concentrates into
usable metallic products through pyrometallurgical, hydrometallurgical, and electrometallurgical
techniques.

62
 Fig. 6.2 Metallurgical section

6.4 FOUNDRY WORKSHOP

In the Foundry Workshop, we were introduced to the principles and operations involved in metal
casting processes. The staff explained the sequential stages of mould preparation, metal melting, and
casting into desired shapes. Emphasis was placed on the importance of selecting appropriate mould
materials, temperature control during melting, and cooling rate management to ensure high-quality
castings.
6.4.1 Key Activities and Observations:
• Mould Preparation: Sand moulds were prepared using patterns to create the cavity where
molten metal would be poured.
• Melting Process: Metals were melted in furnaces at controlled temperatures depending on their
melting points.
• Casting and Solidification: The molten metal was poured into moulds, allowed to cool, and
solidified into specific forms.
• Quality Testing: Various tests such as strength testing, porosity checks, and thermal testing
were conducted to evaluate the mechanical integrity and surface quality of the cast products.
The session illustrated how casting plays a vital role in producing components for machinery,
automotive parts, and structural applications in engineering.

6.5 MECHANICAL LABORATORY

The Mechanical Laboratory focuses on determining the mechanical properties of engineering materials
to assess their suitability for different applications. The laboratory is equipped with instruments that test
material strength, ductility, hardness, and toughness under various loading conditions.

63
6.5.1 Equipment and Tests Observed:
1. Tensile Strength Testing Machine: Measures the maximum stress a material can withstand
while being stretched before failure.
2. Hardness Tester: Determines the resistance of materials to indentation or scratching, which
helps in material selection for wear resistance.
3. Impact Testing Machine (Charpy/Izod): Evaluates the material’s ability to absorb energy
during sudden loading, indicating its toughness.
6.5.2 Significance:
These mechanical tests are essential in ensuring that materials meet design specifications and safety
requirements in construction, manufacturing, and industrial applications. The practical demonstrations
deepened our understanding of how mechanical behavior relates to material structure and processing
history.

6.6 ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY LABORATORY

Our final visit was to the Analytical Chemistry Laboratory, where chemical composition and purity of
mineral and metallurgical samples are determined. The laboratory was divided into two major units:
6.6.1 Instrumental Laboratory
This unit is equipped with modern analytical instruments such as:
• AAS (Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer): Used to detect and quantify specific metals in
a sample by measuring light absorption.
• XRF (X-ray Fluorescence Analyzer): Determines elemental composition rapidly and non-
destructively.
These instruments provide precise and reliable data for process control, quality assurance, and research
purposes.
6.6.2 Wet Laboratory
This section employs classical chemical techniques involving reagents, titrations, and qualitative
analysis. Activities observed included:
• Sample digestion for preparation prior to analysis.
• pH testing and acid-base titrations for determining chemical properties.
• Precipitation and colorimetric reactions for identifying specific ions.

64
 CHAPTER SEVEN

7.0 VISIT TO THE INSTITUTE OF MINING AND GEOSCIENCES (IMGs), JOS

7.1 BRIEF OVERVIEW
The Institute of Mining and Geosciences (IMGs), Jos is a renowned government-owned institution
established in 1979 and located in Jos, Plateau State, Nigeria. The institute is dedicated to research,
training, and technological development in the mining and geosciences sectors.
IMGs is equipped with modern laboratories, pilot plants, and analytical facilities that support both
academic and industrial research in fields such as geology, mining engineering, mineral processing, and
environmental geosciences.
During the tour, students were guided through various laboratories and processing units, where they
were introduced to sample preparation techniques, analytical digestion, and mineral processing
equipment. Experts and technicians at each station provided detailed explanations of the functions,
working principles, and applications of the instruments and machines demonstrated.
Its mission includes:
• Promoting sustainable exploration and exploitation of Nigeria’s mineral resources.
• Providing training and capacity building for students, researchers, and professionals in the
extractive industries.
• Supporting the technological advancement and innovation required for efficient mineral
utilization and national development.

7.2 VISITED SECTIONS/OBSERVATIONS

7.2.1 Sampling Preparatory Laboratory
The visit began at the Sampling Preparatory Laboratory, where we learned the methods and equipment
used in sample size reduction and preparation prior to analysis. Two main crushing techniques were
demonstrated:
• Manual Crushing: Conducted using hammers and hand tools, suitable for small or soft rock
samples.
• Mechanical Crushing: Performed using advanced machines such as:
• Primary Crusher (Jaw Crusher) – for coarse reduction of large rock samples.

65
 Fig. 7.1 Primary Jaw Crusher
• Secondary Crusher (Cone Crusher) – for further reduction and uniform particle size.
• Double Roll Crusher – for fine crushing and consistent output size.
These processes are essential in ensuring that rock samples are reduced to manageable and
representative sizes for subsequent testing, analysis, and processing.

7.2.2 Analytical and Digestion Laboratory

The next stage of the tour involved the Analytical and Digestion Laboratory, where we observed the
chemical breakdown, testing, and characterization of mineral samples.

7.2.3 Equipment and Processes Observed:

• Oven: Used for drying and moisture removal from samples prior to chemical digestion.
• Phoenix Cablolite: Advanced analytical equipment for precise mineral or metal determination.
• Lead Machine: Likely used for lead content analysis or preparation of lead-based compounds.
• Hydraulic Bench, Purifier, and Reciprocating Pump Test: Demonstrated principles of fluid
mechanics and water purification used in mine drainage and environmental studies.
• Air Conditioner Training System: Illustrated concepts of heating, ventilation, and air
conditioning (HVAC), relevant to mine ventilation and environmental control.
These tools and experiments are vital for geochemical analysis, mineral composition determination,
and environmental quality assessment in mining and processing operations.

66
7.3 Mineral Processing Laboratory
At the Mineral Processing Laboratory, we observed a variety of machines used in ore beneficiation,
material analysis, and sample preparation.
7.3.1 Equipment Demonstrated:
• Bowl Mill: For fine grinding of mineral samples to powder form.

Fig. 7.2 Bowl Mill

• Flotation Machine: For separating minerals based on surface hydrophobic properties.
• Hydrothermal Faclaub Machine: Used for leaching, high-pressure, or high-temperature
reactions.
• Raymond Mill: For fine grinding and pulverizing materials into uniform sizes.

Fig. 7.3 Raymond’ s Mill

67
 • Classifier: Used for separating fine particles, ensuring a more refined grind than the Raymond
Mill.
• Stone Trimmer and Faceting Machines: For cutting, shaping, and polishing gemstones and
mineral specimens.
• Exploitation Drill and Pneumatic (Nematic) Drill: Demonstrated rock drilling methods used
in mine development and exploration.
• Metal Band Saw: Used for cutting metallic samples and rock cores during metallurgical and
structural tests.
Each piece of equipment serves a specific function in the processing, testing, and simulation of real
mining operations within a controlled laboratory environment.

68
CONCLUSION
In conclusion, this field trip blended theory and practice for me. The introduction covered rocks and
minerals basics, classifying them as igneous (from magma), sedimentary (from sediments), and
metamorphic (from transformation), identified by color, texture, and hardness.
We focused on granite identification via quartz, feldspar, and mica crystals, its uses in construction,
aggregates, and ore indicators like tin. Varieties included medium-grained (2-5 mm crystals for slabs),
fine-grained (<2 mm for tiles), weathered (degraded by chemical/physical processes for fill/aquifers),
and quartz-grain (25-40% quartz for flooring/mineral guides).
Veins were mineral-filled fractures from hydrothermal, cooling, or tectonic processes, often with
quartz/gold; joints were non-displaced cracks from stress, cooling, weathering, or unloading, key for
mining stability. Field data featured coordinates, elevations, distances for maps/samples (quartz,
weathered rock, biotite, granite), vein strikes/dips, and pit details for site analysis.
Tin mining highlighted cassiterite in alluvial deposits, open-pit steps like overburden removal, drilling,
blasting, loading/hauling, plus environmental erosion and safety via slope stability. Triangulation aided
surveying with theodolites, noting errors from refraction.
At Obajana Dangote cement plant, limestone from marine sediments was mined via exploration,
stripping, drilling/blasting, extraction, crushing, then processed through grinding, blending, kiln, and
packaging.
Koyla Energy LTD. Coal mine, formed from plants under pressure, mined open-pit with prep, removal,
extraction, processing, reclamation, and monitoring.
Rock mechanics explored stress, strain, failure for safe excavations. Stereonets plotted fractures for
slope stability, faults, and pit planning.
Mineral processing separated ore via crushing, grinding, screening, flotation, and ion tests.
The Jos Institute of mining and geoscience visit showed labs for rock strength, geochemistry analysis,
and processing equipment like crushers/flotation cells, linking theory to tech.
Overall, the trip showed interconnections in geology, surveying, extraction, safety, and processing,
readying me for fieldwork.

69
RECOMMENDATIONS

Based on the observations and experiences from our field trip to various mining and metallurgical sites,
the following recommendations are proposed:
[Link] Safety Demonstrations: All sites, especially the active mines at Obajana and Koyla
Energy, should integrate live safety equipment demonstrations (like using fire extinguishers or personal
gas detectors) into their visitor programs to reinforce the critical importance of safety culture in the
mining industry.
[Link] Student Interaction: Future student tours should include scheduled sessions for direct
interaction with junior engineers and geologists at each location. This would provide invaluable career
insights and a more realistic understanding of daily roles and challenges.
[Link] Process Flowcharts: To help students better visualize the complete material journey, the
cement plant and coal mine should provide simplified process flowcharts at the start of the tour, linking
quarrying, processing, and dispatch.
[Link] Role of Research Institutes: Institutions like NMDC Jos and IMGs should be promoted
as vital support centers for small-scale miners and graduating students, offering accessible testing
services and workshops to bridge the gap between theory and industry practice.

70
REFERENCES

The information in this report was gathered from firsthand observations, lectures, and demonstrations
during our field trip.

71
APPENDIX A: FIELD MAPPING DATA TABLES

Table A-1: Coordinates and Elevation of Mapping Points

Points Latitude (°) Longitude (°) Elevation (m) Distance (m)

A 09° 56' 48" N 08° 54' 25" E 117 121

B 09° 56' 44" N 08° 54' 25" E 1183 48

C 09° 56' 44" N 08° 54' 27" E 1206 58

D 09° 56' 45" N 08° 54' 28" E 1203 52

E 09° 56' 47" N 08° 54' 29" E 1202 84

F 09° 56' 48" N 08° 54' 25" E 1195 65

Table A-2: Coordinates of Rock Samples Collected

Samples ID Latitude (°) Longitude (°) Elevation (m)

Quartz 1 09° 56' 47" N 08° 54' 27" E 1207

Weathered Rock 2 09° 56' 45" N 08° 54' 27" E 1212

Biotite 3 09° 56' 46" N 08° 54' 27" E 1206

Granite 4 09° 56' 45" N 08° 54' 27" E 1209

Table A-3: Strike and Dip Measurements of Veins

Station ID Strike Dip Angle / Dip Direction

1 S 130° E 42° SE

2 S 240° W 44° SE

3 S 124° E 40° SE

... ... ...

15 S 202° W 62° SE

(Note: Full table from page 10 of the report is included here.)

Table A-4: Field Data for Dip and Dip Direction

Station Elevation (m) Latitude (N) Longitude (E) Dip Direction (°) Dip (°)

1 1137.56 10°02'37.23" N 8°51'25.56" E 92° 12°

2 1141.47 10°02'37.31" N 8°51'25.55" E 108° 43°

... ... ... ... ... ...

7 1136.87 10°02'37.94" N 8°51'24.12" E 08° 44°

(Note: Full table from page 55 of the report is included here.)

72
APPENDIX B: SURVEYING PRACTICALS RAW DATA AND CALCULATIONS

B.1: Practical One – Leveling

Aim: To compute Reduced Levels (R.L.) using the Height of Instrument (H.I.) method.

Table B-1: Leveling Field Book

Station Backsight (BS) Intermediate Sight (IS) Foresight (FS) Height of Instrument (HI) Reduced Level (RL)

A (TBM) 1.284 — — 101.284 100.000 (Assumed)

B — 1.845 — — 99.439

C 1.564 — 1.953 101.003 99.050

D — 1.683 — — 99.320

E — — 1.675 — 99.328

Sample Calculation:

•HI at A = RL(A) + BS(A) = 100.000 + 1.284 = 101.284 m

•RL(B) = HI(A) - IS(B) = 101.284 - 1.845 = 99.439 m

B.2: Practical Two – Triangulation

Aim: To determine the coordinates of an inaccessible point C using a known baseline AB.

Raw Data:

•Baseline AB = 20.5 m
•∠BAC (Angle at A) = 45°47'00"
•∠ABC (Angle at B) = 65°41'00"
•Bearing of AB = 140°00'00"
•Assumed Coordinates of A: (1000.000 m E, 1000.000 m N)

(Note: This section would include the full, corrected sine rule calculations and coordinate computation as per the project's objectives.)

B.3: Practical Three – Contouring (Grid Method)

Aim: To produce a contour map of a 20m x 20m area.

Table B-2: Reduced Levels of Grid Points

Station BS (m) IS (m) FS (m) RL (m) Remarks

TBM 1.353 - - 1133.259 Known RL

A1 - - 2.280 1133.095 Grid Point

73
Station BS (m) IS (m) FS (m) RL (m) Remarks

A2 - - 2.510 1132.915 Grid Point

... ... ... ... ... ...

E5 - - 2.540 1132.905 Grid Point

*(Note: Full table from pages 21-22 of the report is included here, along with interpolation calculations.)*

Figure B-1: Final Contour Map

(A hand-drawn or digitally generated contour map would be inserted here.)

B.4: Practical Four – Coordinate Calculation (Traverse Adjustment)

Aim: To compute the coordinates of unknown points in a closed traverse.

Table B-3: Raw Traverse Data

LINE DISTANCE (m) FL FR

AB 11.9 113°12'0" 3°7'0"

BC 33.8 90°21'20" 2°7'10"

CD 79.9 121°10'0" 0°18'3"

DE 44.5 125°51'2" 0°18'9"

EA 50.11 96°00'20" 1°8'5"

(Note: This section would include the full, corrected step-by-step calculation for:

•Angular misclosure and adjustment

•Bearing computation
•Latitude and Departure
•Linear misclosure and Bowditch adjustment
•Final coordinates)

APPENDIX C: SITE VISIT DOCUMENTATION AND DIAGRAMS

C.1: Obajana Cement Plant Process Flow Diagram

A simplified block diagram illustrating the stages from limestone quarrying to cement dispatch.

[Link] (Drill & Blast)

[Link]
[Link] Milling & Blending
[Link]-processing (Kiln/Preheater)
[Link] Cooling
[Link] Milling (with Gypsum)
[Link] & Dispatch

74
C.2: Koyla Energy Coal Mine Process Flow Diagram

A simplified block diagram illustrating the open-pit coal mining process.

[Link] Removal
[Link] Extraction (Drill & Blast)
[Link]
[Link] & Screening
[Link] Control (Lab)
[Link]
[Link]

C.3: Photographic Log

(This section would contain captioned photos from the visits to all four locations: Obajana Cement Plant, Koyla Energy Mine, NMDC Jos, and
IMGs Jos. For example:)

Figure C-1: Primary Crusher at Obajana Cement Plant.

Figure C-2: Open-pit coal seam at Koyla Energy Mine.
Figure C-3: Froth Flotation Machine at NMDC Jos.
Figure C-4: Jaw Crusher in the Sampling Lab at IMGs Jos.

APPENDIX D: ROCK MECHANICS PROBLEM SOLUTIONS

D.1: Mohr's Circle Problem 1

Given:

•σx = 40 MPa
•σy = 100 MPa
•τxy = 40 MPa

Find: Radius of Mohr's Circle.

Solution:

•σ_avg = (σx + σy) / 2 = (40 + 100) / 2 = 70 MPa

•R = √[ ((σx - σy)/2)² + (τxy)² ] = √[ ((40-100)/2)² + (40)² ] = √[ (-30)² + (40)² ] = √[ 900 + 1600 ] = √2500 = 50 MPa
D.2: Mohr's Circle Problem 2

Given:

•σx = -80 MPa

•σy = 50 MPa
•τxy = 25 MPa

Find: Principal Stresses and Maximum Shear Stress.

75
Solution:

•σ_avg = (σx + σy) / 2 = (-80 + 50) / 2 = -15 MPa

•R = √[ ((σx - σy)/2)² + (τxy)² ] = √[ ((-80-50)/2)² + (25)² ] = √[ (-65)² + (25)² ] = √[ 4225 + 625 ] = √4850 ≈ 69.64 MPa
•σ₁ = σ_avg + R = -15 + 69.64 = 54.64 MPa
•σ₃ = σ_avg - R = -15 - 69.64 = -84.64 MPa
•τ_max = R = 69.64 MPa
D.3: Stereonet Problem

Given Planes:

•A: Dip 50°, Dip Direction 045°

•B: Dip 60°, Dip Direction 220°
•C: Dip 70°, Dip Direction 120°

Resulting Intersections:

INTERSECTION TREND PLUNGE

AB 132° 04°

BC 182° 52°

AC 57° 49°

76