Benguet State University

Department of Environmental Science

Assessment of Water Management Practices in Vegetable Farming at

Asin Hydro No. 2, Tadiangan, Tuba, Benguet

Chapter 2:
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Environmental Research Methods

(EN SCI 17)

Submitted by:
Alcos, Jerea A.
Cotdi, Yien Maesha
Saldaen, Billy
 Water is one of the most vital resources in agricultural production, especially in vegetable

crop farming, where consistent and precise irrigation is crucial for crop health and yield.

However, the increasing challenges posed by climate change, water scarcity and over-

exploitation of natural resources have made water management an urgent concern. Efficient

water use is no longer just about providing crops with the right amount of water; it is about doing

so in a way that conserves resources, enhances crop production and ensures long-term

sustainability. With the growing demand for food, efficient water management in agriculture is

paramount to achieving global food security while safeguarding the environment. In the context

of vegetable farming, where water consumption is often high, innovative techniques for water

conservation and management are being increasingly adopted. This paper explores various

techniques and strategies that can be employed by farmers to optimize water use, from traditional

methods like rainwater harvesting to cutting-edge technologies such as automated irrigation

systems. Efficient water management techniques in vegetable crop farming are varied and

encompass both traditional practices and modern technological solutions. One of the most

effective methods is drip irrigation, which delivers water directly to the root zone of plants

through a system of tubes and emitters. This technique minimizes water loss due to evaporation

and runoff and ensures that crops receive the precise amount of water they need, promoting

healthy growth while conserving resources. Rainwater harvesting is another technique that has

gained popularity, especially in regions with unreliable or scarce water supply. By collecting and

storing rainwater, farmers can reduce their reliance on groundwater or other external sources,

ensuring that water is available during dry spells. In addition to these techniques, soil moisture

management is crucial in optimizing water usage. Practices like mulching, using cover crops and
monitoring soil moisture levels with sensors help maintain soil hydration, reduce evaporation

and prevent over-irrigation.

 Furthermore, selecting drought-tolerant crops or varieties adapted to the local climate can

significantly reduce the amount of water required for crop growth. Technological innovations

such as automated irrigation systems and water-saving technologies have also revolutionized

water management in agriculture. These systems utilize real-time data from sensors and weather

stations to adjust irrigation schedules automatically, reducing water waste and improving

precision in crop watering. Techniques like conservation tillage and land preparation also play a

role in water management by enhancing water infiltration and retention in the soil, preventing

erosion and optimizing the distribution of water across the field.

Agriculture uses about 80.5% of water that is allocated for consumption (Luyun 2016).

Irrigation investment drives higher agricultural productivity. However, recent data from the

Philippines show that even with huge irrigation investments, cropping intensity (effective crop

area) was not increasing in a similar pace (Inocencio 2016). Several factors were hypothesized to

cause this, including lack of water. Water scarcity is seen to be a very real problem at the

irrigation-system level (Nguyen 2015; Clemente 2015) and the literature has pointed to water

governance1 as the culprit. Natural occurrences such as shifts in historical temperatures and

rainfall patterns that alter the timing and quantity of annual water flows pose ever increasing

challenges to irrigation. The current short cycle of both drought and flood events caused

significant agricultural damage. The “new normal” conditions are recognized, but policy and

institutional responses have been slow to adjust to achieve agricultural resilience (Rola 2016).
Irrigation development and management in the Philippines has historically been the single

biggest expense item in agriculture, accounting for about a third of the total since the 1960s.

In the 1970s and early 1980s, as well as in recent years when world rice prices rose at

unprecedented levels, this ratio was even higher at close to half of total public expenditures for

agriculture. In recent years, irrigation has taken up from one-third to close to half of the

Department of Agriculture (DA) budget (Inocencia et al. 2015).

Despite these efforts, irrigated area in the country is still small, thus jeopardizing food

security. Siltation problems in canals of the National Irrigation System (NIS) cause reduced flow

capacities that deprive the downstream portion from adequate water supply (Clemente 2015).

The reason according to Clemente (2015), is lack of maintenance especially of unlined canals

and poor watershed management, which results in upland erosion and siltation of the rivers and

canals downstream. Siltation in the dams and canals is considered a major problem by

Communal Irrigation Systems (CIS) (Luyun 2015). Sediments occur due to forest denudation in

the catchment, slash-and-burn agriculture (locally termed as kaingin), upland agriculture,

quarrying, and lack of silt control devices in the dam. Among the factors that cause inadequate

system-level irrigation water supply is conveyance inefficiency (Clemente 2015; Luyun 2015).

Conveyance inefficiency is caused by physical degradation of the system that can be due to

storms/typhoons and faulty designs. It can also be caused by siltation as well as lack of

maintenance brought about by limited funds, shortage of personnel, and lack of capacity to do

maintenance.
CAR’s irrigation systems

While big irrigation systems in the country are understandably found in the flatter

regions, the Cordillera Administrative Region’s rolling and mountainous topography still

facilitates irrigation development and farm cultivation in areas of higher elevation. The rice and

vegetable terraces in various provinces of the region are perfect examples of this. With the

unique landscape in the region, NIA-CAR covers only four national irrigation systems. These are

the Upper Chico River Irrigation System (UCRIS) with service areas in Kalinga and Isabela,

West Apayao Abulug Irrigation System (WAAIS) in Apayao and Cagayan, Hapid Irrigation

System in Ifugao and the Abra River Irrigation System in Abra. The rest of the irrigation systems

are considered communal as they irrigate terraced fields or patches of farmlands with aggregate

areas of less than 1,000 hectares. Various centuries-old rice terraces in the region are part of the

service areas of communal irrigation systems assisted by the National Irrigation Administration

from various fund sources through the improvement of the water sources, and canal systems.

Several allocations from various funds were rationed for the repair, restoration or improvement

of irrigation facilities of various rice terraces in Ifugao, Mountain Province, Kalinga and

Benguet.

Meanwhile, the equally picturesque vegetable terraces especially when bathed with

morning or afternoon fog are usually found in the provinces of Benguet, Mountain Province and

parts of Ifugao. Located usually along mountain sides, these are irrigated through pipe lines.

WATER scarcity is one pressing problem for many communities in the country. There is an

increasing demand for clean water for household activities and for raising animals and crops.

Water is vital to the production of crops for fresh consumption free from any contaminants that

are chemical or biological in nature.

 The irrigation facilities used by the farmers include sprinkler and hose which is the most

commonly used drip irrigation adopted by 60% of the highland farmers. Two percent of highland

farmers also use cemented and plastic reservoir tanks, earth embankments (ponds) while the

others use water pumps from rivers and creeks when water supply is low. The most common yet

highlighted concerns from the farmers about these irrigation systems were clogging, water

shortage, low water pressure in dry seasons and maintenance expenses in sprinkler and drip

irrigations. Furthermore, there is insufficient scientifically-based recommendations on proper

water management for particular vegetable crops especially when using sprinklers or drip

irrigation.

I. Global and Regional Context of Water Scarcity and Agricultural Sustainability

The Global Water Crisis and Agricultural Demand

Effective water management practices are critically important for achieving global food

security and environmental sustainability (FAO, 2012). Agriculture remains the largest global

consumer of freshwater, accounting for approximately 70% of total use (World Bank, 2016).

This high consumption rate places significant strain on global water reserves, prompting scholars

to highlight the critical necessity of transitioning from traditional, resource-intensive methods to

more efficient, water-saving technologies (Postel, 1993). Inefficiencies in traditional surface

irrigation methods are frequently cited as the primary drivers of water loss, with estimates of

application efficiency often falling as low as 40% (Saliem et al., 2024). Furthermore, poor

management contributes to negative environmental impacts, including the release of

agrochemicals, nutrients, and sediments into water bodies through runoff, thereby compromising

water quality and promoting eutrophication (Pretty et al., 2003).

Climate Change and Water Resource Vulnerability in the Philippines

The Philippines is consistently ranked among the nations most vulnerable to the adverse

effects of climate change (UNFCC, 2009; Kreft & Eckstein, 2014, as cited in Alfonso & Laruan,

2020). This vulnerability is particularly acute in the agricultural sector, where changes in

climatic parameters directly affect water availability and crop viability (Sandoval & Baas, 2014).

Empirical studies conducted in Benguet province confirm that climate change is actively

taking place, evidenced by a significant increasing trend in mean annual minimum and maximum

temperatures over the past decades (Alfonso & Laruan, 2020). Although changes in rainfall are

generally more erratic than trending, the increased frequency of extreme weather events—such

as long dry spells and intense typhoons—escalates the uncertainties faced by farmers (Sandoval

& Baas, 2014). This climatic instability translates directly into increased risks of landslides, soil

nutrient depletion, and crop failure, making adaptive water management strategies essential for

the economic survival of farming communities (Alfonso & Laruan, 2020; Reyes et al., 2020).

II. Characterization of Highland Agriculture and Water Management in the Cordillera

Administrative Region (CAR)

The Economic Significance of Benguet Vegetable Farming

The province of Benguet anchors the Cordillera Administrative Region (CAR) as the

"Salad Bowl of the Philippines," providing favorable conditions—primarily cool climate and

high elevation—for the production of high-value, temperate vegetables (NIA, 2019). This

agricultural activity is the dominant source of livelihood for thousands of smallholder farming

households (NSCB, 2010, as cited in the thesis introduction). The high cropping intensity
observed in these areas, with cultivation often occurring two to three times a year, underscores

the critical and continuous demand for reliable water resources (NIA, 2019).

Topographic and Institutional Challenges to Water Supply

The inherent mountainous topography of the CAR facilitates unique challenges in water

resource exploitation and delivery. Unlike large-scale, national irrigation systems (NIA, 2019),

much of the highland irrigation development relies on farmer-led, small-scale systems (Ocampo

et al., 2023). These systems predominantly tap into natural sources, with over 90% of farmers

reportedly using water from springs, rivers, and creeks (Ocampo et al., 2023).

III. Assessment of Existing Practices and Irrigation Efficiency GapsTraditional Methods and

Inherent Inefficiency

Traditional water application in the Benguet highlands typically involves manual

application or the use of hoses, open canals, and simple furrow systems (Launio, 2019; Sahni &

Maglinao, 1981). While these methods are inexpensive to implement, their widespread use

contributes significantly to poor water productivity. Studies emphasize that these conventional

techniques result in excessive losses through deep percolation, seepage, and surface evaporation

(Saliem et al., 2024; Sahni & Maglinao, 1981).

Furthermore, the process of irrigation scheduling under traditional practices is often

based on the grower's qualitative judgment or simple time-based methods, rather than on

scientific parameters like soil moisture, evapotranspiration rates, or crop-specific water

requirements (Saliem et al., 2024). This non-scientific approach frequently leads to over-

irrigation, which, besides wasting scarce water, also causes the depletion of soil nutrients and
increases the risk of groundwater contamination (Saliem et al., 2024). Wickham and Valera

(1979, as cited in De Leon, n.d.) concluded that poor water management is often a direct result of

negligence and uncooperativeness, highlighting the human element in system failure, which can

be mitigated through education and extension programs.

The Problem of Agricultural Pollution

The use of conventional irrigation systems, coupled with excessive agrochemical

application, exacerbates the issue of water quality degradation. In high-mountain ecosystems,

agricultural activities are reported to increase loads of surface water contaminants, including

nitrates, potassium, and Escherichia coli, which pose risks to human health and promote

eutrophication (González-Martínez et al., 2022). Given the reliance of CAR farmers on surface

water sources like creeks and rivers, the practice of traditional, flood-based irrigation methods

potentially increases the transport of these contaminants through runoff, making the shift toward

localized, precision irrigation not just an issue of efficiency but also of public health and

environmental stewardship (González-Martínez et al., 2022).

IV. The Role and Adoption of Modern Micro-Irrigation Technologies

Drip Irrigation and Enhanced Water Use Efficiency (WUE)

The review of literature strongly advocates for the adoption of micro-irrigation

technologies, such as drip and sprinkler systems, as a core climate change adaptation strategy

(Saliem et al., 2024; Ocampo et al., 2023). Drip irrigation stands out as the most effective

method for increasing Water Use Efficiency (WUE), which is the ratio of product yield per unit

volume of water consumed (Saliem et al., 2024).

Feasibility of Low-Cost Drip Systems for Smallholders

A major barrier to the adoption of conventional micro-irrigation systems in the

Philippines is the prohibitive initial cost, rendering them unsuitable for many smallholder

farmers (Baser et al., 2015). To address this, local studies have focused on the applicability of

low-cost drip irrigation (LCDI) systems. Field trials on upland vegetable farms in the Philippines

demonstrated that LCDI technology is both economically viable and efficient. Analysis showed

that LCDI systems led to higher actual crop yield, higher water productivity (WUE), and a

favourable benefit-cost ratio (greater than 1.0) with relatively short payback periods (Baser et al.,

2015). This finding is crucial, suggesting that financial constraints are not insurmountable

obstacles if appropriate, low-cost technologies are promoted and supported.

Complementary to drip technology is the practice of poly-mulching, which involves

covering the soil surface with plastic sheets. Mulching is recognized as a vital soil water

conservation tool that significantly controls surface evaporation. Research indicates that

combining drip irrigation with poly-mulching further enhances WUE and maximizes yields,

establishing it as a highly effective climate-smart water management approach (Saliem et al.,

2024).

V. Policy, Institutional, and Knowledge Gaps in Local Water Management

The Role of Farmer-Led Irrigation and Policy Support

The extensive presence of farmer-led irrigation systems in the Cordillera region

highlights local ingenuity and self-reliance (Ocampo et al., 2023). However, these systems often

operate outside the purview of national irrigation policy, which traditionally focuses on large-
scale infrastructure (Rola et al., 2021). The literature suggests that national and regional

irrigation agendas must be redefined to explicitly include and prioritize support for these small-

and micro-scale, farmer-initiated systems, as they are crucial for sustaining the highland

vegetable industry (Ocampo et al., 2023).

The Knowledge and Extension Deficit

A consistently reported problem undermining the effectiveness of both traditional and

modern practices is the lack of scientifically-based recommendations for small-holder farmers

(Launio, 2019). While technologies like drip irrigation are accessible, farmers often lack the

precise knowledge required for proper irrigation scheduling and determination of the correct

water application rate specific to their crops and local soil conditions (Launio, 2019). This

knowledge gap often results in suboptimal use of the technology, leading to continued water

waste and maintenance issues, such as clogging (Launio, 2019). Therefore, extension efforts

from institutions like Benguet State University (BSU) and the Department of Agriculture (DA)

are essential to ensure the effective adoption and long-term success of water-saving technologies

(Reyes et al., 2020).

However, a critical research gap persists: the vast majority of documented local studies

focus on high-production centers like La Trinidad, Atok, and Buguias. There is an explicit lack

of localized, in-depth assessment of water management practices within the specific, unique

hydro-economic environment of Asin Hydro No.2, Tadiangan, Tuba, Benguet.

Water Management Strategies for Vegetable Crops

Improving irrigation efficiency involves adopting strategies like drip irrigation, micro

sprinklers and soil moisture sensors. Reducing water losses can be done through proper canal

maintenance, water harvesting and rainwater storage. Water conservation practices in vegetable

farming include mulching, cover cropping and reduced tillage, which offer benefits such as water

savings, improved soil health and environmental sustainability. Integrated water management

considers all aspects of the water cycle from water supply to water use and disposal to achieve

sustainable water management in agriculture.

Scheduling and Frequency of Irrigation

Irrigation timing depends on the crop, its growth stage, the soil, and the weather. In Tuba,

farmers often assess soil dryness or plant wilting to decide when to irrigate. The frequency of

irrigation depends on the crop’s water needs, like leafy greens typically require more frequent

watering than root crops. Both over and under watering can negatively impact crop yield and

health

Assessing Water Application

The rate at which water is applied is quantified using metrics like mm/day or

inches/week, necessitating proficiency in unit conversions. This rate is gauged using tools such

as flow meters and pressure gauges. Adequacy is assessed via crop water stress indicators,

including leaf water potential, stomatal conductance, and canopy temperature, alongside soil

moisture data to ensure alignment with crop demands. Case studies from vegetable farms in

Tuba, Benguet, illustrate the correlation between water application rates, crop productivity, water
use efficiency, and financial gains. Effective irrigation management in these scenarios hinges on

employing suitable technologies, precise scheduling, and sound water management strategies.

Water Application Rate and Adequacy

The water application rate, which depends on the irrigation method, soil absorption rate,

and the crop’s water needs (Howell, 2003), represents the amount of water used on an area over

time. In Tuba, farmers often estimate these rates based on past experiences, leading to potential

water wastage. On the other hand, correct water application, involves providing crops with the

precise amount of water required to prevent stress or waste. According by Smith (1992) indicates

that the effective water management can significantly improve crop yields and water efficiency.

Water Application Rate and Adequacy

Water application rates are quantified using units like mm/day or inches/week,

necessitating accurate conversions between these units. Measurements are taken using flow

meters, pressure gauges, and other instruments. To determine adequacy, crop water stress

indicators such as leaf water potential, stomatal conductance, and canopy temperature are

employed, alongside soil moisture monitoring data to ensure the applied water meets the crop’s

needs. Case studies from vegetable farms in Tuba, Benguet, illustrate the relationship between

water application rates, crop yields, water use efficiency and economic returns. Successful

irrigation management in these cases often involves appropriate irrigation technologies, effective

scheduling pa and sound water management practices.

Challenges in Irrigation Management

Tuba is increasingly challenged by water scarcity as demand rises from agriculture,

residential use and industry. Climate change exacerbates this issue by altering rainfall patterns
and increasing water evaporation rates (IPCC, 2014). Additionally, many farmers in Tuba

continue to use traditional, inefficient irrigation methods that result in significant water wastage.

Limited access to information regarding modern irrigation techniques and effective water

management further contributes to these inefficiencies (World Bank, 2007).

The Philippine government has Implemented several policies to promote efficient water

management in agriculture with the National Irrigation Administration (NIA) responsible for

developing and managing irrigation systems across the country (NIA, 2015). Additionally,

various institutions such as the Department of Agriculture (DA) and local government units

(LGUs) provide support to farmers through technical assistance, credit facilities, and

infrastructure development. Strengthening these support systems is needed for enhancing

irrigation efficiency and promoting sustainable agriculture (DA, 2017).

Improving Irrigation Efficiency

To improve irrigation efficiency, several strategies can be implemented. Encouraging the

adoption of water saving technologies, such as drip irrigation and micro sprinklers, can

significantly reduce water consumption in vegetable farming (Postel, 1993), subsidies and

training programs can facilitate farmers investment in these technologies. Implementing

scientific irrigation scheduling based on crop water requirements and soil moisture monitoring

can optimize water use. Tools like soil moisture sensors and weather based irrigation scheduling

models can assist farmers in making informed decisions (Rogers & Lamm, 1995). Promoting

water harvesting techniques, such as rainwater harvesting and small scale water impoundments

can augment water supply during the dry season, enhancing water security and reducing

dependence on external water sources (Agarwal & Narain, 1997). Additionally providing

farmers with education and training on effective water management practices is essential for
improving irrigation efficiency with extension services playing a key role in disseminating

information on best practices and new technologies (Swanson, 2008).

Case Studies and Local Research

Several case studies have documented the impact of irrigation practices on vegetable

production in Benguet. For instance, a study by Balanza (2010) found that farmers using drip

irrigation achieved higher yields and better water use efficiency compared to those using furrow

irrigation. Additionally local research institutions such as Benguet State University have

conducted studies on crop water requirements and irrigation scheduling for various vegetable

crops grown in the region. These studies provides valuable insights in optimizing water use and

improving crop productivity (BSU, 2018).

Modern Irrigation Technologies and Practices

Drip irrigation offers significant benefits such as water savings, improved crop yields and

reduced disease incidence, though it faces challenges like high initial costs and maintenance

(Postel, 1993). Micro-sprinklers operate with advantages over traditional sprinkler systems.

Studies compare the performance of micro-sprinklers with other irrigation methods in vegetable

crops. Soil moisture sensors monitor soil water content, optimizing irrigation scheduling, with

various types available for vegetable farming (Rogers & Lamm, 1995).

Traditional Irrigation Practices

Traditional irrigation methods in Tuba, Benguet, such as furrow irrigation and manual

watering, have distinct advantages and disadvantages regarding water use efficiency, labor

requirements, and cost. Farmers often rely on visual cues like soil dryness and plant wilting to

determine irrigation needs, but this approach has limitations that can lead to over or under
irrigation (Cuevas, 2003). Socio economic factors, including access to information, credit and

technical support, significantly influence farmer’s adoption of improved irrigation technologies

and practices.

Factors Influencing Irrigation Scheduling

Different vegetable crops have varying water needs based on their physiology and growth

stage (Allen et al., 1998). Studies quantify water requirements for common crops like lettuce,

cabbage, carrots and potatoes (FAO, 1989). Soil type affects water infiltration, retention, and

availability to plants influencing irrigation schedule (Howell, 2003). Rainfall, temperature,

humidity and evapotranspiration impact irrigation needs, and weather data and models can

predict crop water demand and optimize irrigation (IPCC, 2014).

Advanced Irrigation Techniques

Subsurface drip Irrigation enhances water use efficiency and reduces evaporation by

burying drip lines below the soil surface (Camp, 1998). It minimizes weed growth and improves

nutrient uptake by delivering water and fertilizers directly to the root zone (Lamm et al., 2012).

Automated irrigation systems optimize water delivery using sensors, controllers and

communication technologies, adjusting irrigation schedules based on real time data to reduce

water waste and labor costs (Evans & King, 2012). Surge irrigation, an intermittent application

of water to furrows improves water distribution uniformity and reduces infiltration losses,

particularly useful for soils with low infiltration rates common in areas like Benguet (Stringham

& Keller, 1979).

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