CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 THE CONCEPTS OF DEMOCRACY AND UNEMPLOYMENT
Different definitions of democracy have been advanced by several scholars. In its simplest term,
democracy is a means for the people to choose their leaders and to hold their leaders accountable for
their policies and their conduct in office. The people decide who will represent them in parliament, and
who will head the government at the national and local levels. They do so by choosing between
competing parties in regular, free and fair elections. Government is based on the consent of the
governed. In a democracy, the people are sovereign, that is, they are the highest form of political
authority. Power flows from the people to the leaders of government, who hold power only temporarily.
Laws and policies require majority support in parliament, but the rights of minorities are protected in
various ways. The people are free to criticize their elected leaders and representatives, and to observe
how they conduct the business of government. Elected representatives at the national and local levels
are expected to listen to the people and respond to their needs and suggestions (Gilley, 2009; Plattner,
2010).
In democracy, elections have to occur at regular intervals, as prescribed by law. Those in power cannot
extend their terms in office without asking for the consent of the people again in an election. For
elections to be free, fair, transparent and credible, they have to be conducted by a neutral, fair, and
independent body that treats all political parties and candidates equally. All parties and candidates must
have the right to campaign freely, to present their manifestoes to the voters both directly and through
the mass media. Voters must be able to vote in secret, free of intimidation and violence. Independent
observers should be able to observe the voting and the vote counting to ensure that the process is free
of corruption, intimidation, and fraud. Also, there needs to be some impartial and independent tribunal
to resolve any disputes about the election results. In democracy, any country can hold an election, but
for an election to be free and fair requires a lot of organization, preparation, and training of political
parties, electoral officials, and civil society organizations that monitor the process (Rose & Munro, 2003;
Lipset, 2011).
Moreover, in democracy, people have an obligation to become informed about public issues, to watch
carefully how their political leaders and representatives use their powers, and to express their own
opinions and interests. Voting in elections is another important civic duty of all citizens. But to vote
wisely, each citizen should listen to the views of the different parties and candidates, and then make his
or her own decision on whom to support. Participation can also involve campaigning for a political party
or candidate, standing as a candidate for political office, debating public issues, reaching out to
community members, petitioning the government, and even engaging peaceful protests (Levitsky &
Way, 2010; Ogundiya, 2010).
Furthermore, another vital form of participation comes through active membership in independent,
nongovernmental organizations, called “civil society.” These organizations may represent a variety of
interests and beliefs including but not limited to farmers, workers, doctors, teachers, business owners,
religious bodies, women, students, human rights activists. It is important that women participate fully
both in politics and in civil society.
Most civil society organizations educate people about their democratic rights and responsibilities, and
how to improve their political skills, represent their common interests, and involve them in political life.
In a democracy, participation in civic groups is voluntary. Nobody is forced to join an organization
against his or her will. Also, political parties are vital organizations in a democracy, and democracy is
stronger when citizens become active members of political parties. However, nobody is pressured or
threatened to join or support any political party. Therefore people are free to choose which party to
support. Democracy depends largely on people’s participation. But participation must be peaceful,
respectful of the law, and tolerant of the different views of other groups and individuals (Ake, 1996;
Toyo, 1994; Ukpong, 2011).
One of the cardinal elements of democracy is the rule of law. By extension therefore, democracy is a
system of rule by laws, not by individuals. In a democracy, the rule of law protects the rights of citizens,
maintains order, and limits the power of government. Everybody is equal under the law. No one may be
discriminated against on the basis of their race, religion, ethnic group, or gender. No one may be
arrested, imprisoned, or exiled arbitrarily. If a person is detained, the person has the right to know the
charges against him or her, and to be presumed innocent until proven guilty according to the law.
Anyone charged with a crime has the right to a fair, speedy, and public trial by an impartial court. No
one may be prosecuted except by a law established in advance. No one is above the law, not even
elected or appointed State officials. The law is fairly, impartially, and consistently enforced, by courts
that are independent of the other branches of government. Torture and cruel and inhumane treatment
are forbidden. The rule of law places limits on the power of government. No government official is
expected to violate these limits. No State official either appointed or elected, or even political party can
tell a judge how to decide a case. Office holders cannot use their power to enrich themselves.
Independent courts or established bodies can punish corrupt State officials, no matter who is guilty
(Diamond, 2008; Fukuyama, 2000).
In advanced countries like the United States, Britain, France and Canada, where democracy has worked,
citizens must not only participate and exercise their rights, they must also observe certain principles and
rules of democratic conduct. People must respect the law and reject violence. Nothing ever justifies
using violence against political opponents (Abati, 2011c). Every citizen respects the rights of his or her
fellow citizens, and their dignity as human beings. No one is expected to denounce a political opponent
as evil and illegitimate, just because an opponent is canvassing different views. People question the
decisions of the government, but not reject the government’s authority. Every group has the right to
practice its culture and to have some control over its own affairs, but each group accepts that it is a part
of a democratic state. When people express their opinions, they should also listen to the views of other
people, even people who may hold contrary view. Hence, everyone has a right to be heard (Fukuyama,
2000; Ukpong, 2011).
Above all, democracy requires compromise. Groups with different interests and opinions must be willing
to sit down with one another and negotiate. In a democracy, one group does not always win everything
it wants. Different combinations of groups win on different issues. Over time, everyone wins something.
If one group is always excluded and fails to be heard, it may turn against democracy in anger and
frustration. Everyone who is willing to participate peacefully and respect the rights of others should
have some say in the way the country is governed (Levitsky & Way, 2010; Ukpong, 2011). The above
discourse is the ideal type that may be found in a well developed and stabilized liberal democracy.
However, the reality may not encompass all the issues discussed above As regards the concept of
unemployment, there seems to be a consensus on the definition of unemployment. Simply put,
unemployment describes the condition of people who are without jobs. The International Labor
Organization (ILO) defines the unemployed as numbers of the economically active population who are
without work but available for and seeking work, including people who have lost their jobs and those
who have voluntarily left work (World Bank, 1998:63). Also, for Adebayo (1999) this exists when
members of the labor force wish to work but cannot get [Link] unemployment, therefore, could be
described as the conglomerate of youths with diverse background, willing and able to work, but cannot
find any. When the supply of labor outstrips the demand for labor, it causes joblessness and
unemployment. Given the lack of sufficient employment opportunities in the formal sector, young
people may be compelled to engage in casual work and other unorthodox livelihood sources, thus
leading to underemployment (Echebiri, 2005; Gibb & George, 1990; Onah, 2001).
Various forms of unemployment have been identified and elaborated upon in the literature. These
include seasonal, frictional, cyclical, and structural unemployment (Adebayo, 1999; Damachi, 2001;
Hollister & Goldstein, 1994; Robert, 1993; Todaro, 1992). Unemployment is measured among people in
the labor force (Obadan & Odusola, 2001; National Bureau of Statistics, 2010). The labor force of a
country as defined by National Bureau of Statistics (NBS) (2009) is a set of people or citizens of a country
who are willing and are able to make available at any given point in time their efforts for gainful
employment. The unemployed are the individuals with no work, but are looking for work at the time of
any study. Unemployment is a global trend, but it occurs mostly in developing countries of the world,
with attendant social, economic, political, and psychological consequences. Thus, massive youth
unemployment in any country is an indication of far more complex problems. The ILO (2007) report
showed that the proportions of world unemployment are steadily increasing and that the number of
those without jobs remained at an all time high of more than 195 million, or 6.3 percent, in 2007. For
instance, during that period (2007), the Middle East and North Africa were the regions with the highest
unemployment rate in the world at 12.2 percent, followed by sub-Saharan Africa at nearly 10 percent.
East Asia's unemployment rate of 3.6 percent remained the lowest. The report affirmed that population
growth, especially in South Asia, the Middle East, and North Africa, and Sub-Saharan Africa, was putting
a lot of pressure on job creation. The report concluded that half of all workers in the world - some 1.4
billion working poor - lived in families that survived on less than US $2 a day per person. These people
worked in the vast informal sector - from farms to fishing, from agriculture to urban alleyways - without
benefits, social security, or healthcare. Some 550 million working poor lived on US $1 or less per day. In
absolute terms, it is estimated that there are about 122 million youths on the African continent
(Echebiri, 2005; Chigunta, 2002). Therefore, projections of the population growth into the 21st century
indicated that the proportion of youths, in relation to the overall population, will continue to grow.
Todaro (1992) pointed out that the high rate of unemployment is a result of continuous transfer of
economic activities, especially the youths from rural to urban areas.
2.2 Youth Development
In conceptualizing youth development, attention should be paid to the fact that the concept of “youth
development” is made up of two key words: Youth and development. Therefore, both words shall be
individually conceptualized.
A youth is a young person especially a young man or boy; it refers to young people collectively. It can be
seen as the freshness and vitality characteristic of a young person (Wordweb Dictionary, 2010).
Development, on the other hand is a state in which things are improving. It also means ‘to change
gradually, progressing through a number of stages towards some sort of state of expansion,
improvement or completeness or a state in which the subjects true identity is revealed Word web
Dictionary,2010).
Generally, youths are one of the greatest assets that any nation can have and therefore, need to be
developed and empowered. Not only are they legitimately regarded as the future leaders, they are,
potentially and actually the greatest investment for a country’s development (Federal Republic of
Nigeria, 1999). They serve as a good measure of the extent to which a country can reproduce as well as
sustain itself. The extent of their vitality, responsible conduct and roles in society is positively correlated
with the development of their country (Zonal Youth Summits, 2000). Nigeria’s population is
predominantly young (National Youth Policy, 2001). Therefore the present Nigerian government, having
given due consideration to the significance of the youth in socioeconomic and political development, has
found it most desirably necessary and urgent to initiate the National Youth Development Policy so that
there will be a purposeful focus, well articulated and well directed efforts aimed at tapping the energy
and resourcefulness of youth and harnessing them for the vitality, growth and development of the
country in this 21st Century. This commitment to the development of the youth has been reinforced by
resolution of various international organizations which draw attention to the need to concretely address
the problems of the youth and empower them (Commonwealth Plan of Action for Youth Empowerment,
1998).
According to Nigeria’s National Youth Development Policy (2001), the youth comprises all young persons
of ages 18 to 35, who are citizens of the Federal Republic of Nigeria. This category represents the most
active, the most volatile and yet the most vulnerable segment of the population. They are individuals
(male or female) above ten but below thirty years of age. Theyouth has also defined as the period in an
individual’s life which runs between the end of childhood and entry into the world of work (Onuekwusi
and Effiong, 2002). People in this age bracket definitely constitute a sizeable chunk of a nations
population on which the burden of nation building falls. The youth also constitute the major resource
base for any country that want to embark on any meaningful development. Investment in the youth is
the only way to ensure the future growth and development of any country. Therefore, increasing
number of young people must be trained and as quickly as possible to provide leadership in agriculture,
industry, government and rural development projects. These youth must be developed intellectually,
morally, socially and with relevant skills to face a rapidly advancing technological world (Lagun, 2002).
A review of studies such as Fenley (1986), Odusanya (1972) and Olujide (1999), have also revealed that
the youths constitute the highest percentage of the Nigerian population, and therefore are seen as “vital
sources of manpower for development. They are rightly seen as leaders of tomorrow. Hence, the kind of
education (formal or informal) that youth are exposed to or have access to will determine the nation’s
overall development (Odusanya, 1972, Olujide, 1999).
Ocho, (2005) added his voice when he averred that Nigerian youths face daily series of problems,
ranging from poverty, unemployment, conflicts and diseases. Tackling them is not an easy task. These
problems therefore demand that the youths be empowered with creative problem-solving skills. The
training of educated individuals who can function effectively in the society for the betterment of self and
the society will require special attention as the system will be deliberately set to concern itself with the
development of sound human capital required for national development (Ocho, 2005).
But through well planned and executed entrepreneurship education, Oviawe (2010) observed,
theNigerian youths will learn to be happy and fulfilled, as they will be productive and committed as
employees or employers of labour. They will allow their unique abilities to be used for the development
of the national and global goals rather than abandon their country for greener pastures (Oviawe 2010).
Hence the provision of right skills to the youths to help them tackle the problem of unemployment and
live a more prosperous life should be given precedence in the scheme of things in Nigeria. Experts have
suggested some techniques that can play important role in curbing youth Unemployment in Nigeria.
These include Sports schools- an evening clubs that teach kids to play football, swim etc, Computer
training schools and clubs that specializes in teaching programming softwares such as Java, Oracle, ASP,
Cold fusion, JSP, digital photography, video editing, etc. Language schools, teaching foreign languages;
like French, Spanish, and Chinese, Setting up of provisional work agencies, which will provide temporary
staff to small companies. People with good web and programming skills can think of starting the
following projects in order to deal with the problems of youth unemployment in Nigeria -program
unique JAVA based applications to be used in 3G phones, a project to structure a complete phone
directory of all Nigerian phone numbers, online map project of major Nigerian cities, and project, which
can provide sufficient information about everything in Nigeria. Other projects such as building solar
powered water pump for use in rural areas, solar powered streetlights, hybrid powered generators using
solar and battery power, can also generate employment in the Nigerian economy.
2.3 YOUTH UNEMPLOYMENT: THE NIGERIAN SITUATION
In Nigeria, accurate unemployment rates are difficult to access. However, according to Oyebade (2003),
Nigeria’s unemployment can be grouped into two categories: first, the older unemployed who lost their
jobs through retrenchment, redundancy, or bankruptcy; and second, the younger unemployed, most of
whom have never been employed.
For Awogbenle and Iwuamadi (2010), the statistics from the Manpower Board and the Federal Bureau of
Statistics showed that Nigeria has a youth population of 80 million, representing 60% of the total
population of the country. Also, 64 million of them are unemployed, while 1.6 million are under-
employed. The 1990-2000 data on youth unemployment showed that the largest group of the
unemployed is the secondary school graduates. Also, 40% of the unemployment rate is among urban
youth aged 20 - 24 and 31% of the rate is among those aged 15-19. Also, twothirds of the urban
unemployed are ranged from 15-24 years old. Moreover, the educated unemployed tended to be young
males with few dependents. There are relatively few secondary school graduates and the lowered job
expectations of primary-school graduates. The authors, however, admitted that there is no consistent
trend of unemployment rates in Nigeria. An increase in one or two years is sometimes followed by a
decline in the subsequent years.
According to National Bureau of Statistics (2009:238; 2010:2), the national unemployment rates for
Nigeria between 2000 and 2009 showed that the number of unemployed persons constituted 31.1% in
2000; 13.6% in 2001; 12.6% in 2002; 14.8% in 2003; 13.4% in 2004; 11.9% in 2005; 13.7% in 2006; 14.6%
in 2007; 14.9% in 2008 and 19.7% in 2009. Specifically as regards the age group, educational group and
sex, data provided by the National Bureau of Statistics (2010:3) further showed that as at March 2009 in
Nigeria, for persons between ages 15 and 24 years, 41.6% were unemployed. For persons between 25
and 44 years, 17% were unemployed. Also, those with primary education, 14.8% were unemployed and
for those with only secondary education, 23.8% were unemployed. Furthermore, for those with post
secondary education, 21.3% were unemployed. For those who never attended school and those with
below primary education, 21.0% and 22.3% were unemployed respectively. As regards sex, data showed
that males constituted 17.0% while females constituted 23.3%. It is important to note that the figures
above may not have captured in totality the youth unemployment situation in Nigeria, however, they
are pointing to the fact that the phenomenon is a very critical issue with far-reaching implications for
stability of democracy.
2.4 CAUSES OF YOUTH UNEMPLOYMENT IN NIGERIA
In the study of unemployment in Nigeria, Adebayo (1999), Alanana (2003), Awogbenle and Iwuamadi
(2010), Ayinde (2008), Echebiri (2005) and Morphy (2008) have identified the main causes of youth
unemployment in Nigeria. The first is the rapidly growing urban labor force arising from rural urban
migration. Rural-urban migration is usually explained in terms of push-pull factors. The push factors
include the pressure resulting from man-land ratio in the rural areas and the existence of serious
underemployment arising from the seasonal cycle of climate. The factors are further exacerbated in
Nigeria by the lack of infrastructural facilities, which makes the rural life unattractive. Youths move to
urban areas with the probability of securing lucrative employment in the industries. In addition to this,
there is the concentration of social amenities in the urban centers. This meant that the rural areas are
neglected in the allocation of social and economic opportunities. According to Sarr (2000), youth
migrants in Africa are three times more in number than other migrants. The author argued that the
urbanization rate of the youth was 32 percent in 1990, compared to less than 25 percent for the non-
youth population. He estimated that by the end of year 2010, over 50 percent of the youths in Africa will
be residing in urban areas where job opportunities are limited to a few modern sectors and
establishments.
The second is the rapid population growth. Going by the 2006 census in Nigeria, the nation’s population
was put at 140,431,790 and projections for the future indicate that the population could be over 180
million by the year 2020, given the annual growth rate of 3.2 percent (National Population Commission
& and ICF Macro, 2009:3). With this population, Nigeria is the most populous nation in Africa. It is
argued that the high population growth rate has resulted in the rapid growth of the labor force, which is
far outstripping the supply of jobs. The accelerated growth of population on Nigeria’s unemployment
problem is multifaceted. It affects the supply side through a high and rapid increase in the labor force
relative to the absorptive capacity of the economy.
The third is the outdated school curricula and lack of employable skills. Some scholars and
commentators have argued that as far as the formal sector is concerned, the average Nigeria graduate is
not employable and, therefore, does not possess the skills needed by the employers of labor for a
formal employment. Often, this is attributed to the Nigeria’s education system, with its liberal bias. The
course contents of most tertiary education in Nigeria lack entrepreneurial contents that would have
enabled graduates to become job creators rather than job seekers.
The fourth is the rapid expansion of the educational system which directly leads to increase in the
supply of educated manpower above the corresponding demand for them. This contributes to the
problem of the youth unemployment in Nigeria. For instance, according to Manning and Junankar
(1998), the total number of graduates turned out by the higher institutions in Nigeria, which were
73,339 in 1986/1987 which rose to 131,016 in 1996/1997. Presently, with over 97 universities in Nigeria
(both federal, state, and private) and the increasing demand for higher education there has been the
problem of suitable employment for the varieties of graduates are turned out by these higher
institutions every year. Ordinarily, this should not have been a problem, but the reality is that the
Nigerian economy is too weak to absorb this large number of graduates (Utomi, 2011).
Further, there is no vibrant manufacturing sector which has the capacity to absorb unemployed youths
in Nigeria. There are over 800 collapsed industries in Nigeria and over 37 factories have closed shops in
2009. About half of the remaining operating firms have been classified as “ailing,” a situation that poses
a great threat to the survival of manufacturing in the country in the next few years. According to a
survey carried out as part of its membership operational audit in January 2010 by the Manufacturers
Association of Nigeria (MAN), the 834 figure represents the cumulative aggregate of firms that have shut
down their operations in 2009 across the country. The MAN survey usually covers five manufacturing
enclaves, into which the country is divided, in terms of manufacturing activities.
These include the Lagos, northern, southeast, south-south and southwest areas. The report of the
survey showed that in 2009, a total number of 176 firms became terminally sick and collapsed in the
northern area, comprising the Kano and Kaduna states manufacturing axis. In the southeast area, which
is comprised of Anambra, Enugu, Imo, and Abia states, a total number of 178 companies closed shop
during the period. While in the south-south area, which consisted of Rivers, Cross River, and Akwa Ibom
states, 46 companies shut down operations before December 2009. According to the survey, the
southwest area, which is comprised of Oyo, Ogun, Osun, Ondo, Ekiti, Kogi, and Kwara states, lost 225
companies during the year. It said that the Lagos area, covering Ikeja, Apapa, Ikorodu, and other
industrial divisions in the state, followed closely with 214 manufacturing firms closing shop before the
end of 2009 (Maiyak, 2010; Okafor, 2008; Oparah, 2011; Usman, 2011).
In a nutshell, the fact is that the Nigeria investment climate is not investor friendly. Besides, high and
multiple levies and taxations being paid by these companies, energy crises have combined to make the
cost of doing business in Nigeria to be very exorbitant. When the industries and factories closed shops
or relocated to a friendlier economic environment, workers were laid off and prospects of recruiting
new ones were dashed. All these exacerbated the crisis of youth unemployment in the labor market
(Adeloye, 2010; Onifade, 2011).
Discourse on the causes of youth unemployment in Nigeria will be incomplete without discussing the
issue of the massive corruption is perpetuated, and still being perpetuated, by successive military and
civilian administrations. Corruption, which has permeated the entire social structure of Nigeria, has
robbed the country of developing a vibrant economic base. Funds meant for development projects have
been misappropriated, diverted, or embezzled and stashed away in foreign banks, while some
incompetent and corrupt bureaucrats and administrators in the public enterprises and parastatals have
liquidated these organizations (Okafor, 2007a). The point being made here is that the collaboration of
the political elites, local and foreign contractors in the inflation of contract fees have robbed Nigeria of
the chances of using more than $500 billion estimated revenue from the oil sale in the last 50 years to
develop a vibrant economy that would have created jobs for the youths in various sectors of the
economy. The ruling (political) class failed because they replaced the vision, policy, and strategy, which
should be the thrust of every leadership with transaction (contract award and other mundane money-
related activities). Each successive government took turns to prey on the nation’s wealth, by using public
power, resources, good will, utilities, instrument of abuse, and personal gains (Okafor, 2005).
The most recent rating of Nigeria, by the Transparency International (TI), on corruption computed a
scale of 0-10 that showed that corruption has yet to abate. Nigeria was ranked 134 out of 178 countries
that were assessed. They were viewed against previous ratings for the year 2008 and 2009, in which
Nigeria was ranked 121st out of 180 countries and 130th out of 180, respectively; the country has
declined alarmingly on the corruption scale. In the African Bracket, Botswana led with a score of 5.8,
while the crisis-ridden Somalia was at the bottom with a score of 1.1. Countries like Ghana, Liberia,
Gambia, Burkina Faso, Senegal, Benin Republic, Mali, and Niger led Nigeria. No Africa country made the
top 20 list of countries with low corruption in the survey. This is despite the fact that Nigeria has streams
of institutional mechanisms for combating corruption, namely, the Economic and Financial Crimes
Commission (EFCC), the Independent Corrupt Practices (and other related offenses) Commission (ICPC),
and the Code of Conduct Bureau (CCB) (The Guardian, 2010; Ijioma, 2010).
2.5 ATTEMPTS AT CURBING YOUTH UNEMPLOYMENT
Acquisition of special and relevant skills and creation of jobs have remained a focal point in the Nigerian
Government policy overtime, at least on paper, hence between 1986 and now, various administrations’
initiatives to promote self-dependence and self-reliance in the generation of gainful self-employment
have been profound. Starting with the acquisition of vocational skills, it is believed that the education
system operated since the post-independence placed emphasis on academic excellence rather than skill
acquisition which can prepare the individual for a more useful and fulfilling life within the society.
Vocational skills acquisition it is believed would bemore relevant to the development of the nation.
Hence, a new national policy on education was promulgated in 1977, introducing vocational courses in
the educational curriculum (Chinedum, 2006).
The ineffectiveness of the vocational courses in the school curriculum to address youth unemployment
which assumed alarming proportion, prompted the Federal Government to set up the Chukwuma
Committee on 26 March, 1986 (Omoruyi and Osunde, 2004). The report of the Committee led to the
creation of the National Directorate of Employment in November 1986 and charged with the
responsibility of promoting skills acquisition; facilitate the spirit of creativity, self-reliance and
independence. To this day, vocational skills’ training is receiving greater attention as many centres have
been established. However, the National Economic Empowerment and Development Strategies (NEEDS)
document 2004 claimed that many of the responses to poverty reduction appeared to be ad-hoc,
uncoordinated and more or less firebrigade (NEEDS document, 2004). A chronicle of about 28 projects
and programmes with poverty reduction thrust has been undertaken from 1975 - 2001. Programmes
such as Community Bank, DFRRI, National Directorate of Employment (NDE), People’s bank, Better Life
for Rural Women, Family Support Programme were some of such projects aimed at addressing various
manifestations of poverty. The NEEDS document concluded that “while none of these programmes were
completely without merits, the truth is that they did not have a significant, lasting and sustainable
positive effect” (Chinedum, 2006).
Accordingly Chinedum, (2006), observed one of the fundamental steps taken by the Nigerian
government to reduce the problem of unemployment in Nigeria was the establishment of the National
Directorate of Employment (NDE), which was established in November 22, 1986 with the general
objective of promptly and effectively fighting unemployment by designing and implementing innovative
programmes, which are directed towards the provision of training opportunities through the guidance
and management support services to graduate farmers and small scale entrepreneurs. The objectives of
NDE spanned across the following programmes: Agricultural development programme; Youth
employment and vocational skills development programme; Special public works; and Small scale
industries and graduate employment programme
The aim of the agricultural programme, he furthered is to generate employment for graduates, non-
graduates and school leavers in the Agricultural sector, with emphasis on self employment in
agricultural production and marketing. The programme is monitored by a team of Agricultural
professionals in the Agricultural department of the directorate. However, factors which include
inadequate funding and late release of funds from the federation account among others have impaired
the effectiveness of the NDE agricultural programmes (Chinedum, 2006)