PCMET303

FLUID MECHANICS AND

MACHINERY

MODULE-1
HRIDESH SREEDHARAN
ASST. PROFESSOR
UNIVERSAL ENGINEERING COLLEGE, VALLIVATTOM
Syllabus
Prerequisite: Properties of fluid: Specific gravity, Specific Weight, Specific Volume,
Dynamic and Kinematic Viscosity.

Introduction to fluid mechanics

Types of fluids, Newton’s law of viscosity.

Pressure Measurement: Fluid pressure, Pressure head, types of pressures. Piezometer,

Simple, differential Manometers.

Fluid statics: Pressure, density, height relationship. Hydrostatic force and pressure on
plane and inclined surfaces, Centre of pressure.

Buoyancy and Metacentre. Stability of immersed and floating bodies.

Department of Mechanical Engineering 2

Fluid Mechanics

Branch of science which deals with behaviour of fluids (liquids or

gases) at rest as well as in motion.
Fluid Statics – fluid at rest

Fluid Kinematics – fluid in motion (without considering pressure forces)

Fluid Dynamics – fluid in motion (considering pressure forces)

Department of Mechanical Engineering 3

Properties of Fluids
Density (Mass density)

𝜌 = =

Density of water is 1 g/cm3 or 1000 kg/m3

Specific weight (Weight density)

𝑤 = = =

w = 𝜌𝑔
For water Specific weight is 9.81 X 1000 Newton/m3

Department of Mechanical Engineering 4

Properties of Fluids
Specific Volume

Specific volume = = = m3/kg

Specific Gravity

Sliquids = =

Sgases = =

Department of Mechanical Engineering 5

Problem 1:
The specific gravity of a liquid is 3. What are its specific weight, mass
density and specific volume? [S3 (S) June 2024 (2019 Scheme)]

Ans: Given Sliquid =3= = =3

1. 𝜌 = 3𝑋𝜌 = 3𝑋1000 = 3000 𝑘𝑔/𝑚

2. Specific weight = 𝑤 = 𝜌 𝑋𝑔 = 3000𝑋9.81 = 29430

3. Specific volume = = = 3.33𝑋10 𝑚 / 𝑘𝑔.

Department of Mechanical Engineering 6

Problem 2:
A reservoir of Glycerin has a mass of 1200 kg and a volume of 0.952
m³. Find the mass density, specific weight, and specific gravity. [S3
(R,S) November 2024 (2019 Scheme)]
Ans: Given:
Mass m = 1200 kg
Volume V = 0.952 m³
Acceleration due to gravity g = 9.81 m/s²
Density of water ρwater = 1000 kg/m³

Department of Mechanical Engineering 7

 Ans: Given:
Mass m = 1200 kg
Volume V = 0.952 m³
Acceleration due to gravity g = 9.81 m/s²
Density of water ρwater = 1000 kg/m³

Density of Glycerin 𝜌 = = =1260.5 kg/m³

.

Specific weight = w = 𝜌 𝑋 𝑔 = 1260.5 X 9.81 = 12366.5 N/m3

.
Specific Gravity, Sglycerine = = = 1.26

Department of Mechanical Engineering 8

Problems for Practice:

1. Calculate the specific weight, density and specific gravity of one

litre of a liquid which weighs 7 N.

2. Calculate the density, specific weight and weight of one litre of

petrol of specific gravity 0.7

Department of Mechanical Engineering 9

Viscosity
Property of a fluid which offers resistance to the movement of one
layer of fluid over another adjacent layer of the fluid.
Consider two layers of fluid, a distance dy apart,
moving one over the other with velocities u+du and
u. The top layer causes a shear stress (𝝉) on the
adjacent lower layer while the lower layer causes a
shear stress on the adjacent top layer.

𝑑𝑢
𝜏𝛼
𝑑𝑦

𝜏=𝜇

where 𝝁 is the constant of proportionality and is

known as coefficient of dynamic viscosity
Department of Mechanical Engineering 10
Units of Viscosity

𝜏 𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 ⁄𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎

𝜇= = =
𝑑𝑢 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑑𝑦 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
1
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 ⁄ 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
=
1
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒

Department of Mechanical Engineering 11

Units of Dynamic Viscosity
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑋 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
∴𝜇=
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ

MKS Unit = 1 = 1 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒

.
CGS Unit = 1 = = 98.1 poise

SI Unit = 1 poise =

1 centipoise (cP) = 𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑒 (𝑃)

Department of Mechanical Engineering 12

Kinematic Viscosity
𝜗 =

𝜗= = =

∵ 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝑚 𝑋 𝑎
= = = mass X

Department of Mechanical Engineering 13

Units of Kinematic Viscosity
In SI & MKS Unit =

CGS Unit =

1 = m2/s = 10-4 m2/s

1 centistoke = 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑘𝑒

Department of Mechanical Engineering 14

Newton’s Law of Viscosity
It state that the shear stress 𝜏 on a fluid element layer is directly
proportional to the rate of shear strain. The constant of proportionality is
called the coefficient of viscosity. Mathematically, it is expressed as given

by 𝜏 = 𝜇

Fluids which obey above equation are known as Newtonian Fluids.

Fluids which do not obey above equation are known as Non-Newtonian
Fluids.

Department of Mechanical Engineering 15

Problem 3:
Determine the viscosity of a fluid having kinematic viscosity 6 stokes and
specific gravity 1.9. [S3 (R,S) Dec 2023, 2019 Scheme]
Ans: Given:
Kinematic viscosity 𝜗 = 6 stokes = 6 X 10-4 m2/s
Specific Gravity, Sl = 1.9
Density of fluid, 𝜌 = 𝑆 𝑋10 = 1.9 𝑋 10 kg/m3
Dynamic viscosity, μ = 𝜗 𝑋 𝜌 = 6 X 10-4 X 1.9 𝑋 10 = 1.14 Ns/m2

Department of Mechanical Engineering 16

Variation of Viscosity with Temperature
In liquids viscosity decreases with increase in temperature as
cohesive forces decreases with increase in temperature.

In gases viscosity increases with increase in temperature as cohesive

forces decreases with increase in temperature.
DOMINATING
FLUID TEMPERATURE VISCOSITY
PROPERTY

LIQUID Cohesive Force

Molecular
GAS momentum
Department of Mechanical Engineering
transfer 17
 Types of Fluids
TYPE OF FLUID DESCRIPTION & PROPERTIES EXAMPLES
Incompressible fluid
IDEAL FLUID Imaginary fluid
No viscosity
REAL FLUID Possesses Viscosity Air, water, oil, etc.

Newtonian Fluid Real fluid which obeys Newton’s Law Air, water, Kerosene etc.

Toothpaste – doesn't flow until a threshold stress is

applied
Non-Newtonian Real fluid which does not obey
Blood – shear-thinning behavior
Fluid Newton’s Law
Cornstarch in water (Oobleck) – shear-thickening
Paint – thins when stirred
Theoretical fluid.
Shear stress is more than the yield
Ideal Plastic
value and shear stress is directly
Fluid (Toothpaste, Mayonnaise, Mud, Slurry, Printing Ink,
proportional to rate of shear strain
Ketchup, Drilling fluids etc. are approximate)

Department of Mechanical Engineering 18

Types of Fluids (Rheological Graph)

Department of Mechanical Engineering 19

PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
Consider a small area dA in large mass of fluid. Let dF be the force acting
on dA in the normal direction.

then 𝑝 =

If p is uniformly distributed over the area (A) then pressure at any point is
given by
𝑭
𝒑=
𝑨

Department of Mechanical Engineering 20

PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
MKS Unit of pressure are kgf/m2 & kgf/cm2

SI Unit of pressure N/m2 (Also known as Pascal or Pa) or N/mm2

1 kPa = kilo pascal = 1000 N/m2

bar = 100 kPa = 105 N/m2

Department of Mechanical Engineering 21

PASCAL’S LAW
It states that pressure or intensity of pressure at a point in a static fluid
is equal in all directions.

px=py=pz

Department of Mechanical Engineering 22

HYDROSTATIC LAW
The pressure at any point in a fluid at rest is given by Hydrostatic Law

It states that the rate of increase of pressure in a vertically downward

direction must be equal to the specific weight of the fluid at that point.

Consider a small fluid element as given in figure

Let ∆𝐴 = 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡

∆𝑍 = Height of fluid element
p = Pressure on face AB
Z = distance of fluid element from free surface

Department of Mechanical Engineering 23

HYDROSTATIC LAW
Consider a small fluid element as given in figure

Let ∆𝐴 = 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡

∆𝑍 = Height of fluid element
p = Pressure on face AB
Z = distance of fluid element from free surface

Pressure force on AB = p X ∆𝐴 acting perpendicular to AB in downward

direction
Pressure force on CD = 𝑝 + ∆𝑍 X ∆𝐴 acting perpendicular to CD
vertically upward direction

Weight of fluid element = Density X Volume X g = 𝜌 𝑋 𝑔 𝑋 ∆𝐴 𝑋 ∆𝑍

Pressure forces on AB & CD are equal and opposite and for equilibrium

p ∆𝐴 – 𝑝 + ∆𝑍 ∆𝐴 + 𝜌 𝑋 𝑔 𝑋 ∆𝐴 𝑋 ∆𝑍 = 0
Department of Mechanical Engineering 24
HYDROSTATIC LAW
p ∆𝐴 – 𝑝 + ∆𝑍 ∆𝐴 + 𝜌 𝑋 𝑔 𝑋 ∆𝐴 𝑋 ∆𝑍 = 0

p ∆𝐴 – p ∆𝐴 - ∆𝐴∆𝑍 + 𝜌 𝑋 𝑔 𝑋 ∆𝐴 𝑋 ∆𝑍 = 0

∆𝐴∆𝑍 = 𝜌 𝑋 𝑔 𝑋 ∆𝐴 𝑋 ∆𝑍

=𝜌𝑋𝑔=w

𝜕𝑝 = 𝜌𝑔𝜕𝑍

Integrating the above equation

𝜕𝑝 = 𝜌𝑔𝜕𝑍

p = 𝜌𝑔𝑍 or Z = Pressure Head =

Department of Mechanical Engineering 25
Absolute, Gauge & Vacuum Pressures

Department of Mechanical Engineering 26

Absolute, Gauge & Vacuum Pressures
1. The pressure at a point in a fluid is 15 cm of mercury column. Express it in N/m2
of absolute pressure and gauge pressure.
Ans: Given, Pressure, h = 15 cm of Hg = 0.15 m
We know
Density of mercury, ρ = 13,600 kg/m³
Acceleration due to gravity, g = 9.81 m/s²
Atmospheric Pressure = 1.01325 bar = 101.325 kN/m² = 101.325 kPa
Pressure, P = 𝜌𝑔ℎ = 13600 𝑋 9.81 𝑋 0.15 =19,996.8 N/m²
Gauge Pressure = 19,996.8 N/m² = 19.9968 kPa
Absolute Pressure = Atmospheric Pressure + Gauge Pressure
= 101,325 + 19,997 = 121,322 N/m² = 121.32 kPa

Department of Mechanical Engineering 27

Pressure Measurement

Manometers Mechanical Gauges

• Measures pressure at a point in a • Measures pressure using a spring
fluid by balancing column of or dead weight.
fluid by same or another column 1. Diaphragm pressure gauge
of fluid 2. Bourdon tube pressure gauge
1. Simple Manometers 3. Dead-weight pressure gauge
2. Differential Manometers 4. Bellow’s pressure gauge

Department of Mechanical Engineering 28

SIMPLE MANOMETERS
PIEZOMETER

U-TUBE MANOMETER

SINGLE COLUMN MANOMETER

Department of Mechanical Engineering 29

PIEZOMETER
Simplest form
One end is connected to point where
measurement is to be taken
Other end is open to atmosphere

𝑵
Pressure at point A = 𝝆𝒈𝒉 𝒎𝟑

Department of Mechanical Engineering 30

U-Tube Manometer
Consists of a glass bent in U-
shape.
One end is open to
atmosphere.
Tube generally contains
mercury or any other liquid
whose specific gravity is
greater than specific gravity a. ) For gauge pressure at point B
of the liquid whose pressure p = 𝝆𝟐 𝒈𝒉𝟐 − 𝝆𝟏 𝒈𝒉𝟏
is to be measured. b. ) For vacuum pressure at point B
p = - (𝝆𝟐 𝒈𝒉𝟐 + 𝝆𝟏 𝒈𝒉𝟏 )
Department of Mechanical Engineering 31
Single Column Manometer
Modified form of U-tube manometer
One limb will be connected to a reservoir having large cross-sectional
area.
Other limb may be either vertical (which is then called as vertical
single column manometer) or inclined (inclined single column
manometer)

Department of Mechanical Engineering 32

Single Column Manometer
VERTICAL INCLINED

Department of Mechanical Engineering 33

pA = 𝒉𝟐 𝝆𝟐 𝒈𝟐 − 𝒉𝟏 𝝆𝟏 𝒈𝟏

pA = 𝒉𝟐 𝝆𝟐 𝒈𝟐 − 𝒉𝟏 𝝆𝟏 𝒈𝟏
= 𝑳𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽𝝆𝟐 𝒈𝟐 − 𝒉𝟏 𝝆𝟏 𝒈𝟏
∵ 𝒉𝟐 = 𝑳. 𝑺𝒊𝒏𝜽

Department of Mechanical Engineering 34

Differential Manometer
Measures difference of pressures between two points
Two types
1. U-Tube
i. Two pipes at different levels
ii. Two pipes at same level
2. Inverted U-Tube

Department of Mechanical Engineering 35

Differential Manometer

𝑝 −𝑝 =ℎ𝑋𝑔 𝜌 −𝜌 + 𝜌 𝑔𝑦 − 𝜌 𝑔𝑥

Department of Mechanical Engineering 36

Differential Manometer
1. U-Tube
i. Two pipes at different levels
ii. Two pipes at same level

Department of Mechanical Engineering 37

 Differential Manometer
2. Inverted U-Tube Manometer

 U Tube contains lighter liquid

 Used to measure difference between low pressures

Department of Mechanical Engineering 38

Total Pressure & Centre of Pressure
Total pressure – force exerted by a static fluid on a surface either
plane or curved when the fluid comes in contact with the surfaces.
Acts normal (perpendicular) to the surface.
Centre of Pressure
Defined as the point of application of the total pressure on the surface.
The submerged surface may be
Vertical plane surface
Horizontal plane surface
Inclined plane surface
Curved surface
Department of Mechanical Engineering 39
Department of Mechanical Engineering 40
Department of Mechanical Engineering 41
Total Pressure – Vertical plane surface submerged
in liquid
𝐹 = 𝜌𝑔𝐴ℎ
where ℎ = distance of centre of gravity from free surface.

Centre of Pressure
h* = +ℎ

where IG = moment of inertia of an area about an axis passing through the Centre of Gravity of the
area and parallel to the free surface of liquid.
Note:
i) Centre of pressure lies below the C.G of the vertical surface.
ii) The distance of centre of pressure from free surface of liquid is independent of the density of the
liquid.

Department of Mechanical Engineering 42

Total Pressure – Horizontal plane surface
submerged in liquid
𝐹 = 𝜌𝑔𝐴ℎ
where ℎ = distance of centre of gravity from free surface.

Centre of Pressure

h* = ℎ

Department of Mechanical Engineering 43

Total Pressure – Inclined plane surface submerged
in liquid
𝐹 = 𝜌𝑔𝐴ℎ
where ℎ = distance of centre of gravity from free surface.

Centre of Pressure
h* = +ℎ

where IG = moment of inertia of an area about an axis passing through the Centre of Gravity of the
area and parallel to the free surface of liquid.
Note:
i) Centre of pressure lies below the C.G of the vertical surface.
ii) The distance of centre of pressure from free surface of liquid is independent of the density of the
liquid.

Department of Mechanical Engineering 44

BUOYANCY

When a body is immersed in a fluid, an upward force is exerted by the

fluid on the body.

This upward force is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the

body and is called the force of buoyancy or simply buoyancy.

Department of Mechanical Engineering 45

CENTRE OF BUOYANCY
Defined as the point through which the force of buoyancy is supposed

to act.

As the force of buoyancy is a vertical force and is equal to the weight

of the fluid displaced by the body, the centre of buoyancy will be the

centre of gravity of the fluid displaced.

Department of Mechanical Engineering 46

META-CENTRE
Defined as the point about which a body starts oscillating when the
body is tilted by a small angle.
It is the point at which the line of action of the force of buoyancy will
meet the normal axis of the body when the body is given a small
angular displacement.

Department of Mechanical Engineering 47

META-CENTRE

Department of Mechanical Engineering 48

CONDITIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM OF
FLOATING BODY
A floating body is stable if it comes back to its original position after a
slight disturbance.

Department of Mechanical Engineering 49

CONDITIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM OF
SUBMERGED BODY

Department of Mechanical Engineering 50

CONDITIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM

Department of Mechanical Engineering 51