CIT711 SUMMARY

COURSE CODE: CIT711

COURSE TITLE: COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS

What is a Computer?
Computer is defined as "An automatic electronic apparatus for making calculations or controlling
operations that are expressible in numerical or logical terms".
The basic function performed by a computer is the execution of a program. A program is a sequence of
instructions, which operate on data to perform a certain task.

Key features of a Von Neumann machine.

The hardware of the Von Neumann machine consists of:
 A CPU which includes a ALU and CU
 A main memory system
 An input/output system
 The Von Neumann machine uses stored program concept, i.e. the program and data are stored in
the same memory unit. The computers, prior to this idea, used to store programs and data on
separate memories. Entering and modifying these programs. is very difficult as they were entered
manually by setting switches and plugging and unplugging.
 Each location of the main memory of Von Neumann machine is carried out in a sequential
fashion (unless explicitly altered by the program itself) from one instruction to the next.

What are the advantages of having densely packed Integrated Circuits?

 Low cost: The cost of a chip has remained almost constant while the chip density (number of
gates per chip) is ever increasing. It implies that the cost of computer logic and memory circuit
has been reducing rapidly.
 Greater Operation Speed: More is the density, and closer are the logic or memory element,
which implies shorter electrical paths and hence higher operating speed.
 Smaller computers: Better portability, reduction in power and cooling requirements.
 Reliability: The integrated circuit interconnections are much more reliable than soldered
connections. In addition, densely packed integrated circuits enable fewer inter-chip connections.
Thus, the computers are more reliable.

Classification of Computers
Microcomputers: A microcomputer's CPU is a microprocessor. The first microcomputers were built
around 8-bit microprocessor chips. What do we mean by an 8-bit chip? It means that the chip can
retrieve instructions/data from storage, manipulate, andirocess, an 8-bit data at a time or we can say that
the chip has a built in 8-bit data transfer path. An improvement on 8-bit chip technology was in early
1980s, when a series of 16-bit chips namely 8086 and 8088 were introduced by Intel Corporation, each
one with advancement over the other.
Minicomputer: The term minicomputer originated in 1960s when it was realized that many computing
tasks do not require an expensive contemporary mainframe computers but can be solved by a small,
inexpensive computer. Initial minicomputers were 8 bit and 12 bit machines but by 1970s almost all
minicomputers were 16 bit machines. The 16 bit minicomputers have the advantage of large instruction
set and address field; and efficient storage and handling of text, in comparison to lower bit machines.

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Mainframes: Mainframe computers are generally 32-bit machines or on the higher side. These are
suited to big organizations, to mariage high volume applications. Few of the popular mainframe series
are IBM, HP, etc. Mainframes are also used as central host computers in distributed systems. Libraries
of applications programs developed for mainframe computers are much large than those of the micro or
minicomputers because of their evolutiodover several decades as families of coMputing.
Supercomputer: The upper ends of the state of the art mainframe machine are the supercomputer.
These are among the fastest machines in terms of processing speed, and use multi-processing
techniques, where a number of processors are used to solve problem. Lately ranges of parallel
computing products, which are multiprocessors sharing common buses, have been in use in combination
with the mainframe supercomputers.
The supercomputers are reaching up to speeds as well over 25000 million arithmetic operations per
second.

Memory System
Memory in a computer system is required for storage and subsequent retrieval of instructions and data.
A computer system uses variety of devices for storing the instructions and data, which are required for
its operations. Normally we classify the information to be stored on computer in two basic categories,
data and the instructions.

Thus, a memory system can be considered to consist of three groups of memories.

These are:
 Internal Processor Memories: These consist of the small set of high speed registers which are
internal to a processor and are used as temporary locations where actual processing is done.
 Primary Memory or Main Memory: It is a large memory, which is fast but not as fast as
internal processor memory. This memory is accessed directly by the processor. It is mainly based
on integrated circuits.
 Secondary Memory/Auxiliary Memory/Backing Store: Auxiliairy memory in fact is much
larger in size than main memory but is slower than main memory. It normally stores system
programs (programs which are used by system to perform various functions), other instructions,
programs and data files.

Characteristics Terms for Various Memory Devices

The following terms are most commonly used for identifying comparative behaviour of various memory
devices and technologies:
1. Storage Capacity: It is a representative of the size of the memory. The capacity of internal
memory and main memory can be expressed in terms of number of words or bytes. The storage
capacity of external memory is normally measured in terms of bytes.
2. Access Modes: A memory is considered to consist of various memory locations. The information
from these memory locations can be accessed in the following ways:
• Random Access Memory (RAM): It is the mode in which any memory location can be
accessed in any order in the same amount of time. Ferrite and Semiconductor memories,
which generally constitute main memory, are of this nature. The storage locations cap be
accessed independently and there exist separate access mechanism for each location.
• Sequential Access: On the other hand we have memories which can be accessed in a pre-
defined sequence. For example, the songs stored on a cassette can be accessed only one
by one. The example of sequential access memory is Magnetic Tape. Here; Le access

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mechanism need to be shared among different locations. Thus, either the location or the
location or the read/write head or both should be moved to access the desired location.
• Direct Access: In certain cases the information is neither accessed randomly nor in
sequence but something in between. In direct access, a separate read/write head exist for
a track and on a track the Information be accessed serially; this semi-random mode of
operations exists in magnetic disks.
3. Access Time: The access time is the time required between the requests made for a read or write
operation till the time the data is made available or written at the requested location. Normally it
is measured for read operation. The access time depends on the physical characteristics and
access mode used for that device.
4. Permanence of Storage: Some memories loose information over a period of time. For example,
there can be some memories where the stored data bit value 1 loses its strength to become 0 over
a period of time. These kinds of memories require refreshing. The memories, which require
refreshing, are termed as dynamic memories.
5. Physical Characteristics: In this respect, the memory devices can be categorized into four main
categories viz, electronic, magnetic, mechanical and optical. One of the requirements for a
storage device is that it should exhibit two well-defined physical states, such that 0 and 1 can be
represented in those two states.

Magnetic Disk
A magnetic disk is a circular platter of plastic, which is coated with magnetized material. One of the key
components of a magnetic disk is a conducting coil named as Head which performs the job of reading or
writing operation.

Floppy disks
A floppy disk is made of a flexible thin sheet of plastic material with a magnetic coating and grooves
arranged in concentric circles with tracks. Floppy disk becomes a convenient recording medium to
transport information from one location to another. Disk is removable tom the reading device attached to
the computer and therefore provides unlimited storage capacity. The floppy disks of today are available
in two sizes 5.25 inches and 3.5 inches and their capacity ranges from 360 KB to 1.44 MB per disk.

Winchester Disk
This is a sealed rigid magnetic oxide medium disk, which typically holds 101\413 to 10 GB of data.
Winchester disks are not removable from the drives and since they are sealed, dust and other
contaminations, which are likely in a floppy disk, are minimized. These provide substantially faster data
access compared to floppy disk and provide very large data storage for on-line retrieval.

Sides: The magnetic coating if applied to both the sides of the platter is called a double sided disk. The
data can be recorded on either side of these disks. Some inexpensive disks were initially single sided.

Platters: Some disks have single platter e.g. floppy disks while some disks have multiple platters which
are stacked vertically, normally at a distance of an inch. This is known as disk pack. In disk pack one
additional term cylinder is defined which is the ring of all co-centric tracks (figure 9). A disk pack can
contain multiple heads mounted with the same arm.

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Access Time on Disk
Disk operates in semi-random mode of operation and normally is referenced block wise. The data access
time on disk consists of two main components.
Seek time: Time to position the head on a specific track. On a fixed disks it is the time taken by
electronic circuit to select the require head while in movable head disk it is time required to move the
head to a particular track.

Latency time: The time required by a sector to reach below the read/write head. On an average it is half
of the time taken for a rotation by the disk.

Magnetic Tape
Magnetic tapes are mounted on reels or a cartridge or a cassette of tape to store large volumes or backup
data. These are cheaper and since these are removable from the drive, they provide unlimited storage
capacity.
Information retrieval from tapes is sequential and not random. These are not suitable for on-line retrieval
of data, since sequential searching will take long time. These are convenient for archival storage, or for'
I- backup. The tapes are one of the earliest storage devices. They are low cost, low speed, portable and
are still widely used because of their low cost.

Optical Memories
Optical memories are alternate mass storage devices with huge capacity. The advent of compact disk
digital audio system, a non-erasable optical disk, paved the way for the development of a new low cost
storage technology. In optical storage devices the information is written using lase Lbeam. These
devices which are memories can store large amount of data. We will discuss here three optical memory
devices, which are now becoming increasingly popular in various computer applications.

CD-ROM
The CD-ROM (Compact Disk Read-Only Memory) is a direct extension of audio CD. CD-ROM players
are more rugged and have error-correction facility. This ensures proper data transfer from CD-ROM to
the main memory of the computer. CD-ROM is written into during the process of manufacture by a high
power laser beam. Information is retrieved from a CD-ROM using a low power laser, which ingenerate
in an optical disk drive unit. In CD-ROMs the information is stored evenly across the disk in segments
of the same size.

The three main advantages of CD-ROMs are:

 large data/information storage capacity
 mass replication is inexpensive and fast
 these are removable disks, thus are suitable for archival storage

The disadvantages of CD-ROMs are:

 It is read-only, therefore, cannot be updated
 Access time is longer than that of a magnetic disk

WORM
In certain applications only few copies of compact disks are to be made which makes CD-ROMs
production economically unviable. For such cases write-once, read-many CD has been developed.

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WORM disks are prepared in such a way that they can be written only once subsequently by a laser
beam of modest intensity. The disk controller of WORM is more expensive than that of CD-ROM.
WORM uses sector structures same as that of magnetic disks. High power laser first prepares the
WORM disk. A CD writer can write them once.

Output Devices
The output normally can be produced in two ways: either on a display unit/device or on a paper. Other
kinds of output such as speech output, mechanical output is also being used in Certain applications. In
this section, we will discuss only the display and printing output devices.

Display Devices
One of the most important peripherals in computer is the graphic display device. Conventional computer
display terminals known as alphanumeric terminals, display characters (images) from a multi-dot array
(normally 5 x 7 or 7 x9). These are used to read text information displayed on the screen. However,
there are increasing demand for display of graphics, diagrams and pictures to make the visual
presentation of information more effective for user interaction and decision making.
Graphic displax is made qp of a series dslotc railed 'pixels' (picture elements) whose pattern produces
the image. Each dot on the screen is defined as a separate unit, which can be directly addressed. Since
each dot can be controlled individually there is much greater flexibility in drawing pictures. There are
three categories of display screen technology:
1. Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)
2. Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)
3. Projection Displays

CRT Displays
The main components of a CRT terminals are the electron gun, the election beam controlled by an
electromagnetic field and a phosphor coated display screen.
The electromagnetic field or order to create an image (refer to figure 5). There are two types of CRT
displays
(a) Vector CRT displays in which the elestraabeatt„Aisslirecte(JaLyill o theffilaseawhere the hits to be
created.
(b) Raster displays in which the image is projected on to the screen by directing the electron beam across
each row of picture elements. This type of display provides a high dynamic capability since image is
continuously refreshed and it allows for continual user input and output. It offers full colour display at a
relatively low cost and is becoming very popular.

Printers
Printers are used for producing output on a paper. Current estimates indicate that about 1500 types of
printers are commercially available conforming to about 15 different printing technologies.
The following categories of-printers are identified.
(a) Printing Technology — impact printers vs non-impact printers
Impact printen use variations of standards typewriter printing_meehanism where a hammer
strikespap(er. Impact printers use variations of standard typewriter printing mechanism through inked
ribbon. Non-impact printer twatorelectrical signals to etch or induce symbols on paper. Many of these
require special coated or tsated_paper.

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(b) Character forms — fully formed characters vs dot matrix
Fully formed characters _arunstnicteci from sula lines and curves like the ctsciar ters offy_pew_rjfer
whereas a dot matrix character is made up from a carefull a • • - 'S ' Is I. ked vaclose_ to each other.
Obviously print quality of a dot matrix printer will be poorer compared to that from fully formed
characters.
(c) Printing sequence — serial vs page This indicated the am t of information ar
• - • • I put within a • • - 'II SI' • Serial printing is done character by character whereas line printing
forms an entire line at a time. A page printer outputs a whole page of character and images
simultaneously during one cycle.

Dot Matrix Printers

This is one of the most popular printers used for personal computing systems. These printers are
relatively (cheaper compared to other technologies. This uses impact technology and a print head
containing banks of wires moving at high speeds against inked ribbon and paper. Characters are
produced in matrix format. The speeds range from 40 characters per second (CPS) to about 1,000 cps. A
disadvantage of this technology is that the print quality is low.

Ink Jet Printers

These print by spraying a controlled stream of tiny ink droplets-accurately on the paper forming either
dot matrix or solid characters. These are non-impact and hence relatively silent and high quality printers.
The typical speeds range from 50 cps to above 300 cps and this technology has been used well for
production of colour printing and elaborate graphics.

Laser Printers
This is a high quality, high speed, andlgaithumeiechnology, which works in non-impact fashion on plain
paper or pre-printed forms. Printing is achieved by deflectingl_a_es Meant
ol_____Itp_the,photosensitive surface of a drum and the latent image attracts the toner to the image
areas. The toner is then electrostatically transferred to the paper and fixed into a permanent image.
Speeds can range from 10 pages a minute to about 200 pages per minute. This technology is relatively
expensive but is becoming very popular because of the quality, speed and noiseless operations.

Input/Output Module Interface

The input/output module interfaces (I10 module is normally connected to the computer system on one
end and one or more input/output devices on the other. Normally, an I10 module can control one or
more peripheral devices. An I10 module is needed because of:
(a) Diversity and variety of I/O devices makes it difficult to incorporate all the peripheral device logic
(i.e. its control commands, data format etc.) into CPU. This in turn will also reduce flexibility of using
any new development.
(b) The I10 devices are normally—slower than that of memory and CPU, therefore, it is suggested not to
use them on high speed bus directly for communication purpose.
(c) The data format and word length used by the peripheral may quite be different from that of a CPU.
An I/O module is mediatorbetween fl_sp_Locessonid I/O device/devices. Itsonicalsibe-clata-exchange
be eel_ j_the_externaisleyices_animain memory or exatices and CPUJegisters. Therefore, an I10 module
an interface internal to the computer which connect it to CPU and main memory and an interface

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external to the computer connecting it to external device or peripheral. The I10 module should not only
communicate the information from CPU to VO device, but it should also co-ordinate these two.

Plotters
To produce graphical output on paper the plotters are used.

External Interfaces
External interface is the interface between the I/O module and the peripheral devices. This interface can
be characterized into two main categories:
(a) parallel interface
(b) serial interface

What is Parallel Processing?

In the previous section, we have defined the input/output interfaces of a computer. Let us now, explore
the newer technologies and trends in computers.
Computers can be made faster by increasing their clock speed or by using improved VLSI technology.
But there is a zractical limitation to both of them. The only way, that seems possible, theoretically that
can increase the speed in an unlimited fashion is to have multiple modules, that is break the original
problems into independent modules and execute them simultalleously, The more the number of
processors doing the job simultaneously the more the speed will be, 42112Lproce,4a3ris a term used to
denote a large class of -- teahniQues that are used tozovide simultaneous data prnre•sing tasks tor the
purpose ot increasing the com utational s_psect of a computer.
One of the most popular classifications of parallel computer is M. J._Flynn's classification and is based
on the multiplicity of instruction streams and data streams in computer system. The sequence of
instruction read from the memory constitute the instruction stream, and the data they operate of in the
processor constitute the data stream. Flynn's classification divides the computers into four categories:
 single instruction single data (SISD)
 single instruction multiple data (SIMD)
 multiple instruction single data (MISD)
 multiple instruction multiple data (MIMD)

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SISD organization is available in most serial computers today. Instructions are executed sequentially,
though may be overlapped in their execution stage (pipelining). All the functional units are under the
supervision of one control unit. The Von Neumann architecture falls under this category.
SIMD organization consists of multiple processing elements supervised by the same control unit. All
processing units receive the same instruction broadcast but works on different data streams. One of the
very common example is the execution of a 'for' loop in which the same set of instructions are executed
for, may be a different set of data.
MISD organization implies interactions between N processors because all memory streams are derived
from the same data stream shared by all processors. If the interaction between the processors is high, it is
called a tightly coupled system, or else it is called a loosely coupled system. Most multiprocessors fit
into this category.
Parallel processors can be categorized into several categories. These include:
 Array Processors
 Distributed Architecture
 Multiprocessors

Data flow Architecture

Array processors are parallel architectures which deal with repetitive operations. These are an example
of
SIMD architecture with applications varying from mathematical array operations and in structure in
which data objects are known well in advance. Dataflow Architectures are functionally distributed
architectures, in which the operations are triggered with the arrival of data at these processors. They may
be viewed as very general MIMD parallel architectures.

Pipelining
The basic idea behind pipeline design is quite natural; it is not specific to computer technology. In fact
the name pipeline stems from the analogy with petroleum pipelines in which a sequence of hydrocarbon
products iiPiUmped through a pipeline. The last product might well be entering the pipeline before the
first product been removed from the terminus. The key contribution of pipelining is that it provides a
way to start a new ask before an old one has been completed. The concept can be better understood by
taking an example of an industrial plant. To achieve pipelining, one must subdivide the input task into a
sequence of subtasks, each of which can be executed by a specialized hardware stage that operates
concurrently with other stages in the hardware. Successive tasks are streamed into the pipe and get
executed in an overlapped fashion at the subtask level. Hence the completion rate is not a function of
total processing time, but rather of how soon a new process can be introduced.

Supercomputers
A commercial computer with vector instructions and pipelined floating point arithmetic operations is
referred to as a supercomputer Supercomputers are very powerful, and high performance machines used
mostly for scientific computations. To speed-up the operation, the components are packed tightly
together to minimize the distance that the electronic signals have to travel.
A supercomputer is a computer best known for its high computational speed, fast and larger memory
systems, and extensively used for parallel processing. It is equipped with multiple functional uriltraid
each unit has its own-pipeline configuration

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There are four possible ways to increase the memory speed.
(a) Decrease the memory access time, use a faster but expensive technology for main memory probably
it will be feasible after few years.
(b) Access more words in a single memory access cycle. That is instead of accessing one word from the
memory in a memory access cycle, access more words. This is termed as memory interleaving.
(c) Insert a high speed memory termed as Cache between the main memory and processor.
(d) Use associative addressing in place of random access.

Cache Memory
These are small fast memories placed between the processor and the main memory. Caches although are
fast yet are very extensive memories and are used in only small sizes. For example, caches of sizes 64K,
128K, 256KB etc. are normally used in typical PC-486 and Pentium based PCs while they can have Ito
64MB RAMs or even more. Thus, small cache memories are intended to provide fast speed of memory
retrieval without sacrificing the size of memory (because of main memory size).

Keyboard
The keyboard is one of the most common input devices for computers. The layout of the keyboard is
like that of the traditional WARTY typewriter, although there are some extra commands and function
keys provided for. Substantial development has taken place in the ergonomics of keyboard design to
ensure that operator stain is minimal.

Pointing Devices
The keyboard provides facility to input data and commands to computer in text form. We find that,
while working with a display based packages, we are mostly pointing to some area in the display to
select an option and move across on the screen to select subsequent options. For such cases pointing
devices are very useful.
There are several pointing devices, some of them are:
(a) Mouse: Mouse is a handy device which, can be moved on a smooth surface to simulate the
movement of cursor that is desired on the display screen. Mouse could be optical; offering quite and
reliable operation, or mechanical. which is cheaper but noisier. User can move the mouse, stop it at a
point where the pointer is to be located and, with the help of buttons, and make selection of choices.
(b) Light Pen: This is a pen shaped device allowing natural movement on the screen. The pen contains
the light receptor and is activated by pressing the pen against the display screen. Receptor is the
scanning beam which helps in locating the pen's position. Suitable system software is provided to
initiate necessary action when we locate an area on the display surface with the help of the light pen.

Scanners
Scanners facilitate capturing of the information and storing them in a graphic format for displaying back
on the graphical screen. Scanner consists of two components, the first one to illuminate the page so that
the optical image can be captured and the other to convert the optical image into digital format for
storage by computer.

Introduction to RISC
Aim of the computer architect is to design computers which are more cost effective than their
predecessors. Cost effectiveness includes
1. cost of hardware to manufacture the machine

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2. cost of programming
3. cost incurred in correcting both the initial hardware and subsequent programs on account of the
new/old compatible architecture.

Reasons for Increased Complexity

Let us see what are the reasons for increased complexity that leads to complex instruction set computers
(CISC) and what exactly we mean by this.

1. Speed of memory vs the Speed of CPU

The CPU, in general, was about 10 times as fast as main memory. Thus, more and more instructions
were put into hardware. Since then many higher level instructions have been added to machines in an
attempt to improve performance This trend began towards the imbalance in speed.
The advances in semiconductor memory have made several changes to the assumptions about the
relative difference in speed between CPU and the main memory. Semiconductor memories are both fast
and relatively inexpensive. Cache memories have further reduced the difference between the CPU and
the memory speed.

2. Code density
With early computers memory was very expensive, it was therefore cost effective to have very compact
programs. It was assumed that more instructions would result in small programs. While code
compaction is important, however, the cost of 10 percent more memory is often far cheaper than the cost
of squeezing code by 10 percent out of the CPU architecture innovations.

3. Support for high level language

With the increasing use of more and more high level languages, manufacturers have become eager to
provide more powerful instructions would result in small programs. While code compaction is
important, however, the cost of 10 percent more memory is often far cheaper than the cost of squeezing
code by 10 percent out of the CPU architecture innovations.

Principles of RISC
The following are the characteristics of RISC architecture:
1. Hardware instructions should be kept simple unless there is a very good reason to do otherwise.
2. Microcode, a programming way of implementing control unit, is not magic. Moving software into
macrocode does not make it better; it just makes it hard to change.
3. Simple decoding and pipelined execution are more important than program size. At the peak rate a
new instruction is started every cycle. Pipelined execution eyes a peak performance of one.
4. In source data automation data is entered essentially where it is being produced through automatic
devices. Examples are OMR & OBR.

Different programming languages

(1) System Programming Languages: System Programs are designed to make the computer easier to use.
To write an operating system, the programmer needs instruction to control the computers (hardware
part). For example, instructions that move data from one location of storage to a register of the
processor. C and C++ languages are widely used to develop system software.
(2) Application Programming Language: Application programs are designed for specific applications,
such as payroll processing, inventory control etc. To write programs for payroll processing or other
applications, the programmer does not need to control the basic circuitry of a computer. Instead the

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programmer needs instructions that make it easy to input data, produce output, do calculations, store and
retrieve data. Programming languages that are suitable for such application programs support these
instruction but not necessarily the types of instructions needed for development of system programs.
There are two main categories of application programs: business programs and scientific application
programs.

System Software
Language Translator
A language translator is a system software which translates a computer program written by a user into a
machine understandable form. We will discuss more about them in the next section.

Operating System
An Operating System (OS) is the most important system software and is a must to operate a computer
system. An operating system manages a—Omura'''. s resources very effectively takes care of scheduling
q2,ultiple jobs for execution and manages the flow of data and instructions between the input/output
units and the maitunemory. Advances in the field of computer hardware have also helped in the
development of more efficient operating systems. More details on operating systems are given in unit 4
of this module.

Utilities
A few examples are: Sort/Merge utilities which are used for sortinglarg_e volumes of data and merging
them into a single sorted list, formatting etc.

Application Software
Ap lication software en to enable the com uter to solve as ecific data processing task. A number of
powerful application software packages, which does not require significant programming-knowledge,
have been developed. These are easy to learn and use as compared to the programming languages.
Although these packages can perform any general and special functions, there are applications where
these packages are not found adequate. In such cases, application program is written to meet the exact
requirements. A user application program may be written using one of these packages or a programming
language. The most important categories of software packages available are:
 Data Base Management Software
 Spreadsheet Software
 Word Processing DeskTop Publishing (DTP) and presentation software
 Graphics Software
 Data Communication Software
 Statistical and Operational Research Software.

Data Base Management Software

Databases are very t_lefuLsatigg and maintaining qiiejy databases of reports. Many of
today's Database Management System are Relational Database Management Systems. Many RDBMS
packages provide smart assistants for creation of simple databases for invoices, orders and contact lists.
Many database management systems are available in the market these days. You can select any one
based on your needs, for example, if you have only few databases then package like database, FoxPro
etc may be good.

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Accounting Package
The accounting packages are one of the most important packages for an office. Some of the features,
which you may be looking on an accounting, may be:
 tax planner facility
 facility for producing charts and graphs
 finding accounts payable
 simple inventory control facility
 payroll functions
 on-line connection to stock quotes
 creation of invoices easily

Communication Package
The communication software includes software for fax. The fax-software market is growing up.
Important fax software is Delrina's WinFax PRO 4.0. Some of the features such as Remote Retrieval and
Fax Mailbox should be looked into under fax software. These features ensure that irrespective of your
location you will receive the fax message. Another important feature is Fax Broadcast. This allows you
to send out huge numbers of faxes without tying up your fax machine all day.
If you have to transfer files from your notebook computer to a desktop computer constantly then you
need a software program that coordinates and updates documents. On such software is Lap Link for
Windows. This software offers very convenient to use features. For example, by simply dragging and
dropping a file enables file transfer. This software can work if a serial cable or a Novell network or a
modem connects you.

Desktop Publishing Packages

Desktop Publishing Packages are yet popular in Indian context. Newer publishing packages also provide
certain in-built formats such as brochures, newsletters, flyers etc which can be used directly. Already
created text can be easily put in these packages, so are the graphics placements. Many DTP packages for
English and languages other than English are available. Microsoft Publisher, PageMaker, Corel Ventura
are few popular names. Deskt • I• ackages in eneral, are better e. uip • ed in Ale-Macintosh com uters.

Information Providers
One of the very interesting information provider which will become popular in India also is Automap
Road Atlas by Microsoft. This package may provide city-to-city driving instructions and maps. You may
also get the best route, calculate the time it will take.
Many information provided are the Internet access programs. Today, the Internet access packages comes
as a part of operating system however, many other packages can be used for accessing information on
the World Wide Web. One very simple to use popular tool of brow " • to

Organizers Contact Managers, PIMs

Some of the tasks of an office manager can be able to:
 track contacts
 balance schedules
 manage projects, and
 prioritize tasks.

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Suites
Suites are a stolpflages sold as a group package mainly for the business user. The suite package includes
programs for Word Processing, Electronic Spreadsheet, Databases, and Presentation Graphics Software
and may be a Mail Software. For example, Microsoft Office Professional for Windows includes
programs as Microsoft Word, Microsoft Excel and Microsoft Excel and Microsoft Access, and a license
for Microsoft Mail etc. The word processing, spreadsheet, and presentation graphics software
interfaces_in_a suite are well-integrated allowing easy data transfer among these applications. Today
there is a growing family of office compatible products, which will be included in suites.

Machine Language
This is a sequence of instructions written in the form of binary numbers consisting of is, Os to which the
computer responds directly. The machine language was initially referred to as code, although now the
term code is used more broadly to refer to any program text.
An instruction prepared in any machine language will have at least two parts. The first [Link]-lid
operation, which tells the computer what functions is to be performed. All computers have an operation
code for each of it functions aglaconiipart of the instruction is the operand or it tells the computer when
to find or store the data that has to be manipulated.
Advantage of Machine Language
It is faster in execution since the computer directly starts executing it.

Disadvantage of Machine Language

It is difficult to understand and develop a program using machine language. Anybody going through this
program for checking will have a difficult task in understanding what will be achieved when this
program is executed.

Assembly Language
When we employ symbols, (letter, digits or special characters) for the operation part, the
addressarp_i_and other parts of the instruction code, this representation is called an assembly language
programAhis is considered to be the second generation language
Machine and Assembly languages are referred to as low level languages since the coding for a problem
is at the individual instruction level.
Each machine has got its own assembly language, which is dependent upon the internet architecture of
the processor.
An assembler is a translator, which takes its input in the form of an assembly language program and pro
jessinacliine anguage co e as its output.
The following program is an example of an assembly language program for adding two numbers X and
Y and storing the result in some memory location.
LDA, 7 Load register A with 7
LDB ,10 Load register B with 10
ADD A,B AA + B
LD(100), A Save the result in the location 100
HALT Halt process

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Advantage of Assembly Language
Writing a program in assembly language is more convenient thap in machine language. Instead of binary
sequence, as in machine language, it is written in the form of symbolic instructions. Therefore, it gives a
little more readability.

Disadvantages of Assembly Language

Assembly language (program) is specific to particular machine architecture. Assembly languages are
designed for specific make and model of a microprocessor. It means that assembly language programs
written for one processor will a work on a different processor if it is architecturally different. That is
why the assembly language is not portable.
Assembly language program is not as fast as machine language. It has to be first translated into machine
(binary) language code.

Advantages of High Level Programming Language

There are four main advantages of high level programming languages. These are:
 Readability: Programs written in these languages are more readable than assembly and machine
language.
 Portability: Programs could be run on different machines with little or no change. We can,
therefore, exchange software leading to creation of program libraries.
 Easy debugging: Errors could easily be removed (debugged).
 Easy Software Development: Software could easily be developed commands of programming
language are similar to natural languages (ENGLISH)
High level languages are also called third generation language.

Define the elements of programming languages such: Variables, Constants, Data type, Array and
Expressions
Variable: It is ashurzeLer,pr..group of characters assigned by the programmer to a single memory
location and used in the program as Ale name of that memory Ic-aTiozTrirn order to access the value
stored in it.
For example in expression A = 5, A is a name of memory location i.e. a variable where 5 is stored.

Constant: It has fixed value in the sense that two cannot be equal to four. String constant is simply a
seauencesr characters sua as "computer" which is a string of 8 characters. The numeric constant can be
integer representing whole quantities or a number with a decimal point to represent numbers with
fractional part. Constant would probably be the most familiar concept to us since we have used it in
doing everything that has to do with numbers. Numeric constants can be added, subtracted, multiplied,
divided, and also compared to say whether two of them are equal, less than or greater than each other.

Data type: In computer programming, the a refers to anything_tetond everything processed by the
computer. There are different types of data processed by the computer, numbers are one type of data and
words are another type. In addition, the operations that are performed on data differ from one type of
data to another type. For example, multiplication applies to numbers and not words or sentences.
Data type defines a set of related values/integers, number with fraction, characters and a set of specific
operations that can be per-formed on those values.

Array: In programming we deal with large amount of related data. To represent each data element we
have to consider them as separate variables. For example, if we have to analyze for the sales

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performance of a particular company for the last 10 years, we can take ten different variables (names)
each one representing sales of a particular year. If we analyze sales information for more than 10 years,
then number of variables will further increase accordingly. It is difficult to manage with large number of
variables in a program. To deal with such situation an array is used.

Expression: we know that we can express intended arithmetic operations using expressions such as X +
Y +7 and so on. Several simple expressions can even be nested together using parentheses to form
complex expressions. Every computer layuage specifies an order by which various arithmetic operators
are evaluated in a given expression.

What is an Operating System?

An operating system is an essential component of a computer system. The primary objective of an
operating system is to make computer system convenient to use and utilize computer hardware in an
efficient manner.
An operating system is a large collection of software, which manages resources of the computer system.
Such as memory, processor, file system and input/output devices. It keeps track of the status of each
resource and decides who will have a control over computer resources, for how long and when.

Here are two ways one can interact with operating system.
1. By means of Operating System Call in a program
2. Directly by means of Operating System Commands

System Call: System calls provide the interface to a running program and the operating system. User
program receives operating system services through the set of system calls. Earlier these calls were
available in assembly language instructions but now a days these features are supported through high-
level languages like C, Pascal etc, which replaces assembly language for system programming. The use
of system calls in C or Pascal programs very much resemble pre-defined or sub-routine calls.
As an example of how system calls are used, let us consider a simple program to copy data from one file
to another. In an interactive system, the following system calls will be generated by the operating
system:
 Prompt messages for inputting two file names and reading it from terminal.
 Open source and destination file.

 Prompt error messages in case the source file cannot be open because it is protected against
access or destination file cannot be created because there is already a file with this name.
 Read the source file.
 Write into the destination file.

Types of Operating System

1. Batch Operating System
The suitability of this type of processing is in programs with large computation time with no need of
user interaction or involvement. Some examples of such programs include payroll, forecasting,
statistical analysis, and large scientific number crunching programs. Users are not required to wait while
the job is being processed. They can submit their programs to operators and return later to collect them.
But it has two major disadvantages:

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(i) Non-interactive environment.
(ii) Off-line debugging.

Non-interactive environment: There are some difficulties with a batch system from the point of view of
user. Batch operating systems allow little or no interaction between users and executing programs. The
time taken between job submission and job completion in batch operating system is very high. Users
have no control over intermediate results of a program. This type of arrangement does not create
flexibility in software development.

The second disadvantage with this approach is that programs must be debugged which means a
programmer cannot correct bugs the moment it occurs.

2. Multiprogramming Operating System

Multiprogramming has a significant potential for improving systems throughout and resource utilization
with very minor differences.
In this section, we will briefly discuss the main features and functions of these systems.
Multi-tasking Operating Systems: A running state of a program is called a process or a task. A multi-
tasking operating system supports two or more active processes simultaneously. Multiprogramming
operating system is the operating system which in addition to supporting multiple concurrent process
(several processes in execution states simultaneously) allows the instruction and data from two or more
separate process to resale in primary memory simultaneously.
71m e Sharing System: It is a form of multi programmed operating system, which operate. In an
interactive mode with a quick response time. The user types a request to the computer through a
keyboard. The computer processes it and a response (if any) is displayed on the user's terminalcA time
sharinglysteinylows the many users to simultaneously share the computer resources.
Real Time Systems: It is another form of operating system used in environments where a large number
of events mostly external to computer systems, must be accepted and processed in a short time or
17%24hin certain deadlines. Examples of such applications are flight control, real time simulations etc.
Real time systems are also frequently used in military application. A primary objective of real-time
system is to provide quick response times.

3. Network Operating System

A network operating system is a collection of software and associated protocols that allows a set of
autonomous computers which are interconnected by a computer network to be used together in a
convenient and cost-effective manner. In a network operating system, the users are aware of existence of
multiple computers and can log into remote machines and copy files from one machine to another
machine.
Some of typical characteristics of network operating systems which may be different from distributed
operating system (discussed in the next section) are the followings:
 Each computer has its own private operating system instead of running part of a global system
wide operating system.
 Each user normally works on his/her own system; using a different system requires some kind of
remote lOgin, instead of having the operating system dynamically allocate processes to CPUs.
 Users are typically aware of where each of their files are kept and must move file from one
system to another with explicit file transfer commands instead of having file placement managed
by the operating system.

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The system has little or no fault tolerance; if 5% of the personnel computers crash, only 5% of the users
are out of business.
Network operating system offers many capabilities including:
 Allowing users to access the various resources of the network hosts.
 Controlling access so that only users in the proper authorization are allowed to access particular
resources.
 Making the use of remote resources appear to be identical to the use of local resources.
 Providing up-to-the minute network documentation on-line.

4. Distributed Operating System

A distributed operatinv system is one that looks to its users like an ordinary centralized cystem
funspp multiple independent CPUs. The key concept here is transparency, On other words, the use of
multiple processors should be invisible to the user. Another way of expressing the same idea is to say
that user views the system as virtual unprocessed but not as a collection of distinct machines. In a true
distributed system, users are not aware of where their programs are being run or where their files are
residing; they should all be handled automatically and efficiently by the operating system.
Distributed operating systems have many aspects in common with centralized ones but they also differ
in certain ways.— ecastal-gtin system, for example often allow programs to 'non several processors at
the same time, thus requiring more complex processor scheduling (scheduling refers to a set of policies
and mechanisms built into the operating systems that controls 'the order in which the work to be done is
completed) algorithms in order to achieve maximum utilization of CPUs'time.
(Fault-tolerance is another area in which distributed operating systems are different. Distributed systems
are considered to be more reliable than uniprocessor based system. They perform even if certain part of
the hardware is malfunctioning. This additional feature supported by distributed operating system has
enormous implications for the operating system.

Advantages of Distributed Operating System

There are three important advantages in the design of distributed operating system.
 Major breakthrough in microprocessor technology: Micro-processors have become very much
powerful and cheap, compared with mainframes and minicomputers, so it has become attractive
to think about designing large systems consisting of small processors. These distributed systems
clearly have a price/ performance advantages over more traditional systems.
 Incremental Growth: The second advantage is that if there is a need of 10 percent more
computing power, one should just add 10 percent more processors. System architecture is crucial
to the type of system growth, however, since it is hard to give each user of a personal computer
another 10 percent.
 Reliability: Reliability and availability can also be a big advantage; a few parts of the system can
be down without distributing people using the other parts; On the minus side, unless one is very
careful, it is easy for the communication protocol overhead to become a major source of
inefficiency.

Communication Channels
The most basic hardware required for communication is the media through which data is transferred.
There are several types of media, and the choice of the right media depends on many factors such as cost
of transmission media, efficiency of data transmission and the transfer rate.

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We describe some of these transmission media:
Two Wires Open Line
This is the simplest of all the transmission media. It consists of a simple pair of metallic wire made of
copper or sometimes aluminum of between 0.4 and 1 mm diameter, and each wire is insulated froth the
other. There are variations to this simplest form with several pairs of wire enclosed in a single protected
cable called a multi core cable or molded in the form of a flat ribbon.
This type of media is used for communication within a short distance, up to about 50 meters, and can
achieve a transfer rate of up to 19200 bits per second.

Twisted Pair Cable

A twisted pair consists of a pair of insulated conductors that are twisted together. The advantages of a
twisted paileable over the two wire open lines is, it provides better immunity from spurious noise
signals. As the two wires are close to each other, both pick equal interferences caused by extraneous
signal sources and this reduces,the differential signal added by the noise.
Twisted pair cable is used for communications up to a distancesf 1 Km and can achieve and transfer
rates oficiziegabytes per second. But, as the' speed increased the maximum transmission distance is
reduced, and may require repeaters.
Twisted pair cable is widely used in telephone networks and is increasingly being used for data. The hub
based Ethernets normally use UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair) cable.

Coaxial Cable
A coaxial cable consists of a solid conductor running coaxially inside a solid or braided outer annular
conductor. The space between the two conductor is filled with a dielectric insulating material. The
Larger the cable diameter, the lower is the transmission loss, and higher transfer speeds can be achieved.
A coxial cable can be used over a dictance of about 1 Km and can achieve a transfer rate of up to 100
megabytes per second.
A coaxial cable is of two types — a 75-ohm—cable, which is used by the cable TV operators and the
50-ohm cable which is used in high-speed broadband networks and are low loss cables.

Fibre Optic Cables

A fibre optic cable carries signals in the form of fluctuating light in a glass or plastic fibre. An optical
fibre cable consists of a glass or plastic core surrounded by a cladding made of a similar material but
with a lower refractive index. The core transmits the light while the change in refractive index between
the core-and the cladding causes total internal reflection, thus minimizing the loss of light from fibre.

Radio, Microwave and Satellite Channels

Radio, microwave and satellite channels use electromagnetic propagation in open space. The advantage
of these channels lies in their capability to cover large geographical areas and being inexpensive than the
wired installation.
The demarcation between radio, microwave and satellite channels lie in the frequencies in which they
operate. Frequencies below 1000 MHZ are radio frequencies and higher are the microwave frequencies.
Radio frequency transmission may be below 30 MHZ above 30 MHZ and thus the techniques of
transmission are different. Owing to the characteristics of the ionosphere, frequencies below 30 MHZ
are reflected back towards the surface of the earth. Above 30 MHz propagation is on line of line of sight
paths.
Antennas are placed in between the line of sight paths to increase the distance Radio frequencies are
prone toStiott and, thus, they require repeaters along the path to enhance the signal. Radio frequencies
can achie7Fraia transfer rates of 100 ISpbs to 400 Kbps.

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Microwave links would invariably use line of sight transmission with repeaters placed at every 100 - 200
kms. Microwave links can achieve data transfer rates of-about 1000 mbps.
Satellite links use microwave frequencies is of the order of 4 -12 Ghz with the satellite as a repeater.
They can achieve data transfer rates of about 1000 Mbps.

Network Concept
The entire computer network can be classified into two broad categories (However, elaborate
categorization
exists). They are:
(a) LAN (Local Area Network)
(b) WAN (Wide Area Network)

Local Area Network (LAN)

As number of systems grows within an organization, a need is felt for sharing expensive resource and
exchanging data and information between systems. This need of information exchange and resource
sharing within an organization has resulted in development of Local Area Network or LAN.
A LAN is a data communication network, which connects many computers or workstations (computers
terminal, printer, etc.) and permits exchange of data an-a-information among them, within a localized
area, tvoiccS1nedto abuilding, or a cluster of buildings. The distance between two communication points
connected on the same LAN channelsj§ usually up to 02-05 kma.
LANs are not rigidly defined buttend to share most of all of the following characteristics:
(a) All the connected devices in the network share the transmission media.
(b) Each device connected in the network can either operate standalone or in the network.
(c) Area covered is small.
(d) Data transfer rates are high, usually 1 Mbps-100 Mbps. (Million of bits per second). \
(e) Each device connected in the network can communicate with any other device in network.
(f) Cost of setting up the network is usually low.

LAN Topology
A network topology refers to the physical layout of the network in which all the devices are connected
includes all the hardware that makes up tfie network. The points of connection to the network by the
stations are called Nodes or link stations. There are several types of topographical design and strategies
used to implement LAN. The majority of these are based on three types of topologies:
(a) Star
(b) Bus
(c) Ring

Each topology has its advantages and disadvantages.

Star Topology
A star topology is shown in Figure 7. In this topology, a number of stations are connected directly to a
central station or controller. Communications on the connecting links between the stations and the
central station of a star topography can be hi-directional and are point-to-point. A station on this type of
network passes an information frame to the central controller, which then forwards the information to
the destination station. The central controll _Annan...se/AS esinfrpls all .communication,s between
stations on the network.

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Bus Topology
A bus topology is shown in Figure 8. All stations are connected to a single communication line. This
single communication line is referred to as a bus. Information frames originating at a station are
propagated away from the station in both directions on the bus. Each station on the bus interrogates the
information frame destination address field for its own address. If the destination field does not match
the station's address, the station discards the information frame back on to the bus. If the destination
address matches the station address, it accepts the information frame and processes the frame.

Ring Topology
A ring topology is shown in figure 9. Local area networks that have each station attached to an adjacent
station using point-to-point links form a physical ring. Each station attached and active to the ring
regenerates the information frame, then re-transmits the information frame on the ring. The ring itself is
logically circular and the information travels in one direction.

LAN Access Method

A discipline must be imposed on devices connected to the network to ensure a controlled access to the
media. Access methods are the means or ways by which stations actually gain the use of the common
channel to transmit messages. The right to transmit is an issue only in broadcast where workstations
share a single channel.
Many techniques have been proposed, but two of these are commonly used
(i) Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD)
(ii) Token

C SMA/CD
CSMA/CD access method is used with bus networks. The bus operates in a Multiple Access (M.A.)
mode. A node is allowed to transmit on the bus, if it senses that the medium is free (carrier sense).
Occasionally two or more nodes may simultaneously sense that the medium is free and begin to
transmit. This creates a collision, as the contents of transmitted information frames will collide resulting
in corruption of the information frame. This collision is detected (collision detect) by the transmitting
node. The two (or more) nodes involved then wait for a further short random time interval before trying
to retransmit a frame once again.

Token Passing
Another way of controlling access to a shared medium is by the use of a control (permission) token. The
control token is passed from one node to another according to a defined set of rules understood and
adhered to by all nodes. A node may transmit a frame when it is in possession of the token and after it
had transmitted the frame, it passes the token to the next device in a predetermined sequence.

Communication Architecture for Networks

The task of achieving data communication is a herculean one. Instead of using entire data
communication as a single module, the task is broken into various subtasks. And each subtask operates
separately by different layers of the communication architecture.
Systems that follow the OS! (Open System Interconnecting) standard are said to be open to one another
at different layers and thus called open systems. The communication architecture specifies independent
layers that contain modules for performing defined functions. The architecture defines the functions of

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the module and relationship between them. Each layer in an open system, which communicates with its
equal in another open system by using protocols defined in OS! Standard.
A brief introduction of these layers is presented here:
 Application Layer: This layer supports semantic exchanges between applications existing in
open systems. This layer alsapravides access to the lower 051 functions and services.
 Presentation Layer: This layer concerns itself with the representation of the data to the end user
or application. This includes data conversions and code translation (e.g. AS!! to EBCDIC).
 Session Layer: This layer provides the mechanism for organizing and structuring interaction
between applications and/or devices.
 Transport Layer: This layer is responsible for transparent and reliable transfer of data. The lower
layers handle the attributes of the transfer medium.
 Network Layer: This layer is the agent for establishing connections between networks. The
standard also includes operational control procedures for inter-network communication as well
as routing information through multiple networks.
 Data Link Layer: This layer provides the functions and protocols to transfer data between
network resources and to detect errors that may occur in the physical layer.
 Physical Layer: This layer defines the mechanical., ekstrirnl, functional and procedural standards
for the physical transmission of data over the communications medium.

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LAN Hardware
Transmission Channel
Generally following four types of channels are used for data communication in a LAN.

Network Interface Units (NIU)

Network interface units connect each device in the LAN network to share transmission device. It
contains the rules or logic to access the LAN. NIU is also used to implement LAN protocols and
for device attachments. Its function depends on the type of topology used in LAN. In
microcomputers, NIU may be installed as an add-on card.

Servers
One of the major benefits of implementation of LAN is sharing expensive resources such as
storage devices, printer etc. This is achieved through providing servers in the LAN. It is a
dedicated coinnutfr, which controls one or more resources. This contains both hardware and
software interface for LAN. Three major categories of servers used in LANs are:
(i) File Server
(iii) Printer
(iii) Modem Server

LAN Software/Operating System

As the name suggests, LAN Operating System is required to operate on the LAN system,
manage the tremendous work load with a number of various Types ofserver attached to it. It has
basically two aspects (i) Server software (ii) Workstation software. As in case of other multi-user
operating systems, LAN operating system also facilitates the sharing of expensive resources such
as printer, storage space etc. among all LAN users, provides security for data and permits
connection to other networks.
There are various types of LAN operating system for example Novel Netware, WINDOWS NT,
etc.

Wide Area Network

As the name suggests, WAN spread across countries and continents, satellite being one of the
transmission media.
A Wide Area Network or WAN, is a network that links separate geographical locations. A WAN
can be a public system such as the Public Switched Telephone Network (the PSTN) or one of the
various packet -switched services provided by the public telecommunication authorities. WANs
can also use most other types of circuit including satellite networks, ISDN, Value Added
Networks (VANsNADs).

Communication Switching Techniques

In a WAN, two computing devices are not connected directly. A network of switching nodes
provides a transfer path between the two devices. The process of transferring data blocks from
one node to another is called data switching.

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There are three switching techniques commonly employed, and these are:
1. Circuit Switching
In circuit switching there is a dedicated communication path between the sending and receiving
devices. The deciSt celpathis a connected secitieliee-ollinks betWein'SWit—p-hini nodes. A
conVentional teleprOiiiriefwork, where a dedicated path is set between the caller and the called
party for the duration of a telephone call is an example of circuit switching.
Communication viz circuit switching involves three steps: Circuit establishment: data transfer;
and circuit termination.
Circuit switch in main tele hone network but is not all that effective for data communication
networks, as channel capacities are not fully utilized, as data communication equipments do not
generate data continuously.

2. Message Switching
Message switching is an alternative switching technique, where it is not necessary to establish a
dedicated path between the sending and receiving devices. In Message Switching, the sending
device appends the destination address to the nage_anthpasses.it to tl_netypzi-Th the message is
then passed through the network from one node to another till it reaches the intended destination.
Each switching node receives a message, stores it briefly and then transmits it to the next node.
Examples of a message are electronic, e.3, computer files, telegrams and transaction queries and
responses. A complete exaange may consist olJ several messages: _
The basic disadvantage of message switching is the variable delatat intermediate switching
nodes.

3. Packet Switching
Packet Switching combines the advantages of message and circuit switching. Packet Switching is
functionally similar to message switching, in which data is transmitted in block, stored by the
first switching node it meets in the network and is forwarded to the next and subsequent
downstream nodes until it reaches the destination. The length of data block is limited in a packet
switching network. Typical maximum length of packets is between 128 bytes to 4096 bytes.
There are two approaches to packet switching.
 Datagram
 Virtual circuit

WAN Devices/Hardware
The switching techniques utilize the routing technology for data transfer. Routing is responsible
for searching a path between two computing devices that wish to communicate and for
forwarding the data packets on this path. Devices such as bridges, router and gateways provide
this routing function.

Bridges
Bridges are used to connect two LANs that use identical LANnotocols over a wide area. The
bridge acts as an address filter which picks up packets from one LAN that are intended for a
destination on another LAN and passes these packets on the network. Bridges operate at the data
link layer (layer 2) of the OS!

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Routers
Routers can be used to connect networks that mayatstsljgagr. Routers provide connectively
between two LANs or two WANs over large geographical distances. Routers operates at the
network layer (layer 3) of the OSI model. All routes participate in a routing protocol to access
the network topology, and based on this information routers compute the best route from a
sender to the receiver.
For large Wide Area Networks spanning thousands of kilometers, the normal practice is to put
network routers at suitable locations to minimize link costs for leased lines and provide adequate
reliability from link failures. Networks and other system are then connected to the nearest router.

Gateways
Gateways are used to connect two dissimilar LANs. The terntigatsways_misl routers are used
interchangeably, though there is a subtle difference between the two. A router operates at the
network layer (layer 3) of the 051 model, whereas a gateway operates on, the application layer
(layer 7) of the OSI model. A gateway is required to convert data packets from one protocol
format to another before forwarding it, as it connects two dissimilar ctrks_
While discussing the WAN devices we referredla X.2.5; what is it? X.25- is a set of
recommendation„by International Telegraph and Telephone Consultative-Committee for packet
switched network. You can refer to further readings for more details.

Types of Wide Area Networks

The essential purpose of Wide Area Networks, regardless of the size or technology used, is to
link separate locations in order to move data around. A WAN allows these locations to access
shared computer resources and provides the essential infrastructure for developing widespread
distributed computing systems. We will now discuss the different types of WAN, which are
commonly used.

Public Networks
Public Networks are those networks, which are installed and run by the telecommunication
authorities and are made available to any organization or individual who subscribe to it.
Examples include Public Switched Telephone Networks (PSTN), Public Switched Data
Networks (PSDN), Value Added Services (VANs/ VADs) and the Integrated Services Digital
Networks (ISDN). We would be discussing the main features of these services.

Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN)

The features of the PSTN are its low speed, the analog nature of transmission, a restricted
bandwidth and its
widespread availability. As PSTN is designed for telephones, modems are required when it is
used for data _
communication.
The PSTN is most useful in wide area data communication systems as an adjunct to other
mechanisms. It is seldom advisable to use PSTN as the sole communication medium for building
a network system. Costs are high, as data connections last for a considerable time. Also, the links
set up are unreliable and can terminate without warning.

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Public Switched Data Networks (PSDIV)
The term PSDN covers a number of technologies, although currently it is limited to Public
Packet Switched Networks available to the public. The main features of all PSDNs are their:high
level of reliability and the high quality of the connections provided. They can support both low
and high speeds at appropriate costs.
Like the PSTN, a PSDN is very useful and adjunct to a private network for backup and
occasional access purposes. It can also be used to link computer systems and networks of one
organization to several other organizations. PSDN is very popular for connecting public and
private mail systems to implement electronic mail services with other companies.

Value Added Services (VANs/VADs)

In Value Added Services, the provider of such services must process, store and manipulate the
data that is carried on the network, that is, add value to it. The technique can be used in specific
types of business in which it is advantageous to be able to share information with other
companies in the same line.
Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) is one area for Value Added Services in which two trading
partners exchanging trading documents such as purchase orders, invoices, transportation etc.
using electronic means. In India, Videsh Sanchar Nigam Ltd. is a service provider.

Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)

The ISDN is a network concept providing for the integration of voice, video and data services
using digital transmission media and combining both circuit and packet switching techniques.
The motivating force behind ISDN is that telephone networks around the world have been
making a transition towards utilizing digital transmission facilities for many years.
Users in shops or small offices can use their digital connection to telephone company for
transmitting both voice and data over the same twisted pair cable which connects their telephone.
As information from the telephone/PC/Stereo/TV/PABX are all seen as bit streams by the
networks switch, they can be switched and transported by the same network.

Private Networks
The basic technique used in all forms of private WAN is to use private (or more usually leased)
circuits to link the locations to be served by the network. Between these fixed points the owner
of the network has complete freedom to use the circuits in any way they want. They can use the
circuits to carry large quantities of data or for high-speed transmissions.

EDI
Electronic Data Interchange is the inter-organizational exchange of business documentation in
structured, mach ine-processable form.
EDI is often viewed as simply a way of replacing paper documents with electronic documents,
and replacing traditional methods of transmission such as mail, phone, or in-person delivery with
electronic transmission. However, EDI is actually a way of replacing manual data entry with
electronic data entry.

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E-mail (Electronic Mail)
E-mail system is basically used for sending message electronically to individuals or group of
individuals in an inter and intra office environment. It requires networks to connect them. In the
world of information technology, E-mail is considered to be first experience and exposure to the
field of data communication and networking.

Benefits of ED!
The use of EDI eliminates many of the problems associated with traditional information flow.
The delay Issociated with order making are eliminated, time required to reenter data is also
eliminated.
Since data is not repeatedly keyed, the chances of error are reduced.
As data is not re-entered at each step in the process, labour costs can be reduced.
Because time delays are reduced, there is more certainty in information flow.

Internet
Internet is the world's largest networks, originated out of a US department of defence funded
project. It is a unique collection of networks with vast proportions of its own kind. It has evolved
into one of the technologies greatest democracies, permitting the passage of all kinds of
information exchange with full freedom. The first result of the project funded by US defence
department for a fault tolerant networking system, is Arparet, which in terms become the largest,
the most potent aid definitely most uncontrollable force in the world.
The networks or computers operating in different platform are connected to Internet by a
common protocol known as TCP/IP Transmission control protocol/Internet protocol. Internet
provides the following services.
(a) Global Electronic Mail
As we have already discussed e-mail permits user to send and receive messages electronically to
an individuals or a group. Internet mail makes delivery of area of message more wide and
reliable.

(b) USENET-Views and News

Views and News or USENET is the BBS (Bulletin Board Service) of Internet. The messages in
this BBS are organised into thousands of News groups, which cover specific areas of interest.

(c) TELNET-Remote Login TELNET-Remote Login

Telnet [Link] user to access a remntP host. After properly connecting and logging into
the remote host, the use can enter data, run programs or do any other operation.

(d) FTP — File Transfer Protocol

It permits an Internet user to move or transfer a file from one computer to another even if they
are running on different platform (or operating system). The files may have data, graphics, text
etc.

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CompuServe
CompuServe is a commercial network based in US. It uses telephone lines and microwave for
communication. CompuServe user can easily communicate with each other, around the world.
Following are the services are offered by CompuServe.
(a) Electronic Mail box for message transfer
(b) Bulletin Board Services
(c) News report along with report on sports and weather
(d) Information on computer hardware and software.

ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network)

ISDN is basically used for Communication of both data and voice. ISDN was first launched in
Singapore in 1990. It has the following features:
(a) Transmission and processing of digital data
(b) Processing of various types of information data, voice, video, etc.
(c) Electronic mail box
(d) Tele-conferencing
(e) Tele fax, video fax, etc.

NICNET
NICNET is a satellite-based nationwide network of NIC (National Information Centers). The
basic idea of interviewing NICNET is to extract data from each village, districtjacittounclia. It
consists of earth of stations in almost all districts, state capitals, regions and NIC headquarter
in Delhi. The basic objectives of
NICNET are:
(a) To help government in better planning administration
(b) To help government maintain communication in times of national emergencies and natural
disasters.

Breaches of Security
Some of the ways in which data loss or manipulation can occur have been hinted at in these
articles. Let us look at the details of the manner in which losses can occur.

Thefts and Media: May sound preposterous but it is a distinct possibility. A smart person with a
false _ -
calling card can take away the PC for repairs and of course never show his face again! However,
electroliic media like floppies and CD-ROMs are slightly safe as it is far easier to lock up
floppies in a safer place.

Dainage_dtte to Breakage: Floppies are easily breakable. It is hard to visualize dropping PCs
but it can happen if they are shifted from one place to another. More likely is that something may
get dropped on the PC resulting in damage. Damage can also occur due to natural causes such as
storms or floods, or due to electrical or other fires.

Environmental Damage: The manufacturer recommends some environmental conditions like

temperature and humidity ranges, voltage limits, dust micron limits etc. If the conditions in your
office remain outside — these limits the PC and media are likely to get damaged.

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Inadvertent Corruption/Loss: This can occur due to:

 Usage of Inferior Media: If sub-standard media is used, as it would be generally cheaper,
after using it for some time it may develop faults and data held on it may become
unusable. One hears about frequent corruption of data on inferior floppies.
 Erasure of Files: Files may get erased from the media due to incorrect actions by the
operator. Corruption may occur due to the PC being subjected to frequent power failures,
wrong programming techniques or defective software.

Environmental Losses: Excessive dust or humidity can result in corruption of disc surfaces or
read/write heads resulting in loss of data.

Malicious Damage/Leakage: We now turn to the real problem of computer installations, be

they stand alone PCs or large main frames with hundred of terminals. It is not necessary that
outsiders would do this; it is equally possible that some unhappy or impish insiders may wreck
havoc.

Unauthorized Access: As the saying goes "Curiosity killed that Cat", but it does not stop the
human trying to look at things they should not or need not. Information on personnel, finance,
products or assets can be accessed and copied for malafide use.

Modifications Erasures etc: The person accessing data files may be authorized to read the data
only, but he would like alter, modify or erase the data by writing into that file.

Computer Viruses: This is the latest threat to computer users. These can be introduced
deliberately or unknowingly by anyone at anytime and the consequences to the user would be
equally disastrous. The problems created by viruses include:
 Destruction of file Allocation Table (FAT) — user loses everything in his media;
 Erasing of specific programs and/or data on dics;
 Alter contents of fields in the file;
 Suppress execution of RAM resident programs;
 Destroy parts of programs/data held on disc by creating had sectors;
 Reduction of free space on disc;
 Formatting of discs or tracks on discs in a different way;
 Overwriting of entire disc directories;
 "Hang" the system at periodic intervals so that keyboards become inoperative;
 Automatic copying of results obtained by other programs into some designated areas.

Data Tapping: In large computer systems or when systems are networked, data has to travel
between the processing unit and terminals, or different processors, over communication lines.
Any person trying to get access to data can intercept the traffic on the circuit b tapping into the
cable at convenient points.

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There are principles for ensuring security and recovery in case of breaches of security:
Prevent: The best method is of course stopping all breaches of security before they occur. 'Need
to know' policy is an offshoot of the principle of prevention.
Detect: However, one may try to ensure it, total security is almost impossible. The next
principle, therefore, is that you must be able to detect breaches to security, whenever they occur,
within the shortest possible time. This helps in damage assessment and also, in devising further
preventive measures.
Minimise Damage: The aim here is to contain the damage, when losses occur, to reduce the
adverse effects of such damage.
Recovery: There must be enough resilience in the system to recoup the losses/damage and
become functional, by reinstating the status, at the earliest.
We would now look at the various measures available to the PC user, to ensure security of
machine and data, relating to the principles enumerated above.

Physical Security
These measures are for PCs being used in offices. The PC may be in use by an individual or
being shared between two or more users. The measures available are:
 Physically bolt down the PC to a table so that it cannot be casually lifted and taken away;
 Locate the PC in such a way that it is conveniently accessible to the user, but hidden from
casual passers — by;
 Have likeable cupboards for floppies and keep them locked at all times, except when
used;
 Keyboard and PC locking devices can be fitted so that the PC cannot be operated unless
these locks are opened;
 Keep a record of all floppies in use; do not permit alien floppies into the organization;
 Use lockable rooms for PCs, specially those handling sensitive data. Make it a practice to
lock the room when leaving it for even a short time;
 The above apply to server, gateways and the like.

Network Security
The protection required for networked systems is much more extensive as physical security
measures are totally inadequate. It is also extremely difficult to know-who, when and how
someone is accessing your data. In LANs generally, there would be one server which holds the
shareable data on network and services the requests of various nodes. The normal method used
is password identity for permitting access, the measures that can be adopted for additional
security are:
 Keep the servers away and limit physical access to them.
 Run servers in the background mode, thus the server can be booked on, for use in the
network, but, for direct use of the server, a separate password would be necessary.
 Some networks provide auditing facilities, which can be used to advantage;
 Be aware that the network cables can be tapped, so try and shield or conceal them to
prevent easy access; if possible use optical fibre;
 Use codes and ciphers in data communication, remember, however that this would
impose considerable overheads on your resources;

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 Use fibre-optic cables for highly sensitive networks as they are difficult to tap; however
here too it may be possible to steal data through sensing the perturbations of the fibre
itself;
 Prohibit the use of passwords embedded in communication access scripts; if this is
unavoidable, use encryption for passwords:
 Consider the use of see-through devices for any system accessed through networks or
through dial up.

Protection against Virus: A number of measures are available for reducing the risk of being
attacked by computer virus:
 Build employee awareness of the risk;
 Do not allow the use of outside programs of company PCs or networks;
 Do not interface company networks to outside "Bulletin Boards';
 Make system/server files "Read only";
 Try and obtain source code for important software in use and compile it in house;
 If source code is difficult to follow, it should ring a warning bell in your head;
 Check executable code using "debug" or separate utilities to study code structure and
check spaces for viruses.

Software Security
As is apparent from the views on security of various leading magazines provided on PCs, there is
hardly any security provided on the PC. There are some measures you can take to ensure that
data is not corrupted or modified by unauthorized users and to reinitiate the database to its
known status in case this happens and these are:
 Use original softvyare for Operating System, compilers or software packages. You may
have to pay for it, but jiou can then be sure that it would be bug-free, known also as
"licensed" software;
 Use correct procedures for shutting down the PCaso that all files etc. would be properly
closed;
 If you develop your own applications introduce passwords to access your application;
these passwords should not be visible on the screen when keyed-in;
 Keep backsos of all your files. Whenever you operate on any file, (especially in
update/append/alter mode), if you have your own programs they should include a "copy"
procedure; this ensures that a back up of your data file would always be automatically
taken.

Password Security
In most organization or computer systems, the only authorization for data access is giving the
correct password; rightly speaking, this is only one step; the whole process would be:
 Identification: An identification user code only indicates an object with a unique identity
assigned to it. Thus it should not become authorization to access data without further
checks, if some measure of security is desired;
 Authentication: This process verifies that a person of objects is who he, she or it claims
to be. This could be achieved by asking some standard questions (from a large selection)

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and getting answers to them. If the answers match with those held on the systems, the
person or object is authenticated. Biometric and other physical authentication processes
are also popular in systems where security is a primary concern.
 Authorisation: This is the last step in the process. Through this you can ensure that only
a given user, terminal or other resource can access data to which permission has been
granted to read, write or alter. Thus a matrix can be created to indicate which users have
access to which file, records or fields. If the user request passes the matrix he is allowed
access, otherwise he is denied access to some parts of the database.

Cryptography
Cryptography is the process of transforming plain text or original information into an
unintelligible form (cipher text) so that it may be sent over unsafe channels of communication. A
data string (key) controls the transformation process. Anyone getting hold of the cipher text
while it is on the unsafe channel would need to have the appropriate key, to be able to get to the
original information.

Transposition Cipher
A transposition involves rearrangement or change in the sequence of the letters of the plain text
message without any change in their identity. However, the substitution involves a replacement
of the plain text letters by other letters (or other symbols) without any change in their sequence.
Transposition and substitution may be combined in a single cryptosystem.

Code System
A code system is a specialized form of substitution in which entire words, long phrases or even
sentences of the plain text are replaced by arbitrarily selected equivalents. These may be other
words, groups of letters, groups of figures or some combination of these. It is only in rare cases
that the substitution process is applied to elements smaller than whole words.

Classification of Viruses
Viruses are classified on the basis of their mode of existence and there are three categories of
viruses:
1. BOOT Infectors
2. SYSTEM Infectors
3. GENERAL EXECUTABLE PROGRAM Infectors

BOOT Infectors
As the name suggests, they are characterized by the fact that they physically reside in the boot
sector (0 zero) sector of the disk. A system infected by such a virus will have the virus residing
in a particular area of the disk rather than in a program file. These viruses get loaded soon after
the Power On Self Test and control the system and remains in control at all times. They
sometimes have the capability to trap soft booting (i.e. CTRL ALT DEL) and remain in control
even if the system is booted from a non-infected floppy, thereby contaminating the clean floppy.

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Boot infectors displace information originally residing on the location, which they occupy. While
writing onto the boot sector, the virus ensures that the boot record is not deleted. Once the virus
is loaded, it automatically transfers control to the area where the boot record is available. The
reason behind doing this is that the boot record contains instructions to read [Link] and
[Link] and if these files are not readable, access to the disk is not possible, and so the
virus becomes ineffective.
Boot infectors typically create "Bad sectors". Boot infectors are the types, which once loaded
would stay in the memory until the system is shut off, and until the disk reformats.

SYSTEM Infectors
This second category of viruses deals with the components of the system itself. All machines
without exception require an operating system in order to create an environment in which the
operator works. In MS-DOS, [Link] contains all the internal commands. If no such
command file exist, commands such as COPY, DIR etc. are not loaded onto the memory when
the machine is booted. The System Infectors attach themselves to a file such as
[Link] or other memory resident files and manipulate these files.
System infectors differ from Boot infectors in the sense that system infectors gain control after
the computer is booted: and infects the hard disk or bootable floppies, which contain the
appropriate system files only. They have another peculiarity that they may activate after a given
period of time or may instantly begin subtle modifications of systems error messages or
information messages.

[Link] or EXE Infectors

From the infection point of view, these viruses are most dangerous and devastating of the three
classes of viruses. They attach themselves to program files and can spread to almost any
executable program in any system. These viruses change the original program instructions into a
"jump" to its own code and follows that code with a return to the original program. As a result,
whenever the program is executed, the virus gets loaded and executed first and then allows the
original program to proceed. It remains memory resident and infects each and every program that
is loaded for execution.

Identify different types of viruses

1. Scores Virus
These viruses are prevalent in Macintosh machines. Scores virus has a built in time trigger that
activates at two, four and seven days after the disk has became infected. The consequences are
varied ranging from printing problems, system crashes and malfunctioning of disk operations.
This virus does not directly affect data files, but erasure of this virus requires deletion of all files.

2. Brain Virus
This is one of the first viruses that came into being. Also known as the Pakistani virus, it was
developed by the Pakistani brothers to keep track of low cost software, those were sold out of
their outlet in Lahore. The virus pops up a screen saying "Welcome to the Dungeon". This virus
is known to destroy data and are highly contagious.

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3. Lehigh Virus
This virus originated at the Lehigh University Computer Center. This virus stays in the stack
space of [Link]. With the booting of a PC from an infected disk, the virus is spread
through commands such as COPY, TYPE, DIR etc. On any other disk with [Link]
the virus code gets copied to the other disk and a counter is incremented on the parent. When the
counter reaches a value of 4, all files of the disk gets erased. The boot sector gets ruined and also
the FAT.

4. Friday the 13th

This virus attacks not only the [Link] but also other executable files. When a COM
or EXE file is executed for the first time after booting, the virus captures a specific interrupt and
inserts its own code; after which, whenever any EXE file is executed, the virus code is written to
the end of the file resulting in increase in size of the file by 1808 bytes. In COM files the virus
code is written to the beginning of the file.

5. Sunnyvale Slug
This does a variety of things like displaying a message "Greetings from Sunnyvale. Can you find
me?" and also sometimes modifies the COPY Command resulting in deletion of files instead of
copying.

6. Raindrops
This virus infects COM files. It intercepts the load and executes function of MS-DOS. It checks
whether the file is EXE or not, if the file is not an EXE file, the first three bytes of the file are
replaced by a jump instruction at the end of the file, where it gets attached after encryption. This
results in dropping or showering of characters on the screen like raindrops and is also
accompanied by appropriate sound effects.

7. Happy Birthday 30th

This virus gets activated on January 5th, if any of the infected programs get executed, and will
ask the user to type "Happy Birthday 30th". It might destroy all the data stored on a disk. The
symptoms of this virus are that the computer memory is reported 6KB less than actual e.g. 634
KB instead of 640 KB.

Explain how to prevent or cure a virus infection.

Prevention
 The CHKDSK command can be incorporated to the [Link] to check the disk.
If the number of hidden files increases, the matter should be looked into.
 Do not copy pirated software on your system.
 Write protect tags should be used on the original software diskettes
 Proper backup of all data and program files should be kept.
 Copying of files should be done carefully, a better practice is to write the COPY
command in a batch file with CHKDSK command.
 Used floppies should be reformatted.
 Avoid letting the system to be used by unauthorized users.
 Restrict the use of outside floppies.
 Do not download suspicious shareware programs.

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The Cure
The viruses are not omnipotent. Viruses can be cured with anti-viral programs. The anti-viral
programs perform one or more of the following functions.
 prevention
 detection
 vaccination
 inoculation
 identification, and/or
 damage control

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