Zen

Zen (Japanese pronunciation: [dzeꜜɴ, dzeɴ];[1][note 1]

from Chinese: Chan; in Korean: Sŏn, and Vietnamese: Zen
Thiền) is a Mahayana Buddhist tradition that Chinese name
developed in China during the Tang dynasty by Traditional Chinese 禪
blending Indian Mahayana Buddhism, particularly
Yogacara and Madhyamaka philosophies, with Chinese
Simplified Chinese 禅
Transcriptions
Taoist thought, especially Neo-Daoist.[2] Zen
originated as the Chan school ( 禪宗 , Chanzōng, Standard Mandarin
'meditation school') or the Buddha-mind school ( 佛心 Hanyu Pinyin Chán
宗 , fóxīnzōng),[3] and later developed into various sub- Wade–Giles Ch'an2
schools and branches. IPA [ʈʂʰǎn]

Chan is traditionally believed to have been brought to Hakka

China by the semi-legendary figure Bodhidharma, an Pha̍ k-fa-sṳ Sàm
Indian (or Central Asian) monk who is said to have Yue: Cantonese
introduced dhyana teachings to China. From China, Jyutping Sim4
Chan spread south to Vietnam and became Vietnamese
Southern Min
Thiền, northeast to Korea to become Seon Buddhism,
Hokkien POJ Siân
and east to Japan, becoming Japanese Zen.[4]
Middle Chinese
Zen emphasizes meditation practice, direct insight into Middle Chinese dʑjen
one's own Buddha nature ( 見性 , Ch. jiànxìng, Jp.
Vietnamese name
kenshō), and the personal expression of this insight in
Vietnamese alphabet Thiền
daily life for the benefit of others.[5][6] Some Zen
sources de-emphasize doctrinal study and traditional Chữ Hán 禪
practices, favoring direct understanding through zazen Korean name
and interaction with a master (Jp: rōshi, Ch: shīfu) who Hangul 선
may be depicted as an iconoclastic and unconventional
figure.[7][8][9][10][11][12] In spite of this, most Zen
Hanja 禪
schools also promote traditional Buddhist practices Transcriptions
like chanting, precepts, walking meditation, rituals, Revised Romanization Seon
monasticism and scriptural study.[10][13] Japanese name

With an emphasis on Buddha-nature thought, intrinsic Kanji 禅

enlightenment and sudden awakening, Zen teaching Kana ぜん
draws from numerous Buddhist sources, including Transcriptions
Sarvāstivāda meditation, the Mahayana teachings on Romanization Zen
the bodhisattva, Yogachara and Tathāgatagarbha texts
(like the Laṅkāvatāra), and the Huayan school.[14][15]
The Prajñāpāramitā literature,[16] as well as Madhyamaka thought, have also been influential in the
shaping of the apophatic and sometimes iconoclastic nature of Zen rhetoric.[17]
Etymology
The word Zen is derived from the Japanese pronunciation
(kana: ぜん ) of the Middle Chinese word 禪 (Middle
Chinese: [dʑian]; pinyin: Chán), which in turn is derived
from the Sanskrit word dhyāna (ध्यान),[18] which can be
approximately translated as 'contemplation', 'absorption', or
'meditative state'.[19][note 2]

The actual Chinese term for the "Zen school" is 禪宗 (pinyin:

Eiheiji gate

Chánzōng), while "Chan" just refers to the practice of

meditation itself (Chinese: 習禪 ; pinyin: xíchán) or the study of meditation (Chinese: 禪學 ; pinyin:
chánxué) though it is often used as an abbreviated form of Chanzong.[20]

Zen is also called 佛心宗 , fóxīnzōng (Chinese) or busshin-shū (Japanese),[3] the "Buddha-mind
school",[3][21][22] from fó-xīn, 'Buddha-mind';[web 1] "this term can refer either to the (or a) Buddha's
compassionate and enlightened mind, or to the originally clear and pure mind inherent in all beings to
which they must awaken."[web 1][note 3] Busshin may also refer to Buddhakaya, the Buddha-
body,[24][web 2] "an embodiment of awakened activity".[web 3]

"Zen" is traditionally a proper noun as it usually describes a particular Buddhist sect. In more recent
times, the lowercase "zen" is used when discussing a worldview or attitude that is "peaceful and calm". It
was officially added to the Merriam-Webster dictionary in 2018.[25]

Practice

Meditation
The practice of meditation (Ch: Chan, Skt: dhyāna), especially sitting meditation ( 坐禪, pinyin: zuòchán,
Japanese: ざぜん , romanized: zazen) is a central part of Zen Buddhism.[26]

Meditation in Chinese Buddhism

The practice of Buddhist meditation originated in India and first entered China through the translations of
An Shigao (fl. c. 148–180 CE), and Kumārajīva (334–413 CE). Both of these figures translated various
Dhyāna sutras. These were influential meditation texts which were mostly based on the meditation
teachings of the Kashmiri Sarvāstivāda school (circa 1st–4th centuries CE).[27] Among the most
influential early Chinese meditation texts are the Anban Shouyi Jing ( 安般守意經 , Sutra on
ānāpānasmṛti), the Zuochan Sanmei Jing ( 坐禪三昧經， Sutra of sitting dhyānasamādhi) and the
Damoduoluo Chan Jing ( 達摩多羅禪經 , [28] Dharmatrata dhyāna sutra).[29]

These early Chinese meditation works continued to exert influence on Zen practice well into the modern
era. For example, the 18th century Rinzai Zen master Tōrei Enji wrote a commentary on the Damoduoluo
Chan Jing and used the Zuochan Sanmei Jing as a source in the writing of this commentary. Tōrei
believed that the Damoduoluo Chan Jing had been authored by Bodhidharma.[30]
While dhyāna in a strict sense refers to the classic four dhyānas, in Chinese Buddhism, Chan may refer to
various kinds of meditation techniques and their preparatory practices, which are necessary to practice
dhyāna.[31] The five main types of meditation in the Dhyāna sutras are ānāpānasmṛti (mindfulness of
breathing); paṭikūlamanasikāra meditation (mindfulness of the impurities of the body); maitrī meditation
(loving-kindness); the contemplation on the twelve links of pratītyasamutpāda; and contemplation on the
Buddha.[32] According to the modern Chan master Sheng Yen, these practices are termed the "five
methods for stilling or pacifying the mind" and serve to focus and purify the mind, and support the
development of the stages of dhyana.[33] Chan Buddhists may also use other classic Buddhist practices
like the four foundations of mindfulness and the Three Gates of Liberation (emptiness or śūnyatā,
signlessness or animitta, and wishlessness or apraṇihita).[34]

Early Chan texts also teach forms of meditation that are unique to Mahāyāna Buddhism. For example, the
Treatise on the Essentials of Cultivating the Mind, which depicts the teachings of the 7th-century East
Mountain school, teaches a visualization of a sun disk, similar to that taught in the Contemplation
Sutra.[35]

According to Charles Luk, there was no single fixed method in early Chan (Zen). All the various
Buddhist meditation methods were simply skillful means that could lead a meditator to the buddha-mind
within.[36]

Zen's sudden method

Modern scholars like Robert Sharf argue that early Chan, while having unique teachings and myths, also
made use of classic Buddhist meditation methods, and this is why it is hard to find many uniquely "Chan"
meditation instructions in some of the earliest sources.[37] However, Sharf also notes there was a unique
kind of Chan meditation taught in some early sources which also tend to deprecate the traditional
Buddhist meditations. This uniquely Zen approach goes by various names like “maintaining mind”
(shouxin 守心 ), “maintaining unity” (shouyi 守一 ), “discerning the mind” (guanxin 觀心 ), “viewing the
mind” (kanxin 看心 ), and “pacifying the mind” (anxin 安心 ). [37][note 4] A traditional phrase that describes
this practice states that "Chan points directly to the human mind, to enable people to see their true nature
and become buddhas."[39]

According to McRae the "first explicit statement of the sudden and direct approach that was to become
the hallmark of Ch'an religious practice" is associated with the East Mountain School.[40] It is a method
named "maintaining the one without wavering" ( 守一不移 , shǒu yī bù yí),[40] the one being the true
nature of mind or Suchness, which is equated with buddha-nature.[41][note 5] Sharf writes that in this
practice, one turns the attention from the objects of experience to "the nature of conscious awareness
itself", the innately pure buddha-nature, which was compared to a clear mirror or to the sun (which is
always shining but may be covered by clouds).[37] This type of meditation is based on classic Mahāyāna
ideas which are not uniquely "Chan", but according to McRae it differs from traditional practice in that
"no preparatory requirements, no moral prerequisites or preliminary exercises are given," and is "without
steps or gradations. One concentrates, understands, and is enlightened, all in one undifferentiated
practice."[40][note 6]

Zen sources also use the term "tracing back the radiance" or "turning one's light around" (Ch. fǎn zhào,
返照 ) to describe seeing the inherent radiant source of the mind itself, the "numinous awareness",
luminosity, or buddha-nature.[45] The Platform Sutra mentions this term and connects it with seeing one's
"original face".[46] The Record of Linji states that all that is needed to obtain the Dharma is to "turn your
own light in upon yourselves and never seek elsewhere".[47] The Japanese Zen master Dōgen describes it
as follows: “You should stop the intellectual practice of pursuing words and learn the ‘stepping back’ of
‘turning the light around and shining back’ (Jp: ekō henshō); mind and body will naturally ‘drop off,’ and
the ‘original face’ will appear.”[48] Similarly, the Korean Seon master Yŏndam Yuil states: "to use one's
own mind to trace the radiance back to the numinous awareness of one's own mind...It is like seeing the
radiance of the sun's rays and following it back until you see the orb of the sun itself."[49]

Sharf also notes that the early notion of contemplating a pure Buddha "Mind" was tempered and balanced
by other Zen sources with terms like "no-mind" (wuxin), and "no-mindfulness" (wunian), to avoid any
metaphysical reification of mind, and any clinging to mind or language. This kind of negative
Madhyamaka style dialectic is found in early Zen sources like the Treatise on No Mind (Wuxin lun 無心
論 )[50] of the Oxhead School and the Platform Sutra. These sources tend to emphasize emptiness,
negation, and absence (wusuo 無所 ) as the main theme of contemplation.[51] These two contemplative
themes (the buddha mind and no-mind, positive and negative rhetoric) continued to shape the
development of Zen theory and practice throughout its history.[51]

Later Chinese Chan Buddhists developed their own meditation ("chan") manuals which taught their
unique method of direct and sudden contemplation. The earliest of these is the widely imitated and
influential Zuochan Yí (c. turn of the 12th century), which recommends a simple contemplative practice
that is said to lead to the discovery of inherent wisdom already present in the mind. This work also shows
the influence of the earlier meditation manuals composed by Tiantai patriarch Zhiyi.[52]

However, other Zen sources de-emphasize traditional practices like sitting meditation, and instead focus
on effortlessness and on ordinary daily activities. One example of this is found in the Record of Linji
which states: "Followers of the Way, as to buddhadharma, no effort is necessary. You have only to be
ordinary, with nothing to do—defecating, urinating, wearing clothes, eating food, and lying down when
tired."[53] Similarly, some Zen sources also emphasize non-action or having no concerns (wushi 無事 ).
For example, Chan master Huangbo states that nothing compares with non-seeking, describing the Zen
adept as follows: "the person of the Way is the one who has nothing to do [wu-shih], who has no mind at
all and no doctrine to preach. Having nothing to do, such a person lives at ease."[54]

Likewise, John McRae notes that a major development in early Ch'an was the rejection of traditional
meditation techniques in favor of a uniquely Zen direct approach.[55] Early Chan sources like the Long
Scroll (dubbed the Bodhidharma Anthology by Jeffrey Broughton),[note 7] the Platform Sutra and the
works of Shenhui question such things as mindfulness and concentration, and instead state that insight
can be attained directly and suddenly. For example, Record I of the Long Scroll states: "The man of sharp
abilities hears of the path without producing a covetous mind. He does not even produce right
mindfulness and right reflection," and the iconoclastic Master Yüan states in Record III of the same text,
"If mind is not produced, what need is there for cross-legged sitting dhyana?"[57] Similarly, the Platform
Sutra criticizes the practice of sitting samādhi: "One is enlightened to the Way through the mind. How
could it depend on sitting?", while Shenhui's four pronouncements criticize the "freezing", "stopping",
"activating", and "concentrating" of the mind.[58][59]

Zen sources that focus on the sudden teaching can sometimes be quite radical in their rejection of the
importance of traditional Buddhist ideas and practices. The Record of the Dharma-Jewel Through the
Ages (Lidai Fabao Ji) for example states "better that one should destroy śīla [ethics], and not destroy true
seeing. Śīla [causes] rebirth in Heaven, adding more [karmic] bonds, while true seeing attains
nirvāṇa."[60] Similarly the Bloodstream Sermon states that it doesn't matter whether one is a butcher or
not, if one sees one's true nature, then one will not be affected by karma.[61] The Bloodstream Sermon
also rejects the worship of buddhas and bodhisattvas, stating that "Those who hold onto appearances are
devils. They fall from the Path. Why worship illusions born of the mind? Those who worship don't know,
and those who know don't worship."[62] Similarly, in the Lidai Fabao Ji, Wuzhu states that "No-thought
is none other than seeing the Buddha" and rejects the practice of worship and recitation.[63] Most
famously, the Record of Linji has the master state that "if you meet a buddha, kill the buddha" (as well as
patriarchs, arhats, parents, and kinfolk), further claiming that through this "you will gain emancipation,
will not be entangled with things."[64]

Common contemporary meditation forms

Mindfulness of breathing
During sitting meditation (坐禅 , Ch. zuòChan, Jp. zazen, Ko.
jwaseon), practitioners usually assume a sitting position such
as the lotus position, half-lotus, Burmese, or seiza. Their
hands are often placed in a specific gesture or mudrā. Often, a
square or round cushion placed on a padded mat is used to sit
on; in some other cases, a chair may be used.

To regulate the mind, Zen students are often directed towards

counting breaths. Either both exhalations and inhalations are
counted, or one of them only. The count can be up to ten, and
then this process is repeated until the mind is calmed.[65] Zen
teachers like Omori Sogen teach a series of long and deep
exhalations and inhalations as a way to prepare for regular
breath meditation.[66] Attention is often placed on the energy
center (dantian) below the navel.[67][note 8] Zen teachers often
promote diaphragmatic breathing, stating that the breath must
come from the lower abdomen (known as hara or tanden in
Japanese), and that this part of the body should expand Kodo Sawaki practicing zazen, his hands
forward slightly as one breathes.[69] Over time the breathing make the "cosmic mudra" (Jp: hokkai jōin
should become smoother, deeper and slower.[70] When the 法界定印 ), which is common in Japanese
counting becomes an encumbrance, the practice of simply Soto Zen
following the natural rhythm of breathing with concentrated
attention is recommended.[71][72] While some teachers such
as Dainin Katagiri Roshi taught watching the breath, and Shunryū Suzuki taught counting the breath,
others such as Kōshō Uchiyama and Shohaku Okumura taught neither counting nor watching the
breath.[73][note 9]

Silent illumination and Shikantaza

A common form of sitting meditation is called "Silent illumination" (Ch. mòzhào 默照 , Jp. mokushō).
This practice was traditionally promoted by the Caodong school of Chinese Chan and is associated with
Hongzhi Zhengjue (1091–1157) who wrote various works on the practice.[75] This method derives from
the Indian Buddhist practice of the union (Skt. yuganaddha) of śamatha and vipaśyanā.[76]
 Hongzhi's practice of silent illumination does not depend on
concentration on particular objects, "such as visual images,
sounds, breathing, concepts, stories, or deities."[77] Instead, it
is a non-dual "objectless" meditation, involving "withdrawal
from exclusive focus on a particular sensory or mental
object."[77] This practice allows the meditator to be aware of
"all phenomena as a unified totality," without any
conceptualizing, grasping, goal seeking, or subject-object
duality. According to Leighton, this method "rests on the
faith, verified in experience, that the field of vast brightness is
ours from the outset."[77] This "vast luminous buddha field" is
our immanent "inalienable endowment of wisdom" which
cannot be cultivated or enhanced. Instead, one just has to
recognize this radiant clarity without any interference.[78]

A similar practice is taught in the major schools of Japanese

Zen, but is especially emphasized by Sōtō, where it is more
Venerable Hsuan Hua meditating in the
widely known as shikantaza (Ch. zhǐguǎn dǎzuò, "just
lotus position, Hong Kong, 1953
sitting"). For instance, the modern Sōtō Zen teacher Shohaku
Okumura says: "We don’t set our mind on any particular
object, visualization, mantra, or even our breath itself. When we just sit, our mind is nowhere and
everywhere."[79] This method is discussed in the works of the Japanese Sōtō Zen thinker Dōgen,
especially in his Shōbōgenzō and his Fukanzazengi.[80][81] For Dōgen, shikantaza is characterized by
hishiryō ("non-thinking", "without thinking", "beyond thinking"), which according to Kasulis is "a state
of no-mind in which one is simply aware of things as they are, beyond thinking and not-thinking".[82]

While the Japanese and the Chinese forms of these simple methods are similar, they are considered
distinct approaches.[83]

Huatou and Kōan Contemplation

During the Song dynasty, gōng'àn (Jp. kōan) literature
became popular. Literally meaning "public case", they were
stories or dialogues describing teachings and interactions
between Zen masters and their students. Kōans are meant to
illustrate Zen's non-conceptual insight (prajña). During the
Song, a new meditation method was developed by Linji
school figures such as Dahui (1089–1163) called kanhua chan
("observing the phrase" meditation) which referred to
contemplation on a single word or phrase (called the huatou,
"critical phrase") of a gōng'àn.[84] Dahui famously criticised
Caodong's "silent illumination."[85][86] While the two Calligraphy of "Mu" (Hanyu Pinyin: wú)
methods of Caodong and Linji are sometimes seen as by Torei Enji. It figures in the famous
competing with each other, Schlütter writes that Dahui Zhaozhou's dog kōan
himself "did not completely condemn quiet-sitting; in fact, he
seems to have recommended it, at least to his monastic
disciples."[85]
In Chinese Chan and Korean Seon, the practice of "observing the huatou" (hwadu in Korean) is a widely
practiced method.[87] It was taught by Seon masters like Chinul (1158–1210) and Seongcheol (1912–
1993), and modern Chinese masters like Sheng Yen and Xuyun.

In the Japanese Rinzai school, kōan introspection developed its own formalized style, with a standardized
curriculum of kōans, which must be studied, meditated on and "passed" in sequence. Monks are
instructed to "become one" with their koan by repeating the koan's key phrase constantly. They are also
advised not to attempt to answer it intellectually, since the goal of the practice is a non-conceptual insight
into non-duality.[88] The Zen student's mastery of a given kōan is presented to the teacher in a private
interview (referred to in Japanese as dokusan, daisan, or sanzen). The process includes standardized
answers, "checking questions" (sassho 拶所
[89]
) and common sets of "capping phrase" (jakugo) poetry, all
which must be memorized by students. While there are standardized answers to a kōan, practitioners
are also expected to demonstrate their spiritual understanding through their responses. The teacher may
approve or disapprove of the answer based on their behavior, and guide the student in the right direction.
According to Hori, the traditional Japanese Rinzai koan curriculum can take 15 years to complete for a
full-time monk.[10] The interaction with a teacher is often presented as central in Zen, but also makes Zen
practice vulnerable to misunderstanding and exploitation.[90]

Kōan-inquiry may be practiced during zazen (sitting meditation), kinhin (walking meditation), and
throughout all the activities of daily life. The goal of the practice is often termed kensho (seeing one's true
nature), and is to be followed by further practice to attain a natural, effortless, down-to-earth state of
being, the "ultimate liberation", "knowing without any kind of defilement".[91] This style of kōan practice
is particularly emphasized in modern Rinzai, but it also occurs in other schools or branches of Zen
depending on the teaching line.[92]

In the Caodong and Sōtō traditions, koans were studied and commented on, for example Hongzhi
published a collection of koans and Dogen discussed koans extensively. However, they were not
traditionally used in sitting meditation.[93] Some Zen masters have also critiqued the practice of using
koans for meditation. According to Haskel, Bankei called kōans "old wastepaper" and saw the kōan
method as hopelessly contrived.[94] Similarly, the Song era master Foyan Qingyuan (1067–1120) was
critical of the use of koans (public cases) and similar stories, arguing that they did not exist during the
time of Bodhidharma.[95] He said, "In other places they like to have people look at model case stories, but
here we have the model case story of what is presently coming into being; you should look at it, but no
one can make you see all the way through such an immense affair."[96]

Nianfo chan
Nianfo (Jp. nembutsu, from Skt. buddhānusmṛti "recollection of the Buddha") refers to the recitation of
the Buddha's name, in most cases the Buddha Amitabha. In Chinese Chan, the Pure Land practice of
nianfo based on the phrase Nāmó Āmítuófó (Homage to Amitabha) is a widely practiced form of Zen
meditation which came to be known as "Nianfo Chan" ( 念佛禪 ). Nianfo was practiced and taught by
early Chan masters, like Daoxin (580-651), who taught that one should "bind the mind to one buddha and
exclusively invoke his name".[97] The practice is also taught in Shenxiu's Guanxin lun ( 觀心論 ).[97]
Likewise, the Chuan fabao qi ( 傳法寶紀 , Taisho # 2838, ca. 713), one of the earliest Chan histories,
shows this practice was widespread in the early Chan generation of Hung-jen, Fa-ju and Ta-tung who are
said to have "invoked the name of the Buddha so as to purify the mind."[97]
Evidence for the practice of nianfo chan can also be found in Changlu Zongze's (died c. 1107) Chanyuan
qinggui (The Rules of Purity in the Chan Monastery), perhaps the most influential Ch’an monastic code
in East Asia.[97] Nianfo continued to be taught as a form of Chan meditation by later Chinese figures such
as Yongming Yanshou, Zhongfen Mingben, and Tianru Weize. During the late Ming, the tradition of
Nianfo Chan meditation was continued by figures such as Yunqi Zhuhong and Hanshan Deqing.[98] Chan
figures like Yongming Yanshou generally advocated a view called "mind-only Pure Land" (wei-hsin
ching-t’u), which held that the Buddha and the Pure Land are just mind.[97]

The practice of nianfo, as well as its adaptation into the "nembutsu kōan" ('who is reciting?') is a major
practice in the Japanese Ōbaku school of Zen.[99] The recitation of a Buddha's name was also practiced in
the Soto school at different times throughout its history. During the Meiji period for example, both Shaka
nembutsu (reciting the name of Shakyamuni Buddha: namu Shakamuni Butsu) and Amida nembutsu were
promoted by Soto school priests as easy practices for laypersons.[100]

Nianfo chan is also widely practiced in Vietnamese Thien.

Bodhisattva virtues and vows

Since Zen is a form of Mahayana Buddhism, it is grounded
on the schema of the bodhisattva path, which is based on the
practice of the "transcendent virtues" or "perfections" (Skt.
pāramitā, Ch. bōluómì, Jp. baramitsu) as well as the taking of
the bodhisattva vows.[101][102] The most widely used list of
six virtues is: generosity, moral training (incl. five precepts),
patient endurance, energy or effort, meditation (dhyana),
wisdom. An important source for these teachings is the
Avatamsaka sutra, which also outlines the grounds (bhumis) Victoria Zen Centre Jukai ceremony,
or levels of the bodhisattva path.[103] The pāramitās are January 2009
mentioned in early Chan works such as Bodhidharma's Two
entrances and four practices and are seen as an important part
of gradual cultivation (jianxiu) by later Chan figures like Zongmi.[104][105]

An important element of this practice is the formal and ceremonial taking of refuge in the three jewels,
bodhisattva vows and precepts. Various sets of precepts are taken in Zen including the five precepts, "ten
essential precepts", and the sixteen bodhisattva precepts.[106][107][108][109] This is commonly done in an
initiation ritual (Ch. shòu jiè 受戒 , Jp. Jukai, Ko. sugye, "receiving the precepts"), which is also
undertaken by lay followers and marks a layperson as a formal Buddhist.[110]

The Chinese Buddhist practice of fasting (zhai), especially during the uposatha days (Ch. zhairi, "days of
fasting") can also be an element of Chan training.[111] Chan masters may go on extended absolute fasts,
as exemplified by master Hsuan Hua's 35 day fast, which he undertook during the Cuban Missile Crisis
for the generation of merit.[112]

Monasticism
Zen developed in a Buddhist monastic context and throughout its history, most Zen masters have been
Buddhist monastics (bhiksus) ordained in the Buddhist monastic code (Vinaya) living in Buddhist
monasteries.[113][114] East Asian Buddhist monasticism differs in various respects from traditional
Buddhist monasticism however, emphasizing self-sufficiency.
For example, Zen monks do not live by begging, but store and
cook their own food in the monastery and may even farm and
grow their own food.[115][116]

Zen Monastics in Japan are particularly exceptional in the

Buddhist tradition because the monks and nuns can marry
after receiving their ordination. This is because they follow
the practice of ordaining under the bodhisattva vows instead
of the traditional monastic Vinaya.[117]
Bonzes dans un réfectoire à Canton

Zen monasteries ( 伽藍 , pinyin: qiélán, Jp: garan, Skt.

(Monastics in a Cantonese dining hall),
Félix Régamey, c. before 1888
saṃghārāma) will often rely on Zen monastic codes like the
Rules of Purity in the Chan Monastery and Dogen's Pure
Standards for the Zen Community (Eihei Shingi) which
regulate life and behavior in the monastery.[118] Zen
monasteries often have a specific building or hall for
meditation, the zendō (禅堂 , Chinese: Chantáng), as well as a
"buddha hall" ( 佛殿 , Ch:, Jp: butsuden) used for ritual
purposes which houses the "main object of veneration" ( 本尊 ,
Ch: běnzūn, Jp: honzon), usually a Buddha image. Life in a
Zen monastery is often guided by a daily schedule which Traditional map of Soto head temple
includes periods of work, group meditation, rituals, and Eihei-ji
formal meals.[113]

Intensive group practice

Intensive group meditation may be practiced by serious Zen practitioners. In the Japanese language, this
practice is called sesshin. While the daily routine may require monks to meditate for several hours each
day, during the intensive period they devote themselves almost exclusively to zen practice. The numerous
30–50 minute long sitting meditation (zazen) periods are interwoven with rest breaks, ritualized formal
meals (Jp. oryoki), and short periods of work (Jp. samu) that are to be performed with the same state of
mindfulness. In modern Buddhist practice in Japan, Taiwan, and the West, lay students often attend these
intensive practice sessions or retreats. These are held at many Zen centers or temples.

Chanting and rituals

Most Zen monasteries, temples and centers perform various rituals, services and ceremonies (such as
initiation ceremonies and funerals), which are always accompanied by the chanting of verses, poems or
sutras.[119] There are also ceremonies that are specifically for the purpose of sutra recitation (Ch.
niansong, Jp. nenju) itself.[120] Zen schools may have an official sutra book that collects these writings
(in Japanese, these are called kyohon).[119] Practitioners may chant major Mahayana sutras such as the
Heart Sutra and chapter 25 of the Lotus Sutra (often called the "Avalokiteśvara Sutra"). Dhāraṇīs and
Zen poems may also be part of a Zen temple liturgy, including texts like the Song of the Precious Mirror
Samadhi, the Sandokai, the Nīlakaṇṭha Dhāraṇī, and the Uṣṇīṣa Vijaya Dhāraṇī Sūtra.
The butsudan is the altar in a monastery, temple or a lay
person's home, where offerings are made to the images of the
Buddha, bodhisattvas and deceased family members and
ancestors. Rituals usually center on major Buddhas or
bodhisattvas like Avalokiteśvara (see Guanyin), Kṣitigarbha
and Manjushri. An important element in Zen ritual practice is
the performance of ritual prostrations (Jp. raihai) or bows,
usually done in front of a butsudan.[121]

A widely practiced ritual in Chinese Chan is the tantric Yujia

Buddha hall at Trúc Lâm Monastery of Da
Yankou rite that is practiced with the aim of facilitating the
Lat
spiritual nourishment of all sentient beings.[122][123] The
Chinese holiday of the Ghost Festival might also be
celebrated with similar rituals for the dead.[124][125][123]
Funerals are also an important ritual and are a common point
of contact between Zen monastics and the laity. Statistics
published by the Sōtō school state that 80 percent of Sōtō
laymen visit their temple only for reasons having to do with
funerals and death. Seventeen percent visit for spiritual
reasons and 3 percent visit a Zen priest at a time of personal
trouble or crisis.[126]

Another important type of ritual practiced in Zen are various

懺悔
Chanting the Buddhist Scriptures, by
repentance or confession rituals ( , Ch. Chànhǔi, Jp. Taiwanese painter Li Mei-shu
Zange) that were widely practiced in all forms of Chinese
Mahayana Buddhism. Some popular examples of such a ritual
in Chan Buddhism is the Dabei Chan, composed by the
Tiantai Patriarch Siming Zhili, and the Jewelled Repentance
of the Emperor of Liang, composed by the Chan master
Baozhi.[127] Dogen also wrote a treatise on repentance, the
0:00
Shushogi.[128]

Other rituals could include rites dealing with local deities

Monks chanting the "Heart Sutra" in Sōji-
(kami in Japan), and ceremonies on Buddhist holidays such as
ji Temple in Yokohama, Japan
Buddha's Birthday.[129] Another popular form of ritual in
Japanese Zen is Mizuko kuyō (Water child) ceremonies, which
are performed for those who have had a miscarriage, stillbirth, or abortion. These ceremonies are also
performed in American Zen Buddhism.[130]

Esoteric practices
Depending on the tradition, esoteric methods such as mantra and dhāraṇī may also be used for different
purposes including meditation practice, protection from evil, invoking great compassion, invoking the
power of certain bodhisattvas, and are chanted during ceremonies and rituals.[131][132] In the Kwan Um
school of Zen for example, a mantra of Guanyin ("Kwanseum Bosal") may be used during sitting
meditation.[133] The Heart Sutra Mantra is also another mantra that is used in Zen during various
rituals.[134] Another example is the Mantra of Light, which is common in both the Chinese Chan tradition
(where it is mostly used during the Shuilu Fahui ceremony) as well as the Japanese Soto Zen and (where
its usage derives from the Shingon sect).[135]

In Chinese Chan, the usage of esoteric mantras in Zen goes

back to the Tang dynasty. There is evidence that Chan
Buddhists adopted practices from Chinese Esoteric Buddhism
in findings from Dunhuang.[136] According to Henrik
Sørensen, several successors of Shenxiu (such as Jingxian and
Yixing) were also students of the Zhenyan (Mantra)
school.[137] Influential esoteric dhāraṇī, such as the Uṣṇīṣa
Vijaya Dhāraṇī Sūtra and the Nīlakaṇṭha Dhāraṇī, also
begin to be cited in the literature of the Baotang school during
A Chinese Chan monk taking on the role
the Tang dynasty.[138] The eighth century Chan monks of of a tantric vajrācārya during a Yujia
Shaolin temple also performed esoteric practices such as Yankou ritual
mantras and dharanis. [139] Many mantras have been preserved
since the Tang period and continue to be practiced in modern
monasteries. One common example is the Śūraṅgama Mantra, which is commonly chanted by monastics
as part of the morning liturgy (朝誦 Chaosong) and evening liturgy (暮誦 Musong) in temples.[140][141]
Various rituals that continue to be practiced by Chan monastics, such as the tantric Yujia Yankou rite and
the extensive Shuilu Fahui ceremony, also involve esoteric aspects, including maṇḍala offerings, deity
yoga and the invocation of esoteric deities such as the Five Wisdom Buddhas and the Ten Wisdom
Kings.[123][142][143]

In Japan, Zen schools also adopted esoteric rites and continue to perform them. These include the
ambrosia gate ( 甘露門 kanro mon) ghost festival ritual which includes esoteric elements, the secret
嗣法
Dharma transmission ( shihō) rituals and in some cases the goma ritual.[144]

During the Joseon Dynasty, the Korean Zen (Seon) was highly inclusive and ecumenical. This extended
to Esoteric Buddhist lore and rituals (that appear in Seon literature from the 15th century onwards).
According to Sørensen, the writings of several Seon masters (such as Hyujeong) reveal they were esoteric
adepts.[145] In Japanese Zen, the use of esoteric practices within Zen is sometimes termed "mixed Zen"
(兼修禪 kenshū zen), and the influential Soto monk Keizan Jōkin (1264–1325) was major promoter of
esoteric methods. Keizan was heavily influenced by Shingon and Shugendo, and is known for introducing
numerous esoteric ritual forms into the Soto school.[146][147][148] Another influential Soto figure, Menzan
Zuihō (1683-1769), was also a practitioner of Shingon, having received esoteric initiation under a
Shingon figure named Kisan Biku ( 義燦比丘 ).[149] Similarly, numerous Rinzai figures were also esoteric
practitioners, such as the Rinzai founder Myōan Eisai (1141–1215) and Enni Ben'en (1202–1280).[150]
Under Enni Ben'en's abbotship, Fumon-in (the future Tōfuku-ji) held Shingon and Tendai rituals. He also
lectured on the esoteric Mahavairocana sutra.[151]

The arts
Certain arts such as painting, calligraphy, poetry, gardening, flower arrangement, tea ceremony and others
have also been used as part of zen training and practice. Classical Chinese arts like brush painting and
calligraphy were used by Chan monk painters such as Guanxiu and Muqi Fachang to communicate their
spiritual understanding in unique ways to their students.[152] Some
Zen writers even argued that "devotion to an art" (Japanese: suki)
could be a spiritual practice that leads to enlightenment, as the
Japanese monk poet Chōmei writes in his Hosshinshū.[153]

Zen paintings are sometimes termed zenga in Japanese.[154] Hakuin

is one Japanese Zen master who was known to create a large corpus
of unique sumi-e (ink and wash paintings) and Japanese calligraphy
to communicate zen in a visual way. His work and that of his Hakuin Ekaku, Hotei in a Boat,
Yale University Art Gallery
disciples were widely influential in Japanese Zen.[155] Another
example of Zen arts can be seen in the short lived Fuke sect of
Japanese Zen, which practiced a unique form of "blowing zen"
(suizen吹禅 ) by playing the shakuhachi bamboo flute.

Physical cultivation
Traditional martial arts, like Chinese martial arts, Japanese archery, The kare-sansui (dry landscape)
other forms of Japanese budō have also been seen as forms of zen zen garden at Ryōan-ji
praxis by some Zen schools. In China, this trend goes back to the
influential Shaolin Monastery in Henan, which developed the
first institutionalized form of gōngfu.[156] By the late Ming,
Shaolin gōngfu was very popular and widespread, as
evidenced by mentions in various forms of Ming literature
(featuring staff wielding fighting monks like Sun Wukong)
and historical sources, which also speak of Shaolin's
impressive monastic army that rendered military service to
the state in return for patronage.[157]

These Shaolin practices, which began to develop around the Two grandmasters of the Shaolin Temple
12th century, were also traditionally seen as a form of Chan of Chinese Chan, Shi DeRu and Shi
Buddhist inner cultivation (today called wuchan, "martial DeYang
chan"). The Shaolin arts also made use of Taoist physical
exercises (daoyin) breathing and qi cultivation (qigong)
practices.[158] They were seen as therapeutic practices, which improved "internal strength" (neili), health
and longevity (lit. "nourishing life" yangsheng), as well as means to spiritual liberation.[159] The
influence of these Taoist practices can be seen in the work of Wang Zuyuan (ca. 1820–after 1882), whose
Illustrated Exposition of Internal Techniques (Neigong tushuo) shows how Shaolin monks drew on Taoist
methods like those of the Yijin Jing and Eight pieces of brocade.[160] According to the modern Chan
master Sheng Yen, Chinese Buddhism has adopted internal cultivation exercises from the Shaolin
tradition as ways to "harmonize the body and develop concentration in the midst of activity." This is
because, "techniques for harmonizing the vital energy are powerful assistants to the cultivation of
samadhi and spiritual insight."[161] Korean Seon also has developed a similar form of active physical
training, termed Sunmudo.

In Japan, the classic combat arts (budō) and zen practice have been in contact since the embrace of Rinzai
Zen by the Hōjō clan in the 13th century, who applied zen discipline to their martial practice.[163] One
influential figure in this relationship was the Rinzai priest Takuan Sōhō who was well known for his
 writings on zen and budō addressed to the samurai class
(especially his The Unfettered Mind) .[164]

The Rinzai school also adopted certain Chinese practices

which work with qi (which are also common in Taoism).
They were introduced by Hakuin (1686–1769) who learned
various techniques from a hermit named Hakuyu who helped
Hakuin cure his "Zen sickness" (a condition of physical and
mental exhaustion).[165] These energetic practices, known as
Bows and quivers at Engaku-ji temple,
naikan, are based on focusing the mind and one's vital energy
the temple also has a Dōjō for the
practice of Kyūdō and the Zen priests
(ki) on the tanden (a spot slightly below the navel).[166][167]
practice this art here.[162]

Doctrine
Zen is grounded in the doctrinal background of East Asian
Buddhism.[168][169] Zen doctrinal teaching is thoroughly
influenced by Mahayana teachings on the bodhisattva path,
Chinese Madhyamaka (Sānlùn), Yogachara (Wéishí), the
Prajñaparamita literature, and Buddha-nature texts like the
Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra and the Nirvana sutra.[170][171][172]

Some Zen traditions (especially Linji- and Rinzai-focused

traditions) stress a narrative which sees Zen as a "special
transmission outside scriptures", which does not "stand upon
A Dharma talk by Seon nun Daehaeng
words".[168][173] Nevertheless, Mahayana Buddhist doctrine Kun Sunim, Hanmaum Seon Center,
and East Asian Buddhist teachings remain an essential part of South Korea
Zen Buddhism. Various Zen masters throughout the history of
Zen, like Guifeng Zongmi, Jinul, and Yongming Yanshou,
have instead promoted the "correspondence of the teachings and Zen", which argues for the unity of Zen
and the Buddhist teachings.[174][175]

In Zen, doctrinal teaching is often compared to "the finger pointing at the moon".[176] While Zen
doctrines point to the moon (awakening, the Dharma-realm, the originally enlightened mind), one should
not mistake fixating on the finger (the teachings) to be Zen, instead one must look at the moon
(reality).[177][178][179][180][181] As such, doctrinal teachings are just another skillful means (upaya) which
can help one attain awakening.[182] They are not the goal of Zen, nor are they held as fixed dogmas to be
attached to (since ultimate reality transcends all concepts), but are nevertheless seen as useful (as long as
one does not reify them or cling to them).[183]

Buddha-nature and innate enlightenment

The complex Mahayana Buddhist notion of Buddha-nature (Sanskrit: buddhadhātu, Chinese: 佛性
fóxìng, Japanese: busshō) was a key idea in the doctrinal development of Zen and remains central to Zen
Buddhism. In China, this doctrine developed to encompass the related teaching of original enlightenment
(本覺 Ch: běnjué; Jp: hongaku), which held that the
awakened mind of a Buddha is already present in each
sentient being and that enlightenment is "inherent from the
outset" and "accessible in the present."[184][185][186]

Drawing on sources like the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra, the buddha-

nature sutras, the Awakening of Faith, and the Sutra of Perfect
Enlightenment, Chan masters championed the view that the
innately awakened buddha-mind was immanently present
within all beings.[187][188][189] Following the view of the
Awakening of Faith, this awakened buddha-nature is seen in
Zen as the empty source of all things, the ultimate principle Korean woodblock print of "The Sixth
(li) out of which all phenomena (Ch: shi, i.e. all dharmas) Patriarch's Dharma Jewel Platform Sutra"
arise.[188][190][191][192] (c. 1310), a key Zen text which contains
the basic doctrines of Zen. Bibliothèque
Thus, the Zen path is one of recognizing the inherently Nationale de France.
enlightened source that is already here. Indeed, the Zen
insight and path are based on that innate awakening.[193] By
the time of the codification of the Platform Sutra (c. 8th to 13th century), the Zen scripture par
excellence, original enlightenment had become a central teaching of the Zen tradition.[194]

Historically influential Chan schools like East Mountain and Hongzhou drew on the Awakening of Faith
in their teachings on the buddha-mind, "the true mind as Suchness", which Hongzhou compared to a clear
mirror.[195][196] Similarly, the Tang master Guifeng Zongmi draws on the Sutra of Perfect Enlightenment
when he writes that "all sentient beings without exception have the intrinsically enlightened true mind",
which is a "clear and bright ever-present awareness" that gets covered over by deluded thoughts.[197] The
importance of the concept of the innately awakened mind for Zen is such that it even became an
alternative name for Zen, the "Buddha-mind school".[3]

Emptiness and negative dialectic

The influence of Madhyamaka and Prajñaparamita on Zen
can be discerned in the Zen stress on emptiness ( 空 kōng),
non-conceptual wisdom (Skt: nirvikalpa-jñana), the teaching
of no-mind, and the apophatic and sometimes paradoxical
language of Zen literature.[191][170][198][199][note 10]

Zen masters and texts took great pains to avoid the reification
of doctrinal concepts and terms, including important terms
like buddha-nature and enlightenment. This is because Zen
affirms the Mahayana view of emptiness, which states that all
phenomena lack a fixed and independent essence
(svabhava).[191] To avoid any reification which grasps at
essences, Zen sources often make use of a negative dialectic
influenced by Madhyamaka philosophy.[200][191] As Kasulis
writes, since all things are empty, "the Zen student must learn Calligraphy of no-mind 無心
not to think of linguistic distinctions as always referring to
ontically distinct realities."[191] Indeed, all doctrines, distinctions, and words are relative and deceptive in
some way, and thus they must be transcended. This apophatic element of Zen teaching is sometimes
無
described as Mu ( , Ch: wú, "no"), which appears in the famous Zhaozhou's Dog koan: A monk asked,
"Does a dog have a Buddha-nature or not?"; The master said, "Not [wú]!".[191]

Zen teachings also often include a seemingly paradoxical use of both negation and
affirmation.[191][201][note 11] For example, the teachings of the influential Tang dynasty master Mazu
Daoyi, founder of the Hongzhou school, could include affirmative phrases like "Mind is Buddha" as well
as negative ones like "it is neither mind nor Buddha".[203][201] Since no concepts or differentiations can
capture the true nature of things, Zen affirms the importance of the non-conceptual and non-
differentiating perfection of wisdom (prajñaparamita), which transcends all relative and conventional
language (even the language of negation itself). According to Kasulis, this is the basis of much apophatic
rhetoric in Zen, which often seems paradoxical or contradictory.[191]

The importance of negation is also seen in the key Zen teaching of no-mind ( 無心, wuxin), which is
considered to be a state of meditative clarity, free of concepts, defilements, and clinging, which is also
associated with wisdom and a direct experience of the ultimate truth.[192][204]

Non-duality
Zen texts also stress the concept of non-duality (Skt: advaya,
Ch: bùèr 不二 , Jp: funi), which is an important theme in Zen
literature and is explained in various different ways.[205] One
set of themes is the non-dual unity of the absolute and the
relative truths (which derives from the classic Buddhist theme
of the two truths). This can be found in Zen sources like the
Five Ranks of Tozan, Faith in Mind, and the Harmony of
Difference and Sameness. It is also an important theme in
Mahayana sutras which are important to Zen, like the
Ensō calligraphy by Thích Nhất Hạnh.
Vimalakīrtinirdeśa and the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra.[206][207] Hạnh's teaching of interbeing is one
modern attempt to describe Zen non-
A related explanation of non-duality, which is influential in duality.
Zen, makes use of the Chinese Buddhist discourse of essence-
function (Ch: tiyong), which is most famously taught in the
influential Awakening of Faith. In this type of discourse, the essence refers to the inner nature of things,
the absolute reality, while the functions refer to the more external, relative, and secondary characteristics
of things.[192][208] The Platform Sutra compares the essence to a lamp, while the function is its light.[209]

Another application of non-duality in Zen discourse is the idea that mundane reality (which includes the
natural world), i.e., samsara (the world of suffering) and nirvana (the ultimate, enlightened reality) are not
separate. This is a view found in Indian Mahayana sources like Nagarjuna's Root Verses on
Madhyamaka.[210] As such, Buddhas and sentient beings as well as Buddhahood and the natural world,
are also considered to be non-dual in Zen. This idea influenced Zen attitudes on social harmony and
和
harmony (he, ) with the natural world.[211]

A further meaning of non-duality in Zen is the absence of a duality between the perceiving subject and
the perceived object.[212][213][214] This understanding of non-duality is derived from the Indian
Yogachara school.[215] The philosophy of the Huayan school also had an influence on Chinese Chan's
conception of the non-dual ultimate truth and its understanding of essence-function. One example is the
Huayan doctrine of the interpenetration of phenomena or "perfect interfusion" (yuanrong, 圓融
), which
also makes use of native Chinese philosophical concepts such as principle (li) and phenomena (shi).[216]
The influence of the related Huayan theory of the Fourfold Dharmadhatu can be seen in the Five Ranks of
Dongshan Liangjie (806–869), the founder of the Caodong lineage of Chan.[217]

Sudden enlightenment and seeing the nature

The idea of the immanent character of Buddha-nature
influenced Zen's characteristic emphasis on direct
insight.[218][219] As such, a central topic of discussion in Zen
is "seeing the nature" (
[220]
見性 , pinyin: jiànxìng, Jp:
kenshō). Zen teachings use this term to refer to an insight
which can occur to a Zen practitioner suddenly, and often
Seeing the ox, a metaphor for an initial
equate it with a kind of enlightenment.[220][221] The "nature" stage in the practice of Zen. Ox-herding
here is the Buddha-nature, the originally enlightened mind. picture on an outdoor wall in Bongeunsa,
As such, this experience gives one a glimpse of the ultimate South Korea.
truth. The term jiànxìng occurs in the classic Zen phrase
"seeing one's nature, becoming Buddha", which is held to
encapsulate the meaning of Zen.[222] Zen schools have disagreed with each other on how to achieve
"seeing nature" (the Linji school's huatou practice vs Caodong's silent illumination) as well as how to
relate to, cultivate, express, and deepen one's relationship with the experience.[211] This remains a major
topic of debate and discussion among contemporary Zen traditions.

Traditionally, Zen considers that its practices aim at a sudden

insight into the true nature of things. This idea of sudden
enlightenment or instant awakening ( 頓悟 ; dùnwù), which is
closely related to "seeing the nature", is another important
theme in Zen. Zen sources often argue that its "sudden"
method is more direct and superior to the "gradual" paths,
which take place step by step.[223][224][225][226] Such methods
can be found in some of the earliest Zen traditions, like the
East Mountain school's teaching of "maintaining the one," a
direct contemplation on buddha-nature that was not
Oxherding picture depicting the insight
dependent on preliminary practices or step by step into the ultimate truth, Bongeunsa.
instructions.[227]

The sudden teaching was further emphasized by patriarch Shenhui and it became canonized as a key Zen
teaching in the Platform Sutra.[228] Despite the rhetorical emphasis on sudden awakening and the critique
of "gradual" methods found in various Zen sources, Zen traditions accept gradual practices (such as
taking precepts, scriptural study, ritual practice and the six paramitas). Instead, Zen schools generally
incorporate these practices within a schema grounded in sudden enlightenment
thought.[229][201][230][note 12] As such, many Zen sources which emphasize sudden awakening, like the
Platform Sutra, also refer to traditional Mahayana practices.[218][230]
This means that the Zen path does not end at "seeing the nature", since further practice and cultivation is
considered necessary to deepen one's insight, remove the traces of the defilements (attachments,
aversions, etc.), and to learn to express buddha-nature in daily life.[232][233][234] Zen masters like Zongmi
described this method as "sudden enlightenment followed by gradual cultivation", holding that the sudden
and gradual teachings point to the same truth.[235] Zongmi argued that even though sudden awakening
reveals the truth directly and instantly, the Zen practitioner still has deeply rooted defilements (Skt: kleśa,
Ch: fánnǎo) which cloud the mind and can only be removed through further training.[236]

This sudden-gradual schema became a standard view of Zen practice in China after the time of
Zongmi.[173] It is found in Zen sources like Dongshan's Five Ranks, the works of Jinul, the Four Ways of
Knowing of Hakuin,[237] Torei's Undying Lamp of Zen, and the Ten Ox-Herding Pictures, which depict a
gradual set of steps on the Zen path while also including the idea of a sudden awakening to an immanent
innate pure nature.[238][239]

Traditions
Today, there are two major traditions or groupings of Zen
schools, along with numerous other smaller lineages, orders
and schools. The two main lineages are the Caodong tradition
traced back to Dongshan Liangjie (807–869) and the Linji
school which is traced to Linji Yixuan (died 866 CE). During
the Song dynasty, the Caodong lineage became closely
associated with the teaching of "silent illumination" (Ch:
mozhao) as formulated by Hongzhi Zhengjue (1091—
1157).[240][241][242] The competing Linji school meanwhile
became associated with the contemplation method of Dahui
Zonggao (1089–1163) which focuses on meditating on the
huatou (critical phrase) of a koan.[243] Some traditions and
organizations include both lineages, so these categories
should not be seen as mutually exclusive.

Both the Linji school and the Caodong school were

transmitted outside of China to Japan, Korea and Vietnam.
Sōtō is the Japanese line of Caodong and it was founded by Japanese Sōtō monk on an alms round
Dōgen (1200–1253), who emphasized the practice of (takuhatsu) sitting zazen.
shikantaza (nothing but just sitting). The Sōtō school has de-
emphasized kōans since Gentō Sokuchū (circa 1800).[244] A
Vietnamese Caodong lineage (Tào Động) was founded by 17th-century Chan master Thông Giác Đạo
Nam.[245] Recently, the Caodong silent illumination method was revived in the Sinosphere by Sheng Yen
and his Dharma Drum Mountain association.

Regarding Linji, it is known in Japan as the Rinzai school. This tradition emphasizes meditation on kōans
mediated through master disciple meetings (sanzen) as the essential method to attain kenshō (seeing one's
true nature).[246] Most traditions in Korean Seon are also generally in the Linji lineage, and focus on
huatou practice, though the exact methods and teachings on
this differ. There are also Vietnamese lineages of Linji, such
as the Lâm Tế and the Liễu Quán schools. These lineages
also mix Zen practice with Pure Land elements.[247][248]

Besides the two major families or traditions of Zen, there are

several smaller schools. These include:

Ōbaku-shū ( 黄檗宗 ), a school established in the

17th century. It includes classic Chan teachings and
also Pure Land methods. Jogyesa Temple Seon temple in Seoul

Fuke-shū ( 普化宗 ), a small Japanese sect. A unique

feature of this sect is the use of flute music as a
meditation.
Sanbo Kyodan, a modern Japanese school which
draws on both Rinzai and Sōtō methods.[233]
Trúc Lâm, a unique native sect of Vietnamese Zen
which is known for attempting to harmonize the
"Three teachings" of Buddhism, Confucianism and
Taoism.
The Plum Village (Làng Mai) Tradition, a new Tenryū-ji, the head temple of the Tenryū-ji
modern tradition founded by the influential branch of Rinzai.
Vietnamese teacher and activist Thích Nhất Hạnh
(1926–2022)
The Kwan Um School of Zen, a new modern
tradition founded by Zen Master Seung Sahn
Schools of Zen recently founded in America, such as
Ordinary Mind Zen School and White Plum Asanga.

Organization and institutions

Zen practice, like that of all religions, is supported by
collective endeavors.[249] Though some Zen sources
sometimes emphasize individual experience and Monks of the Trúc Lâm school, Tây Thiên
antinomianism, Zen traditions are maintained and transferred Monastery
by mostly hierarchical temple based institutions focused
around a core of ordained clergy.[250][251] These Zen masters
or teachers (Ch: shīfu師父 ; Jp: rōshi or oshō) may or may not be celibate monastics (bhiksus who follow
the Vinaya, the traditional Buddhist monastic code) depending on the tradition.

Some important Zen organizations include the Japanese Sōtō school, the Soto Zen Buddhist Association
of America, the various independent branches of Japanese Rinzai, the Korean Jogye and Taego orders,
and the Chinese Dharma Drum Mountain and Fo Guang Shan organizations. In Japan, modernity led to
criticism of traditional Zen institutions and new lay-oriented Zen-schools such as the Sanbo Kyodan[252]
and the Ningen Zen Kyodan emerged in response.[253] Some modern challenges for contemporary Zen
include how to organize the continuity of the Zen-tradition, constraining charismatic authority (with the
risk of abuse of power it brings) on the one hand,[254][255][90] and maintaining the legitimacy of
traditional authorities by limiting the number of authorized teachers on the other hand.[249]
Dharma transmission
An important feature of traditional Zen institutions is the use
of dharma transmission (Chinese: 傳法 chuán fǎ) from
master to disciple to pass on Zen lineages to the next
generation. The procedure of dharma transmission,
particularly the act of "authorization" or "confirmation" ( 印
可 , Ch: yìn kě, Jp: inka, K: inga), is considered to establish a
Zen teacher as a direct successor of their master and to link
them to a lineage which is traditionally believed to go back to
the ancient Chinese patriarchs and to the Buddha Soto Zen priest Myozan Kodo, right,
himself. [256][257][258] These transmissions are sometimes seen receives Dharma Transmission from his
esoterically as the "mind to mind" transmission of the light of teacher Taigu Turlur, Paris, 2014.
awakening from master to disciple. [259] Scholars like William
Bodiford and John Jorgensen have argued that this "ancestral"
dimension of Zen which sees the school as an extended family is influenced by Confucian values, and
that it is part of what allowed Zen to become such an influential form of Buddhism in East Asia.[257]

Zen lineages often maintain Zen lineage charts which list all the teachers in their transmission lineage,
establishing institutional legitimacy by claiming a direct link from the Buddha to the present.[260] Indeed,
according to Michel Mohr, the traditional view is that "it is through the transmission process that the
identity and integrity of the lineage is preserved."[261] Zen lineage narratives were further supported by
"transmission of the lamp" texts (e.g. Jǐngdé Chuándēnglù), which contained stories of the past masters
and legitimized Zen lineages. These texts could often be sectarian, favoring a specific lineage or school
and they sometimes even led to conflict among the Zen schools.[261] Furthermore, these Zen transmission
narratives were often not historically accurate and contain mythological material developed over
centuries in China. Their historicity has been recently critiqued by modern scholars.[262][263][260]

The formal practice of dharma transmission is generally understood in two main ways by Zen traditions.
It can be seen as a formal recognition of a disciple's deep spiritual realization, which is separate from
clerical ordination.[264] It could also be understood as an institutional procedure which ensures the
transmission of a temple lineage.[264][265][261]

The institutions of Dharma transmission have come under criticism in various times throughout Zen
history. According to Jørn Borup, Zen masters like Linji and Ikkyū "were said to have refused to receive
transmission certificates," rejecting the circus associated with such things.[260] During the Ming dynasty,
important masters like Hanshan Deqing, Zibo Zhenke, and Yunqi Zhuhong did not belong to any formal
lineage.[267][268] According to Jiang Wu, these eminent Ming Chan monks emphasized self-cultivation
while criticizing formulaic instructions and nominal recognition. Wu writes that at this time "eminent
monks, who practiced meditation and asceticism but without proper dharma transmission, were acclaimed
as acquiring 'wisdom without teachers' (wushizhi)."[268] Hanshan's writings indicate that he seriously
questioned the value of dharma transmission, seeing personal enlightenment as what truly mattered in
Zen.[268]

In a similar fashion, several important medieval Japanese masters like Takuan Sōhō eschewed formal
transmission and did not believe it was necessary since the Dharma was always available to be discovered
within.[269] Suzuki Shōsan, an example of the phenomenon known as "self-enlightened and self-certified"
(jigo jishō自悟自証 ), or "enlightened independently without a teacher" (mushi-dokugo 無師独悟 ), did
not receive transmission in any particular school of Zen.[270]
Modern Chinese Buddhists like Tanxu, Taixu and Yinshun
criticized dharma transmission, seeing it as a Chinese
invention that was not taught by the Buddha. Taixu held that
the practice led to sectarianism, and Tanxu wrote that it
contributed to the decline of Zen.[271] Yinshun believed that
the Dharma was not something that could belong to anyone
and thus it could not be "transmitted" in a lineage.[271]

Daehaeng, a modern Korean Sŏn nun

Scripture who was said to have "awakened herself
through many years of ascetic practices
rather than through teachers or going
through formal Buddhist training."[266]
The role of scripture in Zen See the phenomenon known as "wisdom
without a teacher."
Zen is deeply rooted in the teachings and doctrines of
Mahāyāna Buddhism.[272][170][171] Classic Zen texts, such as
the Platform sutra, contain numerous references to Mahāyāna
sutras.[273] According to Sharf, Zen monastics "are expected
to become familiar with the classics of the Zen canon".[274] A
review of the early historical literature of early Zen clearly
reveals that their authors were well versed in numerous
Mahāyāna sūtras,[8][8] as well as Mahayana Buddhist
philosophy such as Madhyamaka.[170]

Nevertheless, Zen masters are sometimes pictured as

iconoclastically anti-intellectual and dismissive of scriptural
study, or at least as weary of scripture.[272] Early Chan
sources contain numerous statements which see scriptural
study as unnecessary. The Bodhidharma Anthology for
example states "don't use knowledge of the sutras and
treatises" and instead states one should return to the ultimate Tablets of the Tripiṭaka Koreana, an early
principle, "firmly abiding without shifting, in no way edition of the Chinese Buddhist canon, in
Haeinsa, the head temple of the Seon
following after the written teachings".[275] The Bloodstream
Jogye order, South Korea
Sermon states: "The true Way is sublime. It can't be expressed
in language. Of what use are scriptures? But someone who
sees his own nature finds the Way, even if he can't read a word."[276]

This radical antinomian view of Zen became more pronounced during a period between the late Tang and
the Song Dynasty (960–1297), when Chan (especially the Hongzhou school) became the dominant in
China, and gained great popularity among the literary classes who were attracted to the idea that true
sages did not depend on texts and language.[277][278][279][280] Several famous phrases from this period
defined Zen as "not established on words and letters" and as "a special transmission outside the
scriptures" (statements which were anachronistically attributed to Bodhidharma).[281][282] The Record of
Linji is even more radical, stating that the Buddhist scriptures are "all so much old toilet paper to wipe
away filth".[283] Another example of this attitude is found in the story of Deshan Xuanjian, who is known
for having burned all his scriptural commentaries.[284]
However, scholars like Welter and Hori write that these rhetorical
statements were not a complete denial of the importance of study and
scripture, but a warning to those who mistake the teachings for the direct
insight into truth itself.[285][10] Indeed, Chan masters of this period continue
to cite and refer to Buddhist sutra passages.[note 13][note 14][note 15]
Furthermore, not all masters made use of this kind of "rhetorical" Chan
which was popular in the Chinese Linji school and emphasized a direct
"mind to mind" transmission of the truth from master to disciple while de-
emphasizing sutra study. Another contrasting style of Chinese Chan was a
more moderate "literary Chan" (wenzi chan, 文字禪 ) associated with
figures like Nanyang Huizhong, Zongmi, and Yongming Yanshou.[288] This
type of Chan continued to actively promote doctrinal study as a part of
Chan practice with the slogan of "the correspondence of the teachings and
Chan" (chiao-ch'an i-chih).[289][290] Even Mazu Daoyi, often depicted as a
great iconoclast, alludes to and quotes numerous Mahayana sutras (as do
other Hongzhou school masters). He also stated in his sermons that
Bodhidharma "used the Lankāvatāra Scripture to seal the sentient beings'
mind-ground".[291]
Liang Kai, The Sixth
Zongmi's perspective was that "the scriptures are like a marking line to be Patriarch Tearing a Sutra,
used as a standard to determine true and false....those who transmit Ch'an Song dynasty (960–1279
must use the scriptures and treatises as a standard."[174] Juefan Huihong AD)
(1071–1128) coined the term "literary chan" and wrote on the importance of
studying the sutras in his Zhizheng zhuan (Commentary on wisdom and
enlightenment). Later figures like Zibo Zhenke and Hanyue Fazang (1573–1635) promoted the view of
Chan practice which makes use of the sutras based on the Zhizheng zhuan.[288] Similarly, the Japanese
Rinzai master Hakuin writes that the Zen path begins with studying all the classic Buddhist sutras and
commentaries, citing one of the four vows which states: "the Dharma teachings are infinite, I vow to
study them all."[note 16]

As such, while the various Zen traditions today emphasize that enlightenment arises from a direct non-
conceptual insight, they also generally accept that study and understanding of the Buddhist teachings
support and guide one's practice.[293][294][note 17][295] Hori writes that modern Rinzai Zen teachers "do not
teach that intellectual understanding has nothing to do with Zen; instead they teach the quite opposite
lesson that Zen requires intellectual understanding and literary study".[10] Since the emphasis is generally
on a balanced approach to study and practice, the extremes which reject either pole are seen as
problematic by most Zen traditions. As Hori writes (referring to the attitude of the modern Rinzai school):
"the intellectual understanding of Zen and the experience itself are presented as standing in a
complementary, both/and relationship."[88] As such, it is said that the master of Zen uses two swords, the
study of the teaching (kyoso) and the experience of the way (doriki).[88]

Important scriptures
The early Buddhist schools in China were each based on a specific sutra. At the beginning of the Tang
dynasty, by the time of the Fifth Patriarch Hongren (601–674), the Zen school became established as a
separate school of Buddhism and began to develop its doctrinal position based on the scriptures.[218][296]
Various sutras were used by the early Zen tradition, even before the time of Hongren. They include the
Śrīmālādevī Sūtra (Huike),[297] Awakening of Faith
(Daoxin),[297] the Lankavatara Sutra (East Mountain
School),[297][8] the Diamond Sutra[298] (Shenhui),[297] and
the Platform Sutra (a Chinese composition).[8][298]

The Chan tradition drew inspiration from a variety of

scriptural sources and did not follow any single scripture over Reading a Sutra by Moonlight, by Ōbaku
the others.[299] Subsequently, the Zen tradition produced a Zen monk Sokuhi Nyoitsu (1616–1671).
rich corpus of written literature, which has become a part of
its practice and teaching. Other influential sutras in Zen are
the Vimalakirti Sutra,[300][301][302] Avatamsaka Sutra,[303] the Shurangama Sutra,[304] and the
Mahaparinirvana Sutra.[305] Important apocryphal sutras composed in China include the Sutra of Perfect
Enlightenment and the Vajrasamadhi sutra.

In his analysis of the works of the influential Tang dynasty Hongzhou school, Mario Poceski notes that
they cite the following Mahayana sutras often: the Lotus Sutra, the Huayan, the Nirvana, the
Laṅkāvatāra, the Prajñāpāramitā sutras, the Mahāratnakūta, the Mahāsamnipāta, and the Vimalakīrti.[291]

Literature
Zen developed a rich textual tradition, based on original Zen
writings, such as poems, dialogues, histories, and the
recorded sayings of Zen masters. Important Zen texts and
genres include:

Zen "sutras" or "scriptures" (Ch: jīng) such as the

Platform Sutra, a key work in the development and
history of Zen.[218] The Korean Vajrasamadhi sutra
is another apocryphal Zen work which calls itself a
"sutra".[306]
Poems or songs, like Faith in Mind, Song of the
Precious Mirror Samadhi and Song of Awakening
Records of Zen transmission and teachings
(tenglu),[307] and "encounter dialogues" (ch: jiyuan
wenda, jp: kien mondō) such as Masters of the
Lankavatara (c. 683-750), Transmission of the Lamp
(c. 1004),[308] and Anthology of the Patriarchal Hall
(952).
Recorded sayings of the masters (yulu) like the
Record of Mazu, Huangbo's Essential of Mind Reproduction of the Tenpuku version of
Transmission, the Linji Yulu and the Yunmen yulu. Dogen's Fukanzazengi, originally
Collections of Zen koans (Ch: gongan), such as the produced in 1233
Gateless Barrier, the Book of Equanimity and the
Blue Cliff Record.[309]
Meditation manuals like the Zuochan Yi and the Fukanzazengi .
History

Chinese Chan
The history of Chan in China is divided into various periods
by different scholars, who generally distinguish a classical
phase and a post-classical period. Each period had different
schools of Zen, some of which remained influential while
others vanished.[218]

Ferguson distinguishes three periods from the 5th century into

the 13th century: the Legendary period of the six patriarchs
(5th century to the 760s CE); the Classical period of the
Hongzhou masters (760s to 950); and the Literary period
(950-1250) of Song dynasty Chan which saw the compilation
of the gongan-collections and the rise of Linji and
Caodong.[310][218]

McRae distinguishes four rough phases in the history of Chan

(though he notes this is only an expedient device and the
reality was much more complicated):[311]

1. Proto-Chan (c. 500–600) (Southern and Northern

dynasties (420 to 589) and Sui dynasty (589–618
CE)). In this phase, Chan developed in multiple
Huike Offering His Arm to Bodhidharma,
locations in northern China. It was based on the Sesshū Tōyō (1496).
practice of meditation as taught by figures like
Bodhidharma and Huike. A key source from this
period is the Two Entrances and Four Practices,
attributed to Bodhidharma.[312]
2. Early Chan (c. 600–900, Tang dynasty c. 618–907 CE). In this phase Chan took its first
clear contours. Prime figures are the fifth patriarch Daman Hongren (601–674), his dharma-
heir Yuquan Shenxiu (606?–706), the sixth patriarch Huineng (638–713), protagonist of the
quintessential Platform Sutra, and Shenhui (670–762), whose propaganda elevated
Huineng to the status of sixth patriarch. Major schools are the Northern School, Southern
School and Oxhead school.[313]
3. Middle Chan (c. 750–1000, from An Lushan Rebellion c. 755–763 to the Five Dynasties
and Ten Kingdoms period (907–960/979)). Major schools include the Hongzhou school, the
Heze school, and the Hubei faction[note 18] Some key figures include Mazu, Shitou,
Huangbo, Linji, Xuefeng Yicun, Zongmi and Yongming Yanshou. A key text from this period
is the Anthology of the Patriarchal Hall (952), which includes many "encounter stories", as
well as the traditional genealogy of the Chan-school.[316]
4. Song Dynasty Chan (c. 950–1300). This period saw the development of the traditional Zen
narrative as well as the rise of the Linji school and the Caodong school. The key figures are
Dahui Zonggao (1089–1163), who introduced the Hua Tou practice, and Hongzhi Zhengjue
(1091–1157) who emphasized Shikantaza. This era saw the composition of the classic
koan-collections (e.g. Blue Cliff Record) which reflect the influence of the literati class on the
 development of Chan.[12][281][317] In this phase Chan is transported to Japan, and exerts a
great influence on Korean Seon via Jinul (1158–1210).
Neither Ferguson nor McRae give a periodisation for Chinese Chan following the Song-dynasty, though
McRae mentions "at least a post-classical phase or perhaps multiple phases".[318] David McMahan
discusses the later Ming (1368–1644) and Qing (1644–1912) era of Chan, which saw increasing
syncretism with other traditions, and a later modern phase (19th century onwards) during which Chan
adapted western ideas and attempted to modernize in response to the pressure of foreign imperialism.[319]

Origins
Before the arrival of the "founder" of Chan, Bodhidharma, various Buddhist masters of meditation or
dhyana (Ch: channa) had taught in China, including An Shigao and Buddhabhadra. These figures also
brought with them various meditation texts, called the Dhyāna sutras which mainly drew from the
teachings of the Sarvāstivāda.[27][320][321][322] These early meditation texts laid the groundwork for the
practices of Chan Buddhism.[323] The translation work of Kumārajīva (especially his Prajñāpāramitā
translations and his Vimalakirti Sutra), Buddhabhadra (Avatamsaka Sutra) and Gunabhadra (Lankāvatāra
sūtra) were also key formative influences on Chan and remained key sources for later Chan masters.[324]
Indeed, in some early Chan texts (like the Masters of the Lankāvatāra), it is Gunabhadra, not
Bodhidharma, which is seen as the first patriarch who transmits the Chan lineage (here seen as
synonymous with the Lankāvatāra tradition) from India.[325] The meditation works of the fourth Tiantai
patriarch Zhiyi, such as his monumental Mohezhiguan, were also influential on later Chan meditation
manuals, like the Tso-chan-i.[326]

A further influence on the origin of Chan Buddhism is Taoism. Some of the earliest Chinese Buddhists
were influenced by Daoist thought and terminology and this has led some scholars to see a Taoist
influence on Chan.[327][328][329][330][331] Two Chinese disciples of Kumārajīva, Sengzhao and Tao Sheng
were influenced by Taoist works like the Laozi and Zhuangzi.[330] These Sanlun figures in turn had an
influence on some early Chan masters.[332] When Buddhism came to China from Gandhara (now
Afghanistan) and India, it was initially adapted to the Chinese culture and understanding. Buddhism was
exposed to Confucianist[333] and Taoist[334][327]influences.[note 19][335] Buddhism was first identified to
be "a barbarian variant of Taoism":[328]

Judging from the reception by the Han of the Hinayana works and from the early
commentaries, it appears that Buddhism was being perceived and digested through the medium
of religious Taoism. Buddha was seen as a foreign immortal who had achieved some form of
Daoist nondeath. The Buddhists' mindfulness of the breath was regarded as an extension of
Daoist breathing exercises.[305]

Taoist terminology was used to express Buddhist doctrines in the oldest translations of Buddhist
texts,[328] a practice termed ko-i, "matching the concepts."[336]The first Buddhist recruits in China were
Taoists.[328] They developed high esteem for the newly introduced Buddhist meditational techniques,[337]
and blended them with Taoist meditation.[338] It was against this background that the Taoist concept of
naturalness was inherited by the early Chan disciples:[339] they equated – to some extent – the ineffable
Tao and Buddha-nature,[340] and thus, rather than feeling bound to the abstract "wisdom of the sūtras,"
emphasized Buddha-nature to be found in "everyday" human life, just like the Tao.[340]
Proto-Chan
Proto-Chan (c. 500–600) encompasses the Southern and
Northern dynasties period (420 to 589) and Sui dynasty (589–
618 CE). This is the time of the first "patriarchs" of Chan, like
Bodhidharma, Seng-fu and Huike. There is little actual
historical information about these early figures and most
legendary stories about their life come from later, mostly
Tang sources. What is known is that they were considered
Mahayana meditation masters (chanshi).[341][218]

An important text from this period is the Two Entrances and

Four Practices, found in Dunhuang, and attributed to
Bodhidharma.[312] Later sources mention that these figures
taught using the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra though there is no direct
evidence of this from the earliest sources.[342][343] According
to John McRae, the earliest Chan sources on these masters
show considerable influence from Madhyamaka thought,
while the influence from the Laṅkāvatāra is actually much
less pronounced. As such, it is questionable if it was there at
all with regards to the earliest figures like Bodhidharma and Bodhidharma, stone carving in Shaolin
Huike.[341] Temple.

Early Chan
Early Chan refers to early Tang dynasty (618–750) Chan. The
fifth patriarch Daman Hongren (601–674), and his dharma-
heir Yuquan Shenxiu (606?–706) were influential in founding
the first Chan institution in Chinese history, known as the
"East Mountain school".[344] Hongren emphasized the
meditation practice of "maintaining (guarding) the mind,"
which focuses on "an awareness of True Mind or Buddha-
nature within".[345] Shenxiu was the most influential and
charismatic student of Hongren and was considered to be the
sixth patriarch by his followers. He was even invited to the
Imperial Court by Empress Wu.[346]

Shenxiu also became the target of much criticism by Shenhui

(670–762), for his supposedly "gradualist" teachings. Shenhui
instead promoted the "sudden" teachings attributed to his
teacher Huineng (638–713).[347] Shenhui's propaganda
campaign eventually succeeded when he became a key figure
in the royal court, elevating Huineng to the status of sixth
Hóngrěn, the fifth patriarch of Zen patriarch of Chinese Chan.[348][218]

This sudden vs. gradual debate came to define later forms of

Chan discourse.[349]
This early period also saw the composition of the Platform Sutra, which would
become one of the most influential Chan texts of all time. The sutra purports to contain the teachings of
the sixth Patriarch Huineng, but modern scholars like Yanagida Seizan now believe that it was redacted
over a period of time within the Oxhead school.[306] According to McRae, the text attempts to reconcile
the so called "sudden" teachings with the "gradual" teachings of the Northern school.[350]

Middle Chan
The Middle Chan (c. 750–1000) phase runs from the An
Lushan Rebellion (755–763) to the Five Dynasties and Ten
Kingdoms period (907–960/979). This period saw the rise of
Chan schools in rural southern China. The most prominent
among them was the Hongzhou school of Mazu Daoyi (709–
788), which arose in Hunan and Jiangxi.[306]

Other important Hongzhou masters include Dazhu Huihai,

Baizhang Huaihai, and Huangbo Xiyun. This school is
sometimes seen as the archetypal expression of Chan, with its
emphasis on the personal expression of the buddha-mind in
everyday life activities, its use of slang and Chinese
vernacular as opposed to classical Chinese, as well as the
Mazu Daoyi
importance it placed on spontaneous and unconventional
"questions and answers during an encounter" (linji wenda)
between master and disciple.[306] This period also sees the first Chan monastic code, the Pure Rules of
Baizhang.[306]

Some sources depict these masters as highly antinomian and iconoclastic people, who make paradoxical
or nonsensical statements, shout at and beat their students to shock them into realization.[171][351][352]
However, modern scholars have seen much of the literature that presents these "iconoclastic" encounters
as being later revisions during the Song era. The Hongzhou masters may not have been as radical as the
Song sources depict them to be and they seem to have promoted traditional Buddhist practices like
keeping precepts, accumulating good karma and practicing meditation.[351]

There were other important schools of Zen in this period as well, such as the Jìngzhòng school of Zhishen
(609–702) and Kim Hwasang which was based in Sichuan, the Baotang school (also in Sichuan), and the
more moderate and intellectual Heze lineage of Guifeng Zongmi (780–841).[306] Zongmi, who was also a
Huayan patriarch, is known for his critique of the Hongzhou tradition, his sutra commentaries, and for his
extensive writings on Chan.[353][306]

The Great Anti-Buddhist Persecution in 845 was devastating for all schools of metropolitan Chinese
Buddhism, but the Chan tradition survived in the rural areas and in the outlying regions.[306] Chan was
thus in a position to take a leading role in the later eras of Chinese Buddhism.[354]

During the subsequent Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms era, the Hongzhou school gradually split into
several regional traditions led by various masters. These eventually became known as the Five Houses of
Chan: Guīyǎng, Cáodòng, Línjì, Fǎyǎn and Yúnmén.[306] Some schools of this period, particularly that
of Linji Yixuan (d. 866), promoted an iconoclastic and often absurd style, with masters often hitting and
shouting at students.[306][352] This period also saw the development of encounter dialogue literature,
some of which were retroactively attributed to past Chan masters.[352] An important encounter dialogue
text from this period is the Anthology of the Patriarchal Hall (952), which also establishes a genealogy of
the Chan school.[316][306]

Song Dynasty Chan

During Song Dynasty Chan (c. 950–1300), Chan Buddhism
became a dominant force. Chan became the largest sect of
Chinese Buddhism and had strong ties to the imperial
government, which led to the development of a highly
organized system of temple rank and administration.[356] The
development of printing technology advanced during this era,
and Chan works were widely printed and distributed.[306]
Furthermore, during this period, Chan literati developed their
own idealized history, seeing the Tang era as a "golden age"
of Chan.[11] It was also during the Song dynasty, in 1036 CE,
that Chan's founding myth linking its transmission to the
Flower Sermon first appeared.[357] In spite of the popularity
of Chan at this time, it faced increased attack by Neo-
Confucian scholars who wrote critiques of Buddhism and
dominated the imperial examination system.[306]

The dominant form of Song Chan was the Linji school. This
was due to extensive support from the scholar-officials and
the imperial court.[358] The Linji school developed the study Dahui introduced the method of kan
of gong'an ("public case", Jp: kōan) literature, which depicted huatou, or "inspecting the critical phrase",
stories of master-student encounters that were seen as of a kōan story. This method was called
demonstrations of the awakened mind. Most kōan stories the "Chan of kōan introspection" (Kanhua
depicted the idealized encounters of past Chan masters, Chan).[355]
particularly from the Tang era, and show the influence of the
Chinese literati class.[359][11][12][281] Some influential kōan
texts are the Blue Cliff Record, the Book of Equanimity and The Gateless Gate.[317]

During the 12th century, a rivalry emerged between the Linji and the Caodong schools for the support of
Chinese elites. Most well known Linji masters were aligned with either Huanglong Huinan (1002-1069)
or Yangqi Fanghui (992-1049), both students of Shishuang Chuyan (986–1039). Yuanwu Keqin (1063-
1135) called this the "five families and seven traditions", referring to the five houses and the Huanglong
and Yangqi branches of the Linji tradition.[360] Hongzhi Zhengjue (1091–1157) of the Caodong school
emphasized silent illumination or serene reflection (mòzhào) as a means for solitary practice, which could
be undertaken by lay-followers. The Linji school's Dahui Zonggao (1089–1163) meanwhile, introduced
k'an-hua chan ("observing the word-head" chan), which involved meditation on the crucial phrase or
"punch line" (hua-tou) of a gong'an.[361][362]

The Song also saw the syncretism of Chan and Pure Land Buddhism by figures like Yongming Yanshou
(904–975), a practice that would become very popular.[363] Yongming also echoed Zongmi's work in
indicating that the values of Taoism and Confucianism could also be embraced and integrated into
Buddhism. Chan also influenced Neo-Confucianism as well as certain forms of Taoism, such as the
Quanzhen school.[364][365]

During the Song, Chan was also transmitted to Japan by figures Myōan Eisai and Nanpo Shōmyō who
studied in China. It also exerted a great influence on Korean Seon via figures like Jinul.

Post-Classical Chan
Some scholars see the post-classical phase as an "age of syncretism."[366] The post-classical period saw
the increasing popularity of the dual practice of Chan and Pure Land Buddhism (known as nianfo Chan),
as seen in the teachings of Zhongfeng Mingben (1263–1323), Hanshan Deqing (1546–1623) and Ouyi
Zhixu (1599–1655).[306][367] This became a widespread phenomenon and in time much of the distinction
between them was lost, with many monasteries teaching both Chan meditation and the Pure Land practice
of nianfo.[368][369][98] The Ming dynasty also saw the efforts of figures such as Yunqi Zhuhong (1535–
1615) and Daguan Zhenke (1543–1603) to revive and reconcile Chan Buddhism with the practice of
Buddhist scriptural study and writing.[366] This non-sectarian and syncretic style of Chan Buddhism
which drew on all facets of Chinese Buddhism was so dominant at this time, that all Chinese monks were
affiliated a Chan school during the Ming.[370]

In the beginning of the Qing dynasty, the highly influential teacher Miyun Yuanwu (1566–1642) began a
revival of the Linji school style.[371] Miyun's students had a broad impact on Qing Chan, as well as on
Japanese and Vietnamese Zen.[372]

Modern era
After further centuries of decline during the Qing dynasty
(1644–1912), Chan activity was revived again in the 19th and
20th centuries by a flurry of modernist activity. This period
saw the rise of worldly Chan activism, what is sometimes
called Humanistic Buddhism (or more literally "Buddhism for
human life", rensheng fojiao), promoted by figures like
Jing'an (1851–1912), Yuanying (1878–1953), Taixu (1890–
1947), Xuyun (1840–1959) and Yinshun (1906–2005). These
figures promoted social activism to address issues such as
poverty and social injustice, as well as participation in Chan masters Xuyun and Laiguo. Xuyun
political movements. They also promoted modern science and was one of the most influential Chan
Buddhists of the 19th and 20th
scholarship, including the use of the methods of modern
centuries.[373]
critical scholarship to study the history of Chan.[374]

Many Chan teachers today trace their lineage back to Xuyun,

including Sheng-yen and Hsuan Hua, who have propagated Chan in the West where it has grown steadily
through the 20th and 21st centuries. Chan Buddhism was repressed in China during the 1960s in the
Cultural Revolution, but in the subsequent reform and opening up period in the 1970s, a revival of
Chinese Buddhism has been taking place on the mainland, while Buddhism has a significant following in
Taiwan and Hong Kong as well as among Overseas Chinese.
Spread outside of China

Vietnamese Thiền
Chan was introduced to Vietnam during the early Chinese
occupation periods (111 BCE to 939 CE) as Thiền. During
the Lý (1009–1225) and Trần (1225 to 1400) dynasties,
Thiền rose to prominence among the elites and the royal
court and a new native tradition was founded, the Trúc Lâm
("Bamboo Grove") school, which also contained Confucian
and Taoist influences. In the 17th century, the Linji school
was brought to Vietnam as the Lâm Tế, which also mixed
Chan and Pure land. Lâm Tế remains the largest monastic
order in the country today.[248]

Modern Vietnamese Thiền is influenced by Buddhist

Thích Nhất Hạnh leading a namo modernism.[375] Important figures include Thiền master
avalokiteshvaraya chanting session with
Thích Thanh Từ (1924–), the activist and popularizer Thích
monastics from his Order of Interbeing,
Germany 2010
Nhất Hạnh (1926–2022) and the philosopher Thích Thiên-
Ân. Vietnamese Thiền is eclectic and inclusive, bringing in
many practices such as breath meditation, nianfo, mantra,
Theravada influences, chanting, sutra recitation and engaged Buddhism activism.

Korean Seon
선
Seon ( ) was gradually transmitted into Korea during the
late Silla period (7th through 9th centuries) as Korean monks
travelled to China and returned home to establish the initial
Seon schools of Korea, which were known as the "nine
mountain schools". Seon received its most significant impetus
and consolidation from the Goryeo monk Jinul (1158–1210),
who is considered the most influential figure in the formation
of the mature Seon school. Jinul founded the Jogye Order,
which remains the largest Seon tradition in Korea today, as Jogyesa is the headquarters of the Jogye
well as the important Songgwangsa temple. Jinul also wrote Order. The temple was first established in
extensive works on Seon, developing a comprehensive 1395, at the dawn of the Joseon dynasty.
system of thought and practice.

Buddhism was mostly suppressed during the strictly Confucian Joseon dynasty (1392–1910), and the
number of monasteries and clergy sharply declined. The period of Japanese occupation also brought
numerous modernist ideas and changes to Korean Seon. Some monks began to adopt the Japanese
practice of marrying and having families, while others such as Yongseong, worked to resist the Japanese
occupation. Today, the largest Seon school, the Jogye, enforces celibacy, while the second largest, the
Taego Order, allows for married priests. Important modernist figures that influenced contemporary Seon
include Seongcheol and Gyeongheo. Seon has also been transmitted to West, with new traditions such as
the Kwan Um School of Zen.
Japanese Zen
Zen was not introduced as a separate school until the 12th
century, when Myōan Eisai traveled to China and returned to
establish a Linji lineage, which eventually perished.[376]
Decades later, Nanpo Shōmyō (1235–1308) also studied Linji
teachings in China before founding the Japanese Otokan
lineage, the most influential and only surviving lineage of
Rinzai in Japan.[376] In 1215, Dōgen, a younger
contemporary of Eisai's, journeyed to China himself, where
he became a disciple of the Caodong master Tiantong Rujing.
After his return, Dōgen established the Sōtō school, the
Japanese branch of Caodong.

The three traditional schools of Zen in contemporary Japan

are the Sōtō (曹洞 ), Rinzai (臨済 ), and Ōbaku ( 黃檗 ). The
schools are further divided into subschools by head temple,
with two head temples for Sōtō (Sōji-ji and Eihei-ji), fourteen
head temples for Rinzai, and one head temple (Manpuku-ji)
for Ōbaku. Besides these traditional organizations, there are
newer modern Zen organizations that have especially Sojiji Temple, of the Soto Zen school,
attracted Western lay followers, namely the Sanbo Kyodan Tsurumi-ku, Yokohama, Japan
and the FAS Society.

Zen in the West

Various Zen traditions were transmitted to the West in the
20th century. Important Asian figures in this transmission
include Soyen Shaku, D. T. Suzuki, Nyogen Senzaki, Sokei-
an, Shunryu Suzuki, Taizan Maezumi, Hsuan Hua, Sheng-
yen, Seung Sahn, Taisen Deshimaru, Thích Thiên-Ân and
Thích Nhất Hạnh. Among the first Western Zen teachers
were Ruth Fuller Sasaki, Philip Kapleau, Robert Baker
Aitkin, Walter Nowick, Brigitte D'Ortschy, Hōun Jiyu-
Kennett and Myokyo-ni.[377][378][379] Zen became more
popular in the West when authors including Jack Kerouac,
Allen Ginsberg, Alan Watts, Gary Snyder, Erich Fromm,
Robert Pirsig and Eugen Herrigel wrote on and promoted
Zen.[380][381][382] There are currently numerous Zen centers
from various traditions in the Western world, including
Rinzai, Sōtō, Plum Village, Chinese Chan and Kwan Um.

Narratives D.T. Suzuki

The Chan of the Tang dynasty, especially that of Mazu and

Linji with its antinomian sayings and emphasis on "shock techniques," was retrospectively seen as a
"golden age" of Chan by later Chan authors.[218] As Mario Poceski writes, Song dynasty texts like the
Record of the Transmission of the Lamp (c. 1004) depict the past masters as iconoclastic sages who
embraced radical and transgressive practices like shouting, beating their students and making paradoxical
statements. However, these iconoclastic stories cannot be traced back to Tang era sources, and as such,
they should be seen as apocryphal lore.[383] This traditional Zen narrative became dominant during the
Song, when Chan became the dominant form of Buddhism in China, due to support from the Imperial
Court and the scholar-official class.[218]

Another important element of the traditional Zen narrative is that Zen is an unbroken lineage that has
transmitted the enlightened Buddha-mind from the time of Shakyamuni Buddha to the present. This
narrative is traditionally supported through Zen histories and Zen lineage charts, which developed in
China throughout several centuries until they became canonized in the Song.[263]

The traditional picture of the ancient iconoclastic Zen masters has gained great popularity in the West in
the 20th century, especially due to the influence of D.T. Suzuki,[319] and Hakuun Yasutani.[384] This
traditional narrative has been challenged, and complemented, since the 1970s by modern academic
research on Zen history and pre-Song sources.[218][385][386][387][388][389]

Modern scientific research on the history of Zen discerns three main narratives concerning Zen, its
history and its teachings: Traditional Zen Narrative (TZN),[390][391] Buddhist Modernism (BM),[319]
Historical and Cultural Criticism (HCC).[390] An external narrative is Nondualism, which claims Zen to
be a token of a universal nondualist essence of religions.[392][393]

See also
List of Buddhists
Outline of Buddhism
Timeline of Buddhism
Chinese Chan
101 Zen Stories
Chinso
Shussan Shaka
Katsu

Notes
1. In this article, the English term Zen, while derived from Japanese, is used to refer to the
school of Buddhism as a whole. There is a separate article specifically on Japanese Zen.
2. Dumoulin writes in his preface to Zen. A History. Part One: India and China: "Zen (Chin.
Ch'an, an abbreviation of ch'an-na, which transliterates the Sanskrit Dhyāna (Devanagari:
ध्यान) or its Pali cognate Jhāna (Sanskrit; Pāli झान), terms meaning 'meditation') is the name
of a Mahāyāna Buddhist school of meditation originating in China. It is characterized by the
practice of meditation in the lotus position (Jpn., zazen; Chin., tso-ch'an and the use of the
koan (Chin., kung-an) as well as by the enlightenment experience of satori."[18]
3. Harold Stewart, "Awakening to One's True Personality" ([Link]
m): "In Buddhist terminology this all-decisive moment is known as the Awakening of the
Buddha-Mind, or Bodaishin, when the third, or frontal, eye of prajna, the intellectual intuition,
first opens. There are three practically synonymous terms in the Mahayana for this:
Bodaishin (Sanskrit: Bodhicitta); Busshin, literally 'Buddha-Heart' of Great Compassion
(Sanskrit: Tathagatagarbha, or the latent possibility of Buddhahood inherent in all beings);
and Bussho (Sanskrit: Buddhata), or the Buddha-nature.

Compare "Buddha's compassion, Buddha's heart",[23] and "The term buddha-mind also
functions in certain cases as a synonym for Buddhadatū (foxing) or tathagatagarbha."[3]
4. An early Chan critique of the notion of "pacifying the mind" can be found in the Oxhead
School text, the Jueguan lun:

"What is the mind? What is it to pacify the mind (an-hsin 安心

)?" [The master] answered:
"You should not posit a mind, nor should you attempt to pacify it—this may be called
'pacified.'"[38]
5. Sharf observes that "maintaining the one" or "guarding the one" (shou yi 守一 ) fell out of
favor with the eclipse of the Northern School. Evidence of this can be seen in the Xinxin
Ming, for example: “If there is even a trace of ‘is’ or ‘is not,’ the mind will be lost in confusion.
Although the two comes from the One, do not guard even this One.”[42]

Other sources explicitly reject the notion of "maintaining" or "preserving" (shou 守). See for
example the Xin Ming (not to be confused with the Xinxin Ming):

"Bodhi exists originally

It has no need of being preserved
Afflictions have no intrinsic existence
They do not need to be eradicated
Numinous knowing is self-illuminated
The myriad dharmas return to Thusness
There is no return, no receiving
Cut off contemplation, forget preservation"[43]
6. It first appears in a Chinese text named the Ju-tao an-hsin yao-fang-pien fa-men (JTFM,
Instructions on essential expedients for calming the mind and accessing the path), itself a
part of the Leng Ch'ieh Shih Tzu Chi (Records of the Masters of the Lankavatara).[40] The
Records of the Masters of the Lankavatara is associated with the early Chan tradition known
as the "East Mountain School" and has been dated to around 713.[44]
7. The original title of the Long Scroll, the earliest extant Chan text, is unknown. Although it has
been called the Long Scroll of the Treatise on the Two Entrances and Four Practices, John
Jorgensen writes in his thesis on this text, "I have titled it the Long Scroll rather than
the Erh-ju ssu-hsing lun [Treatise on the Two Entrances and Four Practices] or Ta-mo
lun because these latter titles are confusing and ill-defined."[56]
8. The Japanese Rinzai master Takuan Sōhō was critical of the practice of placing the mind
below the navel (at the hara/tanden) in concentration. He said, "...viewed from the highest
standpoint of Buddhism, putting the mind just below the navel and not allowing it to wander
is a low level of understanding, not a high one. [...] If you consider putting your mind below
your navel and not letting it wander, your mind will be taken by the mind that thinks of this
plan. You will have no ability to move ahead and will be exceptionally unfree."[68]
 9. Similarly, according to the famous East Asian śāstra, the Awakening of Faith, one does not
concentrate on the breath:

"Should there be a person who desires to practice “cessation,” he should stay in a quiet
place and sit erect in an even temper. [His attention should be focused] neither on breathing
nor on any form or color, nor on empty space, earth, water, fire, wind, nor even on what has
been seen, heard, remembered, or conceived."[74]
10. According to Kalupahana, the influence of Yogacara is stronger in the ts'ao-tung school and
the tradition of silent meditation, while the influence of Madhyamaka is clear in the koan-
tradition and its stress on insight and the use of paradoxical language.[199]
11. Compare Mazu's "Mind is Buddha" versus "No mind, no Buddha": "When Ch'an Master Fa-
ch'ang of Ta-mei Mountain went to see the Patriarch for the first time, he asked, "What is
Buddha?"
The Patriarch replied, "Mind is Buddha." [On hearing this] Fa-ch'ang had great awakening.
Later, he went to live on Ta-mei Mountain. When the Patriarch heard that he was residing on
the mountain, he sent one of his monks to go there and ask Fa-ch'ang, "What did the
Venerable obtain when he saw Ma-tsu, so that he has come to live on this mountain?"
Fach'ang said, "Ma-tsu told me that mind is Buddha; so I came to live here."
The monk said, "Ma-tsu's teaching has changed recently."
Fa-ch'ang asked, "What is the difference?"
The monk said, "Nowadays he also says, 'Neither mind nor Buddha."'
Fa-ch'ang said, "That old man still hasn't stopped confusing people. You can have 'neither
mind nor Buddha,' I only care for 'mind is Buddha."'
The monk returned to the Patriarch and reported what had happened. "The plum is ripe,"
said the Patriarch."[202]
12. For example, the Platform Sutra attempts to reconcile Shenhui's rhetoric of sudden
awakening and rejection of gradualism with actual Buddhist practices and training methods,
just like later Chan writers like Zongmi did.[231]
13. Sasaki's translation of the Linji yulu contains an extensive biography of 62 pages, listing
influential Chinese Buddhist texts that played a role in Song dynasty Chán.[286]
14. Albert Low: "It is evident that the masters were well versed in the sutras. Zen master
Tokusan, for example, knew the Diamond Sutra well and, before meeting with his own Zen
master, lectured upon it extensively; the founder of the Zen sect, Bodhidharma, the very one
who preached selfrealization outside the scriptures, nevertheless advocated the
Lankavatara Sutra; Zen master Hogen knew the Avatamsaka Sutra well, and koan twenty-
six in the Mumonkan, in which Hogen is involved, comes out of the teaching of that sutra.
Other koans, too, make reference directly or indirectly to the sutras. The autobiography of
yet another Zen master, Hui Neng, subsequently became the Platform Sutra, one of those
sutras so condemned by those who reject intellectual and sutra studies"[287]
15. Poceski: "Direct references to specific scriptures are relatively rare in the records of Mazu
and his disciples, but that does not mean that they rejected the canon or repudiated its
authority. On the contrary, one of the striking features of their records is that they are filled
with scriptural quotations and allusions, even though the full extent of their usage of
canonical sources is not immediately obvious and its discernment requires familiarity with
Buddhist literature." See source for a full-length example from "one of Mazu's sermons", in
which can be found references to the Vimalakīrti Scripture, the Huayan Scripture, the
Mahāsamnipata-sūtra, the Foshuo Foming Scripture
[8]
佛說佛名經 , the Lankāvatāra scripture
and the Faju jing.
16. "[A] person [...] must first gain wide-ranging knowledge, accumulate a treasure-store of
wisdom by studying all the Buddhist sutras and commentaries, reading through all the
classic works Buddhist and non-Buddhist and perusing the writings of the wise men of other
traditions. It is for that reason the vow states 'the Dharma teachings are infinite, I vow to
study them all.'"[292]
17. Hakuin goes as far as to state that the buddhat path even starts with study: "[A] person [...]
must first gain wide-ranging knowledge, accumulate a treasure-store of wisdom by studying
all the Buddhist sutras and commentaries, reading through all the classic works Buddhist
and nonBuddhist and perusing the writings of the wise men of other traditions. It is for that
reason the vow states "the Dharma teachings are infinite, I vow to study them all.""[292]
18. McRae gives no further information on this "Hubei faction". It may be the continuation of
Shenxiu's "Northern School". See Nadeau 2012 p.89.[314] Hebei was also the place where
the Linji branch of chán arose.[315]
19. See also The Tao of Zen which argues that Zen is almost entirely grounded in Taoist
philosophy, though this fact is well covered by Mahayana Buddhism.[329]

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Further reading
Modern popular works

D.T. Suzuki, Essays in Zen Buddhism, First Series (1927), Second Series (1933), Third
Series (1934)
R. H. Blyth, Zen and Zen Classics, 5 volumes (1960–1970; reprints of works from 1942 into
the 1960s)
Alan Watts, The Way of Zen (1957)
Lu K'uan Yu (Charles Luk), Ch'an and Zen Teachings, 3 vols (1960, 1971, 1974), The
Transmission of the Mind: Outside the Teaching (1974)
Paul Reps & Nyogen Senzaki, Zen Flesh, Zen Bones (1957)
Philip Kapleau, The Three Pillars of Zen (1966)
Shunryu Suzuki, Zen Mind, Beginner's Mind (1970)
Katsuki Sekida, Zen Training: Methods & Philosophy (1975)
Classic historiography

Dumoulin, Heinrich (2005), Zen Buddhism: A History. Volume 1: India and China. World
Wisdom [Link] 978-0-941532-89-1
Dumoulin, Heinrich (2005), Zen Buddhism: A History. Volume 2: Japan. World Wisdom
[Link] 978-0-941532-90-7
Critical historiography
Overview

Heine, Steven (2007), "A Critical Survey of Works on Zen since Yampolsky" ([Link]
[Link]/web/20130921055236/[Link]
pdf) (PDF), Philosophy East & West, 57 (4): 577–592, doi:10.1353/pew.2007.0047 ([Link]
[Link]/10.1353%2Fpew.2007.0047), S2CID 170450246 ([Link]
pusID:170450246), archived from the original ([Link]
IL/[Link]) (PDF) on 21 September 2013, retrieved 3 October 2012
Formation of Chan in Tang & Song China

Welter, Albert (2000), "Mahakasyapa's smile. Silent Transmission and the Kung-an (Koan)
Tradition", in Steven Heine; Dale S. Wright (eds.), The Koan: Texts and Contexts in Zen
Buddhism, Oxford: Oxford University Press
Schlütter, Morten (2008), How Zen became Zen. The Dispute over Enlightenment and the
Formation of Chan Buddhism in Song-Dynasty China, Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press,
ISBN 978-0-8248-3508-8
Japan

Bodiford, William M. (1993), Sōtō Zen in Medieval Japan ([Link]

nmedieva0000bodi), University of Hawaii Press, ISBN 0-8248-1482-7
Modern times

Victoria, Brian Daizen (2006), Zen at war (Second ed.), Lanham e.a.: Rowman & Littlefield
Publishers, Inc.
Orientalism and east–west interchange

Borup, Jorn (n.d.), Zen and the Art of inverting Orientalism: religious studies and
genealogical networks ([Link]
King, Richard (2002), Orientalism and Religion: Post-Colonial Theory, India and "The Mystic
East", Routledge
McMahan, David L. (2008), The Making of Buddhist Modernism. Oxford University
[Link] 978-0-19-518327-6
Contemporary practice

Borup, Jørn (2008), Japanese Rinzai Zen Buddhism: Myōshinji, a Living Religion, Brill
Hori, Victor Sogen (1994), "Teaching and Learning in the Zen Rinzai Monastery" ([Link]
[Link]/web/20191019155421/[Link]
ing%20in%20the%20Rinzai%20Zen%20Monastery%[Link]) (PDF), Journal of Japanese
Studies (1): 5–35, doi:10.2307/132782 ([Link] JSTOR 132782
([Link] archived from the original on 19 October 2019
Buswell, Robert E. (1993a), The Zen Monastic Experience: Buddhist Practice in
Contemporary Korea, Princeton University Press

External links
thezensite ([Link]
Zen Buddhism WWW Virtual Library ([Link]
[Link]/[Link])
 Chart of (Asian) Zen schools ([Link]
[Link]/WWWVLPages/ZenPages/[Link])
Glossary of Japanese Zen terms ([Link]
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: entry on Japanese Zen Buddhism ([Link]
[Link]/entries/japanese-zen/)
What is Zen Buddhism? ([Link]

Retrieved from "[Link]