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electron volts. On the other hand, in a nuclear reaction, the energy release
is of the order of MeV. Thus for the same quantity of matter, nuclear
sources produce a million times more energy than a chemical source.
Fission of 1 kg of uranium, for example, generates 1014 J of energy;
compare it with burning of 1 kg of coal that gives 107 J.
13.7.1 Fission
New possibilities emerge when we go beyond natural radioactive decays
and study nuclear reactions by bombarding nuclei with other nuclear
particles such as proton, neutron, α-particle, etc.
A most important neutron-induced nuclear reaction is fission. An
235
example of fission is when a uranium isotope U bombarded with a
92
neutron breaks into two intermediate mass nuclear fragments
1
n + 235
0
236 144 89 1
92 U → 92 U → 56 Ba + 36 Kr + 3 0 n
(13.26)
The same reaction can produce other pairs of intermediate mass
fragments
1
0n + 235 236 133
92 U → 92 U → 51 Sb +
99
41 Nb + 4 10 n (13.27)
Or, as another example,
1
0 n + 235 140
92 U → 54 Xe +
94
38 Sr + 2 10 n (13.28)
The fragment products are radioactive nuclei; they emit β particles in
succession to achieve stable end products.
The energy released (the Q value ) in the fission reaction of nuclei like
uranium is of the order of 200 MeV per fissioning nucleus. This is
estimated as follows:
Let us take a nucleus with A = 240 breaking into two fragments each
of A = 120. Then
Ebn for A = 240 nucleus is about 7.6 MeV,
Ebn for the two A = 120 fragment nuclei is about 8.5 MeV.
∴ Gain in binding energy for nucleon is about 0.9 MeV.
Hence the total gain in binding energy is 240×0.9 or 216 MeV.
The disintegration energy in fission events first appears as the kinetic
energy of the fragments and neutrons. Eventually it is transferred to the
surrounding matter appearing as heat. The source of energy in nuclear
reactors, which produce electricity, is nuclear fission. The enormous
energy released in an atom bomb comes from uncontrolled nuclear fission.
We discuss some details in the next section how a nuclear reactor
functions.
13.7.2 Nuclear reactor
Notice one fact of great importance in the fission reactions given in Eqs.
(13.26) to (13.28). There is a release of extra neutron (s) in the fission
process. Averagely, 2½ neutrons are released per fission of uranium
452 nucleus. It is a fraction since in some fission events 2 neutrons are
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INDIA’S ATOMIC ENERGY PROGRAMME
The atomic energy programme in India was launched around the time of independence
under the leadership of Homi J. Bhabha (1909-1966). An early historic achievement
was the design and construction of the first nuclear reactor in India (named Apsara)
which went critical on August 4, 1956. It used enriched uranium as fuel and water as
moderator. Following this was another notable landmark: the construction of CIRUS
(Canada India Research U.S.) reactor in 1960. This 40 MW reactor used natural uranium
as fuel and heavy water as moderator. Apsara and CIRUS spurred research in a wide
range of areas of basic and applied nuclear science. An important milestone in the first
two decades of the programme was the indigenous design and construction of the
plutonium plant at Trombay, which ushered in the technology of fuel reprocessing
(separating useful fissile and fertile nuclear materials from the spent fuel of a reactor) in
India. Research reactors that have been subsequently commissioned include ZERLINA,
PURNIMA (I, II and III), DHRUVA and KAMINI. KAMINI is the country’s first large research
reactor that uses U-233 as fuel. As the name suggests, the primary objective of a research
reactor is not generation of power but to provide a facility for research on different aspects
of nuclear science and technology. Research reactors are also an excellent source for
production of a variety of radioactive isotopes that find application in diverse fields:
industry, medicine and agriculture.
The main objectives of the Indian Atomic Energy programme are to provide safe and
reliable electric power for the country’s social and economic progress and to be self-
reliant in all aspects of nuclear technology. Exploration of atomic minerals in India
undertaken since the early fifties has indicated that India has limited reserves of uranium,
but fairly abundant reserves of thorium. Accordingly, our country has adopted a three-
stage strategy of nuclear power generation. The first stage involves the use of natural
uranium as a fuel, with heavy water as moderator. The Plutonium-239 obtained from
reprocessing of the discharged fuel from the reactors then serves as a fuel for the second
stage — the fast breeder reactors. They are so called because they use fast neutrons for
sustaining the chain reaction (hence no moderator is needed) and, besides generating
power, also breed more fissile species (plutonium) than they consume. The third stage,
most significant in the long term, involves using fast breeder reactors to produce fissile
Uranium-233 from Thorium-232 and to build power reactors based on them.
India is currently well into the second stage of the programme and considerable
work has also been done on the third — the thorium utilisation — stage. The country
has mastered the complex technologies of mineral exploration and mining, fuel
fabrication, heavy water production, reactor design, construction and operation, fuel
reprocessing, etc. Pressurised Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs) built at different sites in
the country mark the accomplishment of the first stage of the programme. India is now
more than self-sufficient in heavy water production. Elaborate safety measures both in
the design and operation of reactors, as also adhering to stringent standards of
radiological protection are the hallmark of the Indian Atomic Energy Programme.
produced, in some 3, etc. The extra neutrons in turn can initiate fission
processes, producing still more neutrons, and so on. This leads to the
possibility of a chain reaction, as was first suggested by Enrico Fermi. If
the chain reaction is controlled suitably, we can get a steady energy 453
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output. This is what happens in a nuclear reactor. If the chain reaction is
uncontrolled, it leads to explosive energy output, as in a nuclear bomb.
There is, however, a hurdle in sustaining a chain reaction, as described
here. It is known experimentally that slow neutrons (thermal neutrons)
are much more likely to cause fission in 235 92 U
than fast neutrons. Also
fast neutrons liberated in fission would escape instead of causing another
fission reaction.
[Link]
The average energy of a neutron produced in fission of 235 92 U
is 2 MeV.
These neutrons unless slowed down will escape from the reactor without
interacting with the uranium nuclei, unless a very large amount of
fissionable material is used for sustaining the chain reaction. What one
needs to do is to slow down the fast neutrons by elastic scattering with
light nuclei. In fact, Chadwick’s experiments showed that in an elastic
collision with hydrogen the neutron almost comes to rest and proton
carries away the energy. This is the same situation as when a marble hits
head-on an identical marble at rest. Therefore, in reactors, light nuclei
called moderators are provided along with the fissionable nuclei for slowing
down fast neutrons. The moderators commonly used are water, heavy
Nuclear power plants in India
water (D2O) and graphite. The Apsara reactor at the Bhabha Atomic
Research Centre (BARC), Mumbai, uses water as moderator. The other
Indian reactors, which are used for power production, use heavy water
as moderator.
Because of the use of moderator, it is possible that the ratio, K, of
number of fission produced by a given generation of neutrons to the
number of fission of the preceeding generation may be greater than one.
This ratio is called the multiplication factor; it is the measure of the growth
rate of the neutrons in the reactor. For K = 1, the operation of the reactor
is said to be critical, which is what we wish it to be for steady power
operation. If K becomes greater than one, the reaction rate and the reactor
power increases exponentially. Unless the factor K is brought down very
close to unity, the reactor will become supercritical and can even explode.
The explosion of the Chernobyl reactor in Ukraine in 1986 is a sad
reminder that accidents in a nuclear reactor can be catastrophic.
The reaction rate is controlled through control-rods made out of
neutron-absorbing material such as cadmium. In addition to control rods,
reactors are provided with safety rods which, when required, can be
inserted into the reactor and K can be reduced rapidly to less than unity.
The more abundant isotope 238 92 U
in naturally occurring uranium is
non-fissionable. When it captures a neutron, it produces the highly
radioactive plutonium through these reactions
238
92 U + n → 239 239 –
92 U → 93 Np + e + ν
239
93 Np → 239 –
94 Pu +e + ν
(13.29)
Plutonium undergoes fission with slow neutrons.
Figure 13.5 shows the schematic diagram of a nuclear reactor based
454 on thermal neutron fission. The core of the reactor is the site of nuclear
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[Link]
A simplified online simulation of a nuclear reactor
FIGURE 13.5 Schematic diagram of a nuclear reactor based on
thermal neutron fission.
fission. It contains the fuel elements in suitably fabricated form. The fuel
may be say enriched uranium (i.e., one that has greater abundance of
235
92 U
than naturally occurring uranium). The core contains a moderator
to slow down the neutrons. The core is surrounded by a reflector to reduce
leakage. The energy (heat) released in fission is continuously removed by
a suitable coolant. A containment vessel prevents the escape of radioactive
fission products. The whole assembly is shielded to check harmful
radiation from coming out. The reactor can be shut down by means of
rods (made of, for example, cadmium) that have high absorption of
neutrons. The coolant transfers heat to a working fluid which in turn
may produce stream. The steam drives turbines and generates electricity.
Like any power reactor, nuclear reactors generate considerable waste
products. But nuclear wastes need special care for treatment since they
are radioactive and hazardous. Elaborate safety measures, both for reactor
operation as well as handling and reprocessing the spent fuel, are
required. These safety measures are a distinguishing feature of the Indian
Atomic Energy programme. An appropriate plan is being evolved to study
the possibility of converting radioactive waste into less active and short-
lived material.
13.7.3 Nuclear fusion – energy generation in stars
When two light nuclei fuse to form a larger nucleus, energy is released,
since the larger nucleus is more tightly bound, as seen from the binding
energy curve in Fig.13.1. Some examples of such energy liberating nuclear
fusion reactions are :
1 +
1 H + 11 H → 21 H + e + ν + 0.42 MeV [13.29(a)]
2
1 H + 21 H → 32 He + n + 3.27 MeV [13.29(b)]
2
1 H + 21 H → 31 H + 11 H + 4.03 MeV [13.29(c)] 455
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In the first reaction, two protons combine to form a deuteron and
a positron with a release of 0.42 MeV energy. In reaction [13.29(b)], two
deuterons combine to form the light isotope of helium. In reaction
(13.29c), two deuterons combine to form a triton and a proton. For
fusion to take place, the two nuclei must come close enough so that
attractive short-range nuclear force is able to affect them. However,
since they are both positively charged particles, they experience coulomb
repulsion. They, therefore, must have enough energy to overcome this
coulomb barrier. The height of the barrier depends on the charges and
radii of the two interacting nuclei. It can be shown, for example, that
the barrier height for two protons is ~ 400 keV, and is higher for nuclei
with higher charges. We can estimate the temperature at which two
protons in a proton gas would (averagely) have enough energy to
overcome the coulomb barrier:
(3/2)k T = K 400 keV, which gives T ~ 3 × 109 K.
When fusion is achieved by raising the temperature of the system so
that particles have enough kinetic energy to overcome the coulomb
repulsive behaviour, it is called thermonuclear fusion.
Thermonuclear fusion is the source of energy output in the interior
of stars. The interior of the sun has a temperature of 1.5×107 K, which
is considerably less than the estimated temperature required for fusion
of particles of average energy. Clearly, fusion in the sun involves protons
whose energies are much above the average energy.
The fusion reaction in the sun is a multi-step process in which the
hydrogen is burned into helium. Thus, the fuel in the sun is the hydrogen
in its core. The proton-proton (p, p) cycle by which this occurs is
represented by the following sets of reactions:
1 +
1 H + 11 H → 21 H + e + ν + 0.42 MeV (i)
e + + e – → γ + γ + 1.02 MeV (ii)
2
1 H + 11 H → 32 He + γ + 5.49 MeV (iii)
3
2 He + 32 He → 42 He + 11 H + 11 H + 12.86 MeV (iv) (13.30)
For the fourth reaction to occur, the first three reactions must occur
twice, in which case two light helium nuclei unite to form ordinary helium
nucleus. If we consider the combination 2(i) + 2(ii) + 2(iii) +(iv), the net
effect is
4 11 H + 2e − → 42 He + 2ν + 6γ + 26.7 MeV
or (4 11 H + 4e − ) → ( 42 He + 2e − ) + 2ν + 6γ + 26.7 MeV (13.31)
4
Thus, four hydrogen atoms combine to form an 2 He atom with a
release of 26.7 MeV of energy.
Helium is not the only element that can be synthesized in the interior
of a star. As the hydrogen in the core gets depleted and becomes helium,
456 the core starts to cool. The star begins to collapse under its own gravity
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which increases the temperature of the core. If this temperature increases
to about 108 K, fusion takes place again, this time of helium nuclei into
carbon. This kind of process can generate through fusion higher and
higher mass number elements. But elements more massive than those
near the peak of the binding energy curve in Fig. 13.1 cannot be so
produced.
The age of the sun is about 5×109 y and it is estimated that there is
enough hydrogen in the sun to keep it going for another 5 billion years.
After that, the hydrogen burning will stop and the sun will begin to cool
and will start to collapse under gravity, which will raise the core
temperature. The outer envelope of the sun will expand, turning it into
the so called red giant.
NUCLEAR HOLOCAUST
In a single uranium fission about 0.9×235 MeV (≈200 MeV) of energy is liberated. If
each nucleus of about 50 kg of 235U undergoes fission the amount of energy involved is
about 4 × 1015J. This energy is equivalent to about 20,000 tons of TNT, enough for a
superexplosion. Uncontrolled release of large nuclear energy is called an atomic explosion.
On August 6, 1945 an atomic device was used in warfare for the first time. The US
dropped an atom bomb on Hiroshima, Japan. The explosion was equivalent to 20,000
tons of TNT. Instantly the radioactive products devastated 10 sq km of the city which
had 3,43,000 inhabitants. Of this number 66,000 were killed and 69,000 were injured;
more than 67% of the city’s structures were destroyed.
High temperature conditions for fusion reactions can be created by exploding a fission
bomb. Super-explosions equivalent to 10 megatons of explosive power of TNT were tested
in 1954. Such bombs which involve fusion of isotopes of hydrogen, deuterium and tritium
are called hydrogen bombs. It is estimated that a nuclear arsenal sufficient to destroy
every form of life on this planet several times over is in position to be triggered by the
press of a button. Such a nuclear holocaust will not only destroy the life that exists now
but its radioactive fallout will make this planet unfit for life for all times. Scenarios based
on theoretical calculations predict a long nuclear winter, as the radioactive waste will
hang like a cloud in the earth’s atmosphere and will absorb the sun’s radiation.
13.7.4 Controlled thermonuclear fusion
The natural thermonuclear fusion process in a star is replicated in a
thermonuclear fusion device. In controlled fusion reactors, the aim is to
generate steady power by heating the nuclear fuel to a temperature in the
range of 108 K. At these temperatures, the fuel is a mixture of positive
ions and electrons (plasma). The challenge is to confine this plasma, since
no container can stand such a high temperature. Several countries
around the world including India are developing techniques in this
connection. If successful, fusion reactors will hopefully supply almost
unlimited power to humanity.
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Example 13.7 Answer the following questions:
(a) Are the equations of nuclear reactions (such as those given in
Section 13.7) ‘balanced’ in the sense a chemical equation (e.g.,
2H2 + O2→ 2 H2O) is? If not, in what sense are they balanced on
both sides?
(b) If both the number of protons and the number of neutrons are
conserved in each nuclear reaction, in what way is mass converted
into energy (or vice-versa) in a nuclear reaction?
(c) A general impression exists that mass-energy interconversion
takes place only in nuclear reaction and never in chemical
reaction. This is strictly speaking, incorrect. Explain.
Solution
(a) A chemical equation is balanced in the sense that the number of
atoms of each element is the same on both sides of the equation.
A chemical reaction merely alters the original combinations of
atoms. In a nuclear reaction, elements may be transmuted. Thus,
the number of atoms of each element is not necessarily conserved
in a nuclear reaction. However, the number of protons and the
number of neutrons are both separately conserved in a nuclear
reaction. [Actually, even this is not strictly true in the realm of
very high energies – what is strictly conserved is the total charge
and total ‘baryon number’. We need not pursue this matter here.]
In nuclear reactions (e.g., Eq. 13.26), the number of protons and
the number of neutrons are the same on the two sides of the equation.
(b) We know that the binding energy of a nucleus gives a negative
contribution to the mass of the nucleus (mass defect). Now, since
proton number and neutron number are conserved in a nuclear
reaction, the total rest mass of neutrons and protons is the same
on either side of a reaction. But the total binding energy of nuclei
on the left side need not be the same as that on the right hand
side. The difference in these binding energies appears as energy
released or absorbed in a nuclear reaction. Since binding energy
contributes to mass, we say that the difference in the total mass
of nuclei on the two sides get converted into energy or vice-versa.
It is in these sense that a nuclear reaction is an example of mass-
energy interconversion.
(c) From the point of view of mass-energy interconversion, a chemical
reaction is similar to a nuclear reaction in principle. The energy
released or absorbed in a chemical reaction can be traced to the
difference in chemical (not nuclear) binding energies of atoms and
molecules on the two sides of a reaction. Since, strictly speaking,
chemical binding energy also gives a negative contribution (mass
defect) to the total mass of an atom or molecule, we can equally
well say that the difference in the total mass of atoms or molecules,
EXAMPLE 13.7
on the two sides of the chemical reaction gets converted into energy
or vice-versa. However, the mass defects involved in a chemical
reaction are almost a million times smaller than those in a nuclear
[Link] is the reason for the general impression, (which is
incorrect ) that mass-energy interconversion does not take place
in a chemical reaction.
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