Introduction

Mathematics as a subject can be broadly divided into three significant

branches Arithmetic, Algebra, and Geometry. Algebra is considered to be one
of the oldest components in the history of mathematics. Algebra deals with the
study of symbols, exponentials, known and unknown variables, and
equations. The History of Algebra has been dealt with in detail here.

What Is Algebra?
The Number Theory, Geometry, and their analysis put together to make an
extensive part of mathematics which is known as "Algebra". In other words,
Algebra is a part of mathematics that deals with symbols and the rules to
calculate those symbols.

Also read:

 Algebra in Real Life

 Algebra vs Calculus
History Of Algebra
Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi was a Persian mathematician who
wrote a book named Kitab Al Muhtasar fi Hisab Al Gabr Wa I Muqabala in
the Arabic language, which was later translated into English as " The
Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing", from
which the word ALGEBRA was derived. The book provides a systematic
solution for linear and quadratic equations.

According to Al-Khwarizmi, the word algebra is described

as 'reduction' and 'balancing' of subtracted terms that is a transposition to
other sides of the equation (cancellation of like terms).

There are some renowned mathematicians from different countries who have
made significant contributions in this subject, such as, the Babylonians, the
ancient Egyptians, the Chinese, the Greek, and the Indians (Aryabhatta,
Brahmagupta, Bhaskara)

Developmental Stages Of Algebra

There are three critical developmental stages in "Symbolic Algebra" which is
as follows :
1. Rhetorical Algebra

It was developed by ancient Babylonians where the equation was written in

the form of words that remained up to the 16th century.

Example: x + 5 = 8, is written as " The thing plus five equal to eight"

2. Syncopated Algebra
Its expression first appeared in Diophantus Arithmetica (3rd
century ) Brahmagupta's "Brahmagupta's sputa Siddhanta" (9th
century), where few symbols were used, and subtraction was used only once
in the equation.
3. Symbolic Algebra
At this stage, all the symbols were used in Algebra. Many Islamic
mathematicians like Ibn Al-Banna and Al Qalasadi wrote in their books
about Symbolic Algebra. Francois Viete fully developed it in the 16th
century. Rene Descartes introduced a modern notation that can solve
geometrical problems in terms of algebra known as Cartesian Geometry.
x2+px=q
x2=px+q
x2+q=px
In early algebra, Quadratic equations played an important role, where it is said
to belong one among the above three equations.
# The Greeks and Vedic Indian Mathematicians developed two more stages
of algebra which lie between rhetorical and syncopated stages known as
Geometric Constructive stages.

Contributions of different countries

I. Babylon
Ancient Babylonians developed a rhetorical stage of algebra where equations
were written in the form of words. They used linear interpolation to
approximate intermediate values as they were not interested more in exact
solutions. Plimpton 322 tablet, one of the most famous tablets designed
around 1900 - 1600 BC gives the tables of "Pythagorean Triplets".

Learn more about the .

Following are the significant contributions :

 They developed flexible algebraic operations to eliminate fractions
and factors by adding equals to equals and multiplying like quantities on
both sides of the equation.
 They also knew simple forms of factoring, three-term quadratic
equations with the positive term, and cubic equations
II. Ancient Egypt
Ahmed, an Egyptian mathematician, wrote an Egyptian Papyrus in 1650 BC
known as "The Rhind Papyrus" which is considered to be the most
extensive ancient Egyptian Mathematical document in history. They mainly
used linear equations.

The Rhind Papyrus contains problems of linear equation in the form of

x + xa = b and x + xa + bx = c where a, b and c are known terms and x is

referred as " aha" or heap. The equations were solved by "method of false
position" or "regular falsi" , in which a specific value is substituted to the
left-hand side of the equation, and the obtained answer, after performing the
required arithmetic operation is compared to the right-hand side of the
equation.
III. China
 ZHOUBI SUANGJING is one of the oldest Chinese Mathematical
documents.

The following are the five major books by Chinese mathematicians in

algebra.

Nine Chapters on It is one of the most

 influential books that gives
solutions for determining
and indeterminate
simultaneous linear
equations using both
Mathematical Art positive and negative
numbers.

In one of the problems, it

has a solution for five
unknowns in four equations.

LI ZHI wrote this book where

Sea-mirror of the Circle- he solved equations with the
measurement highest degree as six by
using Horner's method.

Ch'in Chiu-Shao, a wealthy

governor and minister,
Mathematical Treatise in invented the Chinese
nine section Remainder Theorem to
solve simultaneous
congruences.

In this book, the

author Yang Hui formed a
magic square or matrix by
placing coefficients and
constants to solve
Magic Square simultaneous linear
equations.

He worked with column

reduction methods to get
the solution.

Precious mirror of the four Chu Shih-Chieh wrote this

elements book in 1303 where
unknown quantities in
algebraic equations were
represented as heaven,
man, earth, and matter.
 Horner's method is used to
solve the simultaneous
equation with the highest
degree of fourteen.

IV Greece

The Greek mathematician represented the sides of geometric objects, lines,

and letters associated with them, which is called Geometric Algebra.

They invented "The application of areas " to obtain the solutions for
equations solved in geometric algebra.

Following are few Greek mathematicians whose contribution are the milestone
in the history of Algebra :

1. Thymaridas (c 400 BCE - 350 BCE) created a famous rule called

"Blooms Of Thymaridas" which states that
'If the sum of n quantities be given, and also the sum of every pair containing a particular
quantity, then this particular quantity is equal to [1/(n - 2)] of the difference between the
sums of these pairs and the first given sum'
2. Euclid Of Alexandria called as "Father of Geometry". He wrote a textbook
named "Elements" which provides the Framework for generalizing formulae beyond the
solution of particular problems into more general systems of stating and solving equations.

In Euclid's time, line segments were considered magnitudes. They were

solved using the theory of Geometry, which in modern algebra is nothing but
solving known and unknown magnitudes applying arithmetic operations.

There are fourteen propositions in Book ii, which are now known as Geometric
equivalents and trigonometry.

 Basic laws of addition and multiplication like distributive

law, commutative law and associative laws are
geometrically proved in Book V and Book VII of Elements.
 Proposition 5 proves the following equations geometrically

a2−b2=(a+b)(a−b)

(a+b)2=a2+b2+2ab

 Proposition 6 and 11 gives the solution to quadratic Equations

ax + x2 = b2 and ax + x2 = a2 geometrically.

Data was another book written by Euclid for the school of Alexandria. It
contains fifteen definitions and ninety-five statements which serve as
algebraic rules and formulas.

The book has solution for dx2 + b2 c - adx = 0.

3. Diophantus was a Hellenistic mathematician who

wrote ARITHMETICA, a treatise; six among thirteen books have survived.
Diophantus was the first to introduce symbols for unknown numbers
abbreviations for powers of numbers, relationships, and operations as
used in Syncopated algebra.

The only difference between Diophantus Arithmetica and modern algebra is

special symbols for operations, exponentials, and relations.
V. India

Indian Mathematicians worked repeatedly on determinate and indeterminate

linear quadratic equations, mensuration, and Pythagorean triplets.

1. Aryabhatta

He gave the
following rules in
his book

Aryabhatiya

2. Brahma Sphta Siddhanta

Brahmagupta wrote Brahma Sphta Siddhanta in which he gave solutions

for general quadratic equations for both positive and negative roots. He
gave Pythagorean triads m,

½(m2/n−n),½(m2/n+n) by using indeterminate analysis. He was the first

to give a solution for the Diophantine linear equation ax + by = c where a, b
and c are integers.
Brahmagupta followed syncopated algebra where addition, subtraction, and
division are represented as given in the table below. Abbreviations were used
to denote multiplication, evolution, and unknown quantities.
Addition Placing numbers side by side

Subtraction Placing a dot over subtrahend

Division Placing the divisor below the dividend

3. Bhaskara II

 He is one of the leading Indian mathematicians of the 12th century.

 He wrote books titled "Lilavati " and "Vija - Ganita" where he
gave solutions for determinate and indeterminate equations, linear
and quadratic equations, and Pythagorean triples.
 He also gave a solution to Pell's equation.
 He denoted unknown variables as initial symbols of colors.
 Bhaskara was best at giving solutions using indeterminate analysis.
Contributions of great mathematicians:
1. Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi

Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi

 A Persian mathematician whose works have wide influence in

mathematics, astronomy, and geography.
 He wrote the book " The compendious book on calculation by
completion and balancing" translated in Arabic as "Kitab Al
muhtasar fi Hisab Al Gabr Wa I Muqabala" from which the word
ALGEBRA was coined.
 The book gives a systematic approach to solve linear and quadratic
equations by reduction and balancing methods. Here are the
steps used by him:
 Step 1 : Reduction in which the given equation is reduced to one of
the following standard type,

ax2 = bx Squares equal roots

ax2 = c Squares equal number

bx = c Roots equal number

Squares and roots equal

ax2 + bx = c
numbers

Squares and numbers

ax2 + c = bx
equal roots.

Roots and numbers equal

bx + c = ax2
squares.
 Step 2 : balancing by adding the same quantities to each side and
removing negative roots, uits and squares from equations.
2. Emmy Noether

Example
:

Amalie Emmy Noether, a German

mathematician, gave her contribution to Abstract Algebra. A famous theorem
in Mathematical Physics has been titled in her name known as Noether
theorem. She developed the Theories of Rings, fields and algebras. In
physics Noether theorem explains the connection between symmetry and
conservation laws.
Emmy Noether was born in a Jewish family in Franconian for Max Noether
who was a mathematician. She studied mathematics at "University of
Erlangen" She worked at the Mathematical Institute of Erlangenunder the
supervision of Paul Gordan in 1907.

In 1915 she got an invitation to join "the University of Gottingen" , a world

renowned centre of mathematical research from David Hilbert, and Fliex
Klien to join the mathematics department. She spent four years lecturing
under David Hilbert's name. In 1919, she obtained "rank of
privatdozent" after getting approval for her habilitation.

Noether's mathematical work is divided into three 'epochs'

 Contribution to Theories of algebraic invariants and number fields

(1908 - 1919)
 Noether developed "theory of ideals in commutative
rings " into a tool which had wide ranging applications that was
published in her paper "Idealtheorie in Ringbereichen" (1920 -
1926)
 She published papers on noncommutative
algebras and hypercomplex numbers and united
the representation theory of groups with the theory of
modules and ideals (1927 - 1935).
 Pavel Alexandros, Albert Einstein, Jean Dieudonne, Herman
Weyl, and Norbert Wiener described her as one of the most
important women in the History of Mathematics. Her contribution to
Abstract Algebra earned her the title " Mother of Algebra "


 Summary:
 The History of Algebra almost started from the 9th century and the
contributions of mathematics of different countries are infinite. Modern
algebra is the evolution of all their works which has made it easy. The
solution of quadratic equations with any number of exponentials can
be obtained for both positive and negative integers by simple
arithmetic analysis.
 Written by Nethravati C, Cuemath Teacher

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Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

Who is Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi?
Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi was a Muslim mathematician and
astronomer who lived in Baghdad around the 9th century. He wrote a book
called "kitab Al-Jabr" from which the word "ALGEBRA" derived.
What are the contributions of the Islamic world to
Algebra?
 Arabic mathematicians were first to introduce algebra as an