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Carbonaceous Refractories are manufactured from graphite or coke. These have refractoriness
above 1700° C and are resistant to attack by molten slags.
Properties
Refractories are capable of withstanding high temperatures, thermal shocks and rough usage.
The expansion and contraction of these materials is minimum. They are chemically inactive at
high temperatures and are resistant to the fluxing action of slags and corrosive action of gases.
Refractories are good thermal insulators and have low electrical conductivity.
15.4 GLASS
Glass is an amorphous substance having homogeneous texture. It is a hard, brittle, transparent
or translucent material. It is the most common material glazed into frames for doors, windows
and curtain walls. The most common types used in building construction are sheet, plate,
laminated, insulating, tempered, wired and patterned glass. Most ordinary colourless glasses
are alkali-lime silicate and alkali-lead silicate with tensile and compressive strengths of about
30–60 N/mm2 and 700–1000N/mm2, respectively and modulus of elasticity in the range
0.45 × 105 to 0.8 × 105 N/mm2. The strength is very much afftected by internal defects, cords
and foreign intrusions. The main shortcoming of glass is its brittleness which depends on a
number of factors, the chief one being the ratio of the modulus of elasticity of the material to its
tensile strength.
Constituents
The raw materials used in manufacturing glass are sand, lime (chalks) and soda or potash
which are fused over 1000° C. Oxides of iron, lead and borax are added to modify hardness,
brilliance and colour. The functions of the various ingredients are as follows.
Silica is used in the form of pure quartz, crushed sandstone and pulverised flint; should be
free from iron contents for best quality glass. Since it melts at very high temperatures (1710° C)
carbonates of sodium or potassium are added to lower down the fusing temperature to about
800° C. These also make liquid silica more viscous and workable.
Lime is used in the form of limestone, chalk or pure marble and sometimes marl. The addition
of lime makes the glass fluid and suitable for blowing, drawing, rolling, pressing or spinning.
It also imparts durability and toughness to glass. Excess of lime makes the molten mass too thin
for fabrication.
Soda acts as an accelerator for the fusion of glass and an excess of it is harmful.
Potash renders glass infusible and makes glass fire resistant.
Lead Oxide imparts colour, brightness and shine. When 15–30% of it added to substitute lime
it lowers the melting point, imparts good workability, while its transparency is lost with the
glass becoming brittle and crystalline.
Cullets are broken glasses added to act as a flux to prevent loss of alkali by volatisation
during the process of forming glass and also to lower the fusion temperature. However, flux
may reduce the resistance of glass to chemical attack, render it water-soluble or make it subject
394 Building Materials
to partial or complete devitrification (crystallisation) on cooling. These crystalline areas are
extremely weak and brittle. Stabilizers are added to overcome these defects.
Titanic acid, oxides of Nickel and Cobalt are used for chromatic neutralisation.
Note: Iron is not desirable as a constituent. However, when present it imparts a bottle green colour to
the glass. To overcome this manganese dioxide known as glass makers soap is added which
washes the liquid glass and removes the colour.
Manufacture
Glass is manufactured in the following four steps:
Melting The raw materials — lime, soda and sand — separately cleaned, ground, sieved
(called ‘Batch’) in definite proportion and mixed with water are fused in a continuous type
(tank) furnace or batch-type (pot) furnace. The charge in the first stage melts, forming a bubbly,
sticky mass, and as the temperature is raised (1100° C–1200° C) it turns to a more watery liquid
and the bubbles rise to the surface. The melting process in case of ordinary soda-glass involves
the following series of reactions:
CaCO3+SiO2 ¾® CaSiO3 + CO2
Na2CO3 + SiO2 ¾® Na2SiO3 + CO2
When all the carbon dioxide has escaped out of the molten mass, decolourisers such as
MnO2 or nitre are added to do away with ferrous compounds and carbon. The colouring salts
are added at this stage. Heating is continued till the molten mass is free from bubbles and glass
balls. As the glass cools (800° C), it is ready to be drawn or floated to its desired thickness and
size at the other end of the furnace as shown by a flow diagram in Fig.15.1.
Fig. 15.1 Glass Manufacturing Process
Forming and Shaping The molten glass can be fabricated to desired shapes by any one of the
following methods:
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Blowing A 2 m long and 12 mm diameter blow pipe is dipped in the molten glass and taken
out. It is held vertically and is vigorously blown by the operator. The sticking molten glass
takes the shape of a hollow ball. On cooling it is
reheated and the blowing operation repeated a
number of times till the desired articles are ready.
Flat Drawing The process of drawing the glass up
into a sheet begins when an grille (bait) is lowered
into the glass in the kiln. In a short time the liquid
molten glass adheres to the bait, and as the bait is
slowly lifted it draws a sheet of glass. The bait and
the drawn sheet of glass are then drawn through
rollers, the bait is cracked off and a continuous sheet
of glass is drawn up. This sheet is then slowly cooled
in a chamber and annealed for cutting into proper
size. A machine for vertical drawing of glass is shown Fig. 15.2 Machine for Vertical
in Fig. 15.2. Drawing of Glass
Compression Moulding In this process moulds are used to obtain the articles of desired
shapes.
Spinning A machine is used to spin the molten glass. The fibres so produced are very fine and
are used for heat and sound insulation.
Annealing Glass articles are allowed to cool under room temperature by passing through
different chambers with descending temperature. If cooled rapidly, the glass being bad conductor
of heat, the superficial layer cools down first and strain develops in the interior portions, which
causes unequal expansion and the articles are likely to crack.
Finishing After annealing the glass articles are cleaned, ground, polished, cut and sand
blasted.
Classification
Depending upon the constituents glasses are classified as soda-lime glass, lead glass and boro-
silicate glass.
Soda-lime Glass is also known as soda-ash glass, soda glass or soft glass. Soda-lime glass is
obtained by fusing a mixture of silica, lime and soda. The quality of this glass can be improved
by adding alumina and magnesium oxide and the glass is then called crown glass. This is the
most common type of glass used in doors, windows and for making glass-wares such as
bottles.
Lead Glass also known as flint glass is obtained by fusing a mixture of silica, lead and potash.
It is free from iron impurities and is colourless. Lead glass has high shining appearance and can
take polish. It is not affected by temperature. Electric bulbs, optical glasses, cut glass, ornamental
glass works and radio valves are some of the articles made from it.
Boro-silicate Glass is obtained by fusing a mixture of silica, borax, lime and felspar. The
examples are pyrex glass and heat resisting glass. Boro-silicate glass can withstand high
temperatures and is most suitable for making laboratory equipments and cooking utensils.
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Commercial Forms
Sheet Glass is used for glazing doors, windows and partitions and is obtained by blowing
the molten glass into the shape of a cylinder. The ends of the cylinder so produced are cut away
and the cylinder is flattened over a plane tray. It is available in thicknesses of 2, 2.5, 3, 4, 5, 5.5
and 6.5 mm and up to 1750 × 1100 mm size and is classified as
Type Uses
Ordinary glazing quality General engineering purpose
Selected glazing quality Class works
Special selected quality Superior quality works such as show cases
and cabinets etc.
Plate Glass is used for all engineering purposes and is superior to sheet glass. A plate glass
differs from a sheet glass in that it has a parallel, distortion-free surface obtained by grinding
or floating process. It is produced by pouring the molten glass on casting tables and levelling
it to an uniform thickness. Both the glass surfaces are then ground, smoothened and polished.
Glass so produced is clear and contains unblemished true plane surfaces and is available in
thicknesses of 3 to 32 mm and sizes up to 2750 × 900 mm. It is classified as
Type Uses
Ground glass quality Showcases, cabinets, counters, shop fronts, etc.
Selected glazing quality Making mirrors
Special selected quality High class works, wind screen of vehicles
Tempered Glass is made from plate glass by reheating and sudden cooling and is 3 to 5 times
stronger than plate glass. Although not unbreakable, it resists bending stress better than plate
glass and, when broken, the pieces are relatively small in size. It is used extensively in sports
arenas, sliding doors and curtain walls.
Wired Glass is produced by embedding wire nets 0.46 to 0.56 mm into the centre of sheet
glass during casting. The minimum thickness of wired glass is 6 mm. When broken it does not
fall into pieces. It has higher melting point than ordinary glass. Wired glass is used for fire
resisting doors and windows, for sky lights and roofs. A special example of this is wired-refrax
glass which transmits 100 per cent more light than the other glasses.
Obscured Glass is made comparatively opaque to sunlight. Also known as patterned glass.
They are classified as frosted, rolled and ribbed.
Frosted glass is produced by subjecting the polished face of the glass to a sand blast which
grinds off the surface. It can also be produced by etching on glass by hydrofluoric acid.
Rolled glass has a series of waves of desired pattern on the surface and is also known as
figured rolled glass.
Ribbed glass A series of triangular ribs are produced in the glass during casting.
Laminated Glass is made by sandwiching a layer of polyvinyl butyral between two or more
layers of plate or sheet glass. It is also lso known as safety glass. The examples are heat proof
glass, sound proof glass and bullet proof glass.
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Heat and sound proof glasses Two or more glass plates are sandwiched by a tinted plastic
inner layer. It provides high resistance to heat and glare. By increasing the thickness of plastic
layer the glass can be made more sound resistant.
Bullet proof glass is produced by placing vinyl plastic and glass in several alternate layers
and pressing them with outer layers of glass. It is used in banks, jewellery stores and display
windows.
Insulating glass is composed of two glass plates into which a layer of 6–13 mm thick dehydrated
air is sealed. The round edges are formed by fusing together the two glass plates. These glasses
reduce the heat transmission by 30–60 per cent.
Heat absorbing Glass is bluish green in colour and cuts ultra violet rays of sun. The example
is calorex. It is used in railway carriages, factories, hospitals, health clubs and kitchens.
Ground Glass In this type of glass one face of plate or sheet glass is made rough by grinding.
It is used for maintaining privacy by obstructing vision and at the same time allowing light.
The ground glass is used for bedrooms, toilets and for making black boards.
Block Glass is hollow sealed made by fastening together two halves of pressed glass. It is
used for making partitions.
Coloured Glass is produced by adding oxides of metals to molten glass:
Types of glasses Metal oxide
Ruby red glass Lead glass, 1 per cent of cupric oxide and 1 per
cent of magnetic oxide of iron
Ruby rose glass Gold chloride is used as colouring agent.
Brownish red colour is obtained by adding oxide
of iron, bluish red shade is obtained by adding
2 per cent MnO2 and –4 per cent nitre (KnO3).
Blue glass 0.1 per cent of cobalt oxide in ordinary glass.
Yellow glass
(a) Uranium glass (greenish yellow) 2–3% of alkali uranate.
(b) Selenium glass (orange) Selenite and a reducing agent or ferric oxide
and MnO2.
Green glass (emerald green) Oxide of chromium Cr2O7.
Violet glass (violet) MnO2
Black glass Oxide of Co and Mn.
Opal Glass is also known as milk glass. It is produced by adding bone ash, oxide of tin and
white arsenic to vitreosil (99.5% silica glass known as clear silica glass). The composition is 10
parts of sand, 4 parts cryolite and 1 part zinc oxide.
Enamel Glass is produced by adding calcined lead and tin oxide to the ordinary glass. The
composition is 10 parts sand, 20 per cent lead and tin oxide and 8 parts potash.
Optical Glass contains phosphorus, lead silicate and a little cerium oxide, the latter capable
of absorbing ultraviolet light injurious to eyes. They are used for making lenses.
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15.5 GLASS WOOL
When silicate rock or flint is melted (1650° C)
with a small quantity of calcareous matter and
the liquid is blown by steam jet (Fig.15.3), it
splashes out in the form of small globules which
are hurled in a large container at a great speed to
cause them to be drawn into very soft and flexible
fibres of not more than 10 micron diameter. The
source material is glass bottle waste melted at
1300–1400° C temperature. Also known as rock
wool it can be packed into small pads or formed
into (5–6m) boards or blankets. The fibers are
chemically inert and have small apparent
densities (130–240 kg/m3) and a low coefficient
of heat conductivity (0.43 to 0.78 mW/cm° C).
Glass wool has high tensile strength and chemical
resistance and, low sound and heat conductivities.
Water absorption should not exceed 0.5%. They
contain air in the pores forming a useful filter
Fig. 15.3 Manufacturing of Glass
media for air conditioners and an insulating Wool by Blowing
material for heat and sound. Glass wool may
also be used as an aggregate in the manufacture of asbestos-cement items and as a fine
aggregate for plastering and finishing mortars. Glass wool is also used to produce glass plastics
by mixing it with polymers.
15.6 POLYMORPHISM IN CERAMIC MATERIALS
The main constituent of ceramic materials is silicate: Portland cement, glass, tiles, vitreous
enamels, reinforcing glass fibres, etc. The primary unit of silicates is the SiO4, tetrahedron, in
which one silicon atom fits between four oxygen atoms with either ionic or covalent bond
mechanism.
The tetrahedral units of silica are arranged in a hexagonal pattern at room temperature. But
at 875° C the stable arrangement of silica-tetrahedral breaks to a new structure of a hexagonal
pattern. Above 1940° C a third stable solid arrangement of tetrahedral in cubic pattern is
formed. These three modifications are named as quartz — the low temperature mineral;
tridymite — the intermediate temperature mineral and cristobalite — the high temperature
mineral. However, quartz may exist as metastable phase at high temperature and tridymite
and cristobalite may remain as metastable phases at room temperature.
A second type of inversion which may occur in silica is shown in Fig. 15.4. At 573° C the
straightening of bonds across the oxygen takes place. This change which is rapid and
spontaneous produces instantaneous volume expansion. As the quartz cools the process is
reversed. Figure 15.4 represents thermal expansion of quartz. Tridymite shows two such
changes in its metastable range, one at 117° C and the other at 163° C, whereas cristobalite
undergoes a change similar to that of quartz at 200° C.